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New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.) in southern Sweden

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  • National Historical Museums, Sweden

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Subfossil remains of Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) have been found at Lindängelund in the region of Malmö, southern Sweden. These represent the earliest robust evidence so far for hemp retting in Scandinavia. Finds of seeds, stems and pollen of C. sativa from a waterlogged context on a settlement dating to the Roman Iron Age demonstrate that the plant was locally cultivated and processed during the 1st–2nd centuries AD. An introductory phase in Scandinavia is proposed (c. AD 1–400) during which the cultivation of hemp was apparently small scale and processing was probably carried out within settlements. In the succeeding centuries, c. AD 400–550 (the Migration Period), remains of hemp are mostly found in pollen records from lake sediments, and less frequently in the archaeological record. This could indicate that the process of hemp retting relocated from settlements to lakes shores where activity became larger in scale and more integrated with the prevailing agricultural system.
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New evidence on the introduction, cultivation
and processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.)
in southern Sweden
Mikael Larsson1, Per Lagerås2
1
Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Lund, Sweden,
2
The Swedish National Heritage
Bord, Lund, Sweden
Subfossil remains of Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) have been found at Lindängelund in the region of Malmö,
southern Sweden. These represent the earliest robust evidence so far for hemp retting in Scandinavia.
Finds of seeds, stems and pollen of C. sativa from a waterlogged context on a settlement dating to the
Roman Iron Age demonstrate that the plant was locally cultivated and processed during the 1st2nd
centuries AD. An introductory phase in Scandinavia is proposed (c. AD 1400) during which the
cultivation of hemp was apparently small scale and processing was probably carried out within
settlements. In the succeeding centuries, c. AD 400550 (the Migration Period), remains of hemp are
mostly found in pollen records from lake sediments, and less frequently in the archaeological record. This
could indicate that the process of hemp retting relocated from settlements to lakes shores where activity
became larger in scale and more integrated with the prevailing agricultural system.
Keywords: Cannabis sativa, Hemp, Retting, Roman Iron Age, Sweden, Scandinavia
Introduction
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an important cultural
plant used for a variety of products and purposes. In
the past, hemp fibre was particularly valued for its
strength and durability, being coarser than fibres
from flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). Its fruits have
chiefly been used for food and to make hempseed
oil, while a psychotomimetic resin secreted by epider-
mal glands has medicinal and narcotic properties. The
latter is difficult to prove based on the archaeological
and palaeoecological record and therefore the discus-
sion of its early use has focused upon fibre and food
production.
Textiles and ropes made from hemp are highly per-
ishable and consequently material evidence for the use
of hemp fibre is limited in the archaeological record.
The earliest finds in northern Europe are represented
by products of rope dating to 800 BC in Scotland
and textiles dating to 500 BC in southwestern
Germany (Körber-Grohne 1988; Ryder 1999). These
hemp products demonstrate the early use of the
plant in these areas, but cannot provide evidence
regarding their provenance. Palynological records of
Cannabis pollen are, on the contrary, good indicators
for the local growing of hemp. They may indicate cul-
tivation near the sampling point or, if the pollen per-
centages are high, they may reflect the retting of the
stems. Also macroscopic plant remains provide good
evidence of local handling of the plant. Such remains
may be charred or subfossil fruits uncovered from
archaeological contexts or fragments of stems orig-
inating from retting or fibre processing.
Based on previous evidence, hemp cultivation is
generally presumed to have begun in Scandinavia
sometime after the mid-1st millennium AD, as indi-
cated by pollen records (Påhlsson 1981; Dörfler
1990; Fleming and Clarke 1998). It is not until the
end of the first millennium AD and the succeeding
Middle Ages that hemp (seeds and pollen) becomes
well represented on sites across Scandinavia (Fries
1962; Gaillard and Göransson 1991; Lempiäinen
1995, 1999; Moltsen 2000; Hall and Kenward 2003;
Karg 2007, 2012).
The recently discovered Cannabis plant remains
(stem fragments, fruits and pollen) presented in this
paper provide strong evidence of hemp cultivation as
well as fibre processing in southern Scandinavia had
already begun during the second century AD, and
possibly slightly earlier. The new results will be dis-
cussed within a wider agrarian perspective.
Correspondence to: Mikael Larsson, Department of Archaeology and
Ancient History, University of Lund, Sandgatan 1, 223 50 Lund, Sweden.
Email: mikael.larsson@ark.lu.se
© Association for Environmental Archaeology 2014
DOI 10.1179/1749631414Y.0000000029 Environmental Archaeology 2014 VOL. 0NO. 01
Background
Plant Physiology and Taxonomy
Cannabis are dioecious annual herbaceous plants in a
family (Cannabaceae) which contains only one other
genus Humulus. Male plants bear staminate flowers
arranged in panicles and produce large quantities of
pollen; the female flowers grow in leafy spikes in the
leaf axils. All known strains of Cannabis are wind pol-
linated and pistillate flowers of the female plant can
produce hundreds of fruits (Clarke 1993; Van der
Werf 1994, 34; Barron et al. 2003).
On a morphological basis, Cannabis is divided into
three species: C. sativa L., C. indica Lam. and C.
ruderalis Janisch (Schultes et al. 1974).Hemp, C.
sativa L., is grown for its fibre to produce textiles
and originates from central Asia. C. indica Lam. is cul-
tivated for its pharmaceutical properties and is indi-
genous to Central and Eastern Asia, whereas C.
ruderalis (syn. C. sativa var. spontanea) is a hardier
species originating in central Russia.
Early Cultivation and Use of Hemp in
Scandinavia
The domestication, early use and spread of hemp from
Asia to Europe have been discussed by several authors
(Godwin 1967b; Li 1974a, 1974b, Lu and Clarke 1995;
Mercuri et al. 2002). Its introduction to Scandinavia is,
however, still unclear due to scarce finds. In
Scandinavia most evidence of the cultivation and pro-
cessing of hemp comes from the palynological record.
The pollen grains are usually identified as Cannabis
type, which includes both Cannabis and Humulus,
since pollen of these two genera are very difficult to
distinguish (Moore et al. 1991).
Several diagrams show single pollen grains of
Cannabis type from the Early Holocene onwards.
Such very low frequencies (below 1%) from early
periods are usually interpreted as originating from
native wild-growing hops (Humulus sativa) (e.g.
Berglund 1991). According to macrofossil finds and
written documents, the cultivation of hops (to be
used as beer additive) was introduced to Scandinavia
around AD 1000 (Behre 1999), but because hops are
poor pollen producers, the cultivation of hops is
believed to contribute very little to the pollen record.
In contrast to these scattered and sometimes very
early appearances, some pollen diagrams show very
high frequencies of Cannabis type in the Late
Holocene, which are interpreted as reflecting the
growing and retting of hemp (C. sativa). Cannabis
type may reach 40% or more of the total pollen sum
(Regnéll 1989; Gaillard and Göransson 1991). In at
least one case also the occurrence of black sulphite
gyttja at the same levels as high Cannabis-type percen-
tages was used as an indication of retting (Regnéll
1989).
The identification of high pollen percentages (>5%)
of Cannabis type is probably a reliable indication of
the processing or nearby cultivation of hemp.
However, dating is more problematic. Today it is
well known that radiocarbon dates performed on
bulk gyttja samples give erroneously old dates due to
the so-called reservoir effect (Olsson 1986, 1991).
The error may vary from one hundred to several
hundred years (Lagerås 1996). To avoid this
problem, modern pollen studies use terrestrial macro-
fossils found in the sediment or bulk peat samples
for radiocarbon dating. High frequencies of
Cannabis-type pollen have been dated to approxi-
mately AD 4001000 at several sites (Fries 1962;
Påhlsson 1981; Regnéll 1989; Gaillard and
Göransson 1991; Robertsson 1992; Rasmussen and
Anderson 2005), but because the chronologies are
based on radiocarbon dating of bulk gyttja or by
cross correlation with other sites, it is often difficult
to establishan exact date for the introduction of
hemp cultivation. For the same reason, the very
early pollen records of hemp (300 BC) from the Oslo
Fjord area published by Godwin (1967a) have to be
regarded as tentative. In cases where detailed chronol-
ogies have been established based on AMS dating of
terrestrial macrofossils or peat, high pollen percen-
tages of Cannabis type have been recorded in the
11th century or later (Göransson 1989; Rasmussen
2005; Lagerås 2007; Sköld et al. 2010). To sum up
the evidence from the pollen record: hemp was culti-
vated in Scandinavia possibly from the 5th century
onwards and certainly from the 11th century onwards.
Cannabis fruits are rare on archaeological sites in
Scandinavia and finds from before AD 1000 are very
scarce. The earliest records are from Denmark at
Kragehavegård (AD 375550), followed by Strandby
Gammeltoft (AD 6501000) and Næs (AD 750900;
Andresen and Karg 2011). A few fruits were recovered
from the Oseberg ship (found in a 9th century AD
burial mound in southern Norway; Holmboe 1927),
whilst the earliest seed dates to AD 8001000 in
Finland from Hämeenlinna (Lempiäinen 1999). An
imprint of a Cannabis fruit on a ceramic vessel from
a Viking Age grave at Karby, Vendel is the earliest
in Sweden (Hansson 1998). During the Middle Ages
(AD 10501500) plant remains from Cannabis
become widely represented in the archaeological
record across Scandinavia (Fries 1962; Gaillard and
Göransson 1991; Lempiäinen 1999; Hall and
Kenward 2003; Karg 2012), in both rural and urban
contexts (Lempiäinen 1995; Moltsen 2000;
Engelmark 2002; Karg 2007).
Relatively few commodities made from hemp have
been discovered in Scandinavia date to the Iron Age,
i.e. from before AD 1050. The remains of the Oseberg
ship include coarse textiles that have been tentatively
Larsson and Lagerås New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp
Environmental Archaeology 2014 VOL . 0NO. 02
interpreted as the remains of sail cloth made from hemp
(Holmboe 1927). Pliny the Elder had earlier prized the
great sail cloths made from flax and used by seafarers
on the Mediterranean Sea, and acknowledged that
flax sail cloths were made in all of the Gallic provinces
(Naturalis Historia, 19.1.12·15). The point at which
sailsstartedtobemadefromhempis,however,
unclear. The extent to which sail cloths in Scandinavia
were made from flax or hemp is unknown, although
wool was largely used for this purpose during the first
millennium AD (Andersson 2003: 4954).
Excavation Site
The archaeological site Lindängelund in the region of
Malmö, southern Sweden, was subject to excavation in
2010 (Fig. 1 & 2). The site revealed settlement remains
from two different occupation periods the Early
Roman Iron Age (AD 1200) and the transition
between the Viking Period and the beginning of the
Middle Ages (AD 9001100) both represented by
small farms. Adjacent to the settlements was a water-
logged area with several wells and pit features. Most
of these correspond with the settlement phase of the
Roman Iron Age and the Viking Period/Early
Middle Ages. The waterlogged features revealed an
abundance of artefacts and household waste, reflecting
both ordinary settlement activities and ritual deposits
(Carlie and Lagergren 2014).
Sample Context
From the excavation site a total of 18 soil samples were
analysed for macrofossils and 5 for pollen
(Supplementary materials 1 and 2). The samples
were taken from dwelling areas and waterlogged con-
texts. In focus for this paper is the analysis of two
small pits (labelled A74494 and A74539; Fig. 3)
which were discovered at the bottom of a larger water-
logged feature (A152645). The sediment fill was highly
organic and was sampled for both macrofossil and
pollen analysis. Archaeological finds from the two
pits consisted mainly of shards of Early Iron Age
pottery and bone fragments from domestic animals
(cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse and dog).
Method
Bulk soil samples, ranging in volume from 0·1to2·0l,
collected during the excavation were processed with
running water and sieved over a 0·4-mm mesh.
Macrofossils caught in sieve residues consisted of
both charred and uncarbonised material and were
identified using a microscope (×6·363), a reference
collection of modern seeds, and the relevant literature
(Cappers et al. 2006; Jacomet 2006). Pollen samples
were prepared using standard methods (Berglund
and Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1986) and mounted in
glycerine. Pollen grains were identified using a light
microscope (×4001000), a pollen reference collection,
and identification keys (Moore et al. 1991).
Results
Dating
A fruit of C. sativa from A74494 was radiocarbon
dated to cal. AD 20220 (2σ), and seeds of
Ranunculus and Chenopodium from A74539 were
dated to cal. 160 BCAD 80 (Table 1). The calibrated
2 sigma intervals of the two dates overlap AD 2080,
Figure 1 Location of Lindängelund in southwestern Scania, Sweden. (Inset) The study area (boxed) within northern Europe.
Larsson and Lagerås New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp
Environmental Archaeology 2014 VOL . 0NO. 03
represent the Early Roman Iron Age, but their age
could be much earlier: Ua-29841 may be as old 160
BC. The dates correspond with pottery from the
same contexts, dated by typology, as well as to the
dating of house remains situated close by (Carlie and
Lagergren 2014).
Macrofossil Analysis
Feature A152645, with sub-features A74494 and
A74539, was located in a wetland area that today is
largely absent of standing water, but its former water-
logged nature is evident from saturated layers of mud
and gyttja. Two samples from the bottom of A74494
and A74539 were analysed for macrofossils and the
results are presented in Table 2.
Sample PM75759 from A74494 contained 146 sub-
fossil fruits of C. sativa and some fruit capsules
(Fig. 4). In addition, a substantial amount of stem
fragments were present in the sample. The stems
were lacking any dark flecking from fungi (Fig. 5).
Sample PM78033 from A74539 contained no macro
remains of Cannabis, whereas samples from both
A74494 and A74539 revealed Cannabis-type pollen
(see below).
Fruits of the aquatic plants common water-crowfoot
(Ranunculus aquatilis) and trifid bur-marigold (Bidens
Figure 2 Plan of the Roman Iron Age settlement at Lindängelund, showing wetland north of the dwelling area, including
excavated and analysed waterlogged feature (A152645), and excavated houses (AD 1200) to the south.
Table 1 OxCal v4.2.3 Bronk Ramsey and Lee (2013); IntCal 13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2013)
Lab no. Feature Sample Material
14
C yr BP Cal. 2σrange
Ua-30444 A74494 PM75759 Cannabis sativa (fruit) 1907 ±35 AD 20220
Ua-29841 A74539 PM78033 Ranunculus,Chenopodium (fruits) 2013 ±39 160 BCAD 80
Figure 3 Plan and section of waterlogged feature A152645 showing the features and contexts sampled.
Larsson and Lagerås New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp
Environmental Archaeology 2014 VOL . 0NO. 04
tripartita) were identified in the macrofossil samples.
These suggest the feature formerly contained standing
water. Large numbers of rush (Juncus) fruits with
some sedge (Carex) further demonstrate the saturated
nature of the local environment.
Dry soil samples from the contemporary Roman
Iron Age houses were dominated by charred grains
of hulled barley along with some emmer wheat,
which is a typical combination of cereals from this
time period in southern Sweden.
Pollen Analysis
The results of the pollen analysis of PM75759 and
PM78033 are presented in Table 3 (pollen sums: 515
and 449, respectively). Both samples contained
pollen of Cannabis type (31·5% in PM75759 and
7·3% in PM78033). No other pollen samples from
the site revealed this taxon. Other anthropochores
identified in PM75759 and PM78033 were Cerealia
undiff., Hordeum-type and a single pollen grain of L.
usitatissimum. In addition to these cultivated taxa,
both samples were dominated by open-ground taxa
that thrive in agricultural landscapes affected by
grazing, cultivation and trampling. For instance high
percentages of Poaceae undiff. and Plantago lanceo-
lata together with the occurrence of Rhinanthus type
and some other herb pollen indicate pastures, while
high percentages of Polygonum aviculare type,
Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae reflect weeds and
ruderal plants growing in arable fields or on the settle-
ment site. Because most trees are strong pollen produ-
cers, the relatively low tree-pollen percentages indicate
an almost tree-less landscape.
Discussion
Early Evidence for Hemp Retting
The analysis of two adjacent waterlogged pits from
Lindängelund revealed that one contained fruits,
fruit capsules and stem fragments of C. sativa.
Furthermore, pollen analysis of the same two pits
revealed that both contained pollen grains of
Cannabis-type. This category includes pollen of both
C. sativa and Humulus lupulus (Moore et al. 1991)
but given that macrofossils of C. sativa were found in
the same context, it is likely that the pollen recorded
here reflects only this species.
Table 2 Result of macrofossil analysis (A74494 and A74539)
Feature 74494 Feature 74539
PM757590·6
(lit.)
PM780330·1
(lit.)
Cultivated plants
Linum usitatissimum 1
Cannabis sativa 146
Other plants
Urtica urens 16 14
Rumex acetosella 1
Rumex crispus 9
Rumex crispus 7
Polygonum aviculare 12 7
Persicaria lapathifolia 91
Fallopia convolvulus 2
Chenopodium sp. 22 5
Chenopodium album
type
46 9
Chenopodium rubrum 132 51
Arenaria serpyllifolia 12
Stellaria sp. 5
Stellaria media 1
Stellaria graminea 2
Ranunculus sp. 1
Ranunculus aquatilis
type
11 5
Brassicaceae undiff. 5
Lepidium sp. 2 2
Potenilla anserina 42
Linum catharticum 1
Hypericum perforatum 6
Solanum nigrum 73
Plantago major 10 10
Bidens cf. tripartita 9
Cirsium cf. palustre 1
Potamogeton sp. 2
Juncus sp. 93 116
Luzula 6
Carex 62
Figure 4 Cannabis sativa fruits recovered from feature
A74494. Photo by Staffan Hyll.
Figure 5 Cannabis sativa stem fragments, together with
some capsules and fruits, recovered from feature A74494.
Photo by Staffan Hyll.
Larsson and Lagerås New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp
Environmental Archaeology 2014 VOL . 0NO. 05
Based on information surrounding the traditional
processing of hemp in Sweden (historical documents
1764, 1774; Dahlman 1772; Fröier 1960), the hemp
stems found here are interpreted as by-products from
fibre production. More specifically, they reflect the
stage when the fibre was separated from the stem, i.e.
from the beating, breaking and heckling that followed
upon retting. The fruits and capsules probably orig-
inate from the same process.
Retting is a microbial process that breaks down cel-
lular tissues and pectin and allows separation of the
bast fibres from the core. This involves either water
retting or dew retting (Bradshaw et al. 1981; Cox
et al. 2000). Water retting can be done in small,
shallow ponds of standing water which are warmed
by sunlight, but the same process can also take place
in lakes or streams. The stems are left to rot in the
pond for about two weeks or more, the time depending
on the type of microbes and the temperature in the
water, after which the stems are dried in the open air
before further processing.
Field or dew retting, in which hemp stems are spread
evenly over grassy fields, is a method used in areas
where water resources are limited. This is best suited
to areas which experience thick night-time dew or
warm daytime temperatures. Flecking of dark spots
on the stems, primarily representing the growth of
the fungus Cladosporium herbarum, becomes more
numerous and spreads during the retting process until
the whole stem becomes grey in colour. The fungi are
considered to be the retting agent for field retted
hemp (Fuller and Norman 1944). Depending on the
prevailing climate, the fibre can be separated after
about two to three weeks. Field-retted fibre is darker
and usually of poorer quality than water-retted fibre.
At Lindängelund, the absence of dark flecking on
the stems from fungi suggests that the hemp was not
field or dew-retted but rather placed in water. In the
absence of nearby lakes or streams, retting most
likely took place in the dug pits that were investigated.
Prior to this study, evidence of early retting of hemp
in Scandinavia was almost exclusively based on paly-
nological records with high pollen percentage of
Cannabis type (e.g. Bradshaw et al. 1981; Peglar
et al. 1989; Gaillard and Göransson 1991;
Rasmussen 2005; Rasmussen and Anderson 2005;
Schofield and Waller 2005). The Cannabis-type
pollen found in both pits at Lindängelund may orig-
inate, in part, from pollen washed off the plant
during the retting process. C. sativa is a prolific
pollen producer and wind dispersal from nearby
hemp fields may also have contributed to the pollen
record. A possible interpretation would be that hemp
retting, after an introductory phase, was moved from
settlements to lake shores as it became a more substan-
tial activity from the Migration Period (AD 400550)
onwards. One reason could be the need for more
water, another that larger water bodies were sought
out to handle the larger hemp stems. Edwards and
Whittington (1990) note that retting hemp creates a
foul smell, and this could be another possible reason
why people wanted to distance this activity from
their homes. A drawback would have been the colder
water of lakes in comparison to shallow pits, resulting
in a slower retting process.
Table 3 Results of pollen analysis (PM75759 and PM 78033)
PM75759 PM78033
Counts % Counts %
Trees, shrubs and dwarf
shrubs
Betula 30·671·6
Pinus 12 2·3194·2
Populus 10·2
Alnus 17 3·3204·5
Quercus 71·471·6
Ulmus 10·210·2
Fagus 20·420·4
Picea 30·6
Myrica gale 30·7
Corylus 71·420·4
Calluna vulgaris 20·4
Cultivated plants
Cerealia undiff. 4 0·810·2
Hordeum type 18 3·540·9
Cannabis type 162 31·5337·3
Linum usitatissimum 10·2
Other herbs
Fallopia convolvulus type 1 0·2
Persicaria maculosa type 3 0·7
Polygonum aviculare type 8 1·6224·9
Rumex acetosa/acetosella 61·281·8
Rumex obtusifolius type 3 0·6
Caryophyllaceae 1 0·2
Ranunculaceae undiff. 3 0·7
Ranunculus type 1 0·230·7
Hornungia type 6 1·230·7
Sinapis type 2 0·4
Rosaceae undiff. 2 0·440·9
Filipendula 10·230·7
Potentilla type 3 0·630·7
Fabaceae undiff. 2 0·410·2
Trifolium type 1 0·2
Vicia type 2 0·4
Apiaceae 4 0·820·4
Galium type 8 1·630·7
Mentha type 1 0·261·3
Rhinanthus type 2 0·420·4
Plantago lanceolata 14 2·7204·5
Plantago major 30·6
Scabiosa 10·2
Jasione type 1 0·2
Anthemis type 3 0·620·4
Artemisia 22 4·3204·5
Aster type 1 0·220·4
Centaurea scabiosa 81·681·8
Cirsium 20·4
Asteraceae Lactucoideae 45 8·7449·8
Cyperaceae 11 2·1163·6
Poaceae undiff. 93 18·1 138 30·7
Chenopodiaceae 24 4·727 6
POLLEN SUM 515 449
Spores
Equisetum 5140·9
Polypodiaceae 3 0·640·9
Sphagnum 20·4
Larsson and Lagerås New evidence on the introduction, cultivation and processing of hemp
Environmental Archaeology 2014 VOL . 0NO. 06
Growth, Production and Harvesting
Cultivation of hemp was probably a new agricultural
activity in northern Europe during the first centuries
AD. Introducing a new cultivar involved both knowl-
edge of hemp fibre and cultivation requirements of the
plant. Careful monitoring during the harvesting
period had to be considered as male and female
flowers of hemp develop on separate plants. Male
plants begin to decay soon after anthesis, while
female plants can live from two to five weeks longer,
until the fruit is ripe (Stearn 1970). For this reason,
the time of flowering was an important factor in gov-
erning when to harvest, particularly as the stem quality
of male plants starts to decline after flowering as the
plant gradually whithers and dies. This may result in
two different harvesting times for the same field. At
Lindängelund, both male and female plants were cul-
tivated and handled on the site, as reflected by finds of
both pollen and fruits respectively, but it is unclear if
male plants were harvested and retted prior to the
maturation of female stems, or if they were stored
before retting all stems together.
Successful cultivation of hemp would have required
access to fertile soils and a source of manure as nutri-
ent-rich soils are needed to achieve high yields and
fibre of high quality (Broocman 1736; historical docu-
ments 1737a, 1764; Dahlman 1772; Osvald 1944,
1959; Vavilov 1992). Hemps demands for nitrogen,
calcium and phosphorus are high (Barron et al.
2003), and a lack of nitrogen especially can result in
reduced growth and smaller yields.
By the time hemp was introduced to Scandinavia in
the Early Roman Iron Age, the agrarian system was
based on self-sufficient single farms practicing mixed
farming (Engelmark and Viklund 1990). Stabling
was introduced a few centuries earlier and had
become common (Engelmark 1998; Viklund 1998),
providing ready access to manure. The demand for fer-
tiliser suggests that farms involved in hemp cultivation
also depended heavily on animal husbandry, at least
for inland sites. But in coastal areas, seaweed was
also commonly used as a fertilizer (Whittington and
Edwards 1990). Furthermore, according to the 18th-
century literature on hemp cultivation, the plant had
additional beneficial properties, and was renowned
for producing a permeable soil for succeeding crops
and for suppressing weed growth (historical document
1764).
Conclusion
The macrofossil remains of C. sativa and pollen of
Cannabis type that were discovered at Lindängelund,
southern Sweden and dated to the Early Roman Iron
Age, provide the earliest definitive evidence for hemp
retting in Scandinavia. The retting took place within
waterlogged pits beside a dwelling area. This may
reflect an introductory phaseduring which hemp pro-
cessing was a small-scale operation and was carried
out on settlements. Subsequently, the general scarcity
of archaeological finds of hemp, in combination with
relatively plentiful palynological records for
Cannabis from lakes, indicates that the process of
hemp retting may have moved from settlements to
lakes shores.
Results from Lindängelund indicate that hemp was
introduced to this location for production of fibre.
Although other possible uses of the plant for food,
oil or medical purposes cannot be excluded, the
general scarcity of hemp fruits from settlement con-
texts indicates that these were of minor importance.
This differs from flax, which was used for both fibre
and food/oil throughout the Iron Age.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Dominic Ingemark and Eva
Andersson for fruitful discussions and the two anon-
ymous reviewers for suggesting improvements to the
manuscript.
Historical Documents
1737a. Kongl. maj:ts och riksens commercie collegii
författade beskrifning, på hwad sätt hampe-sädet bör
giöras, och huru dermed skal förfaras, så at, til
underdånigst följe af kongl. maj:ts, i anledning af
riksens ständers åstundan, förklarade nådige wilja,
hampan til fullkommelig wäxt och längd, må kunna
bringas. Stockholm.
1737b. Kongl. Maj:ts Nådige Kundgiörelse,
Angående Hampe-Sädets befrämjande uti Riket.
Gifwen Stockholm i Råd-Cammaren then 15 Febr.
1737. Stockholm.
1752. Underrättelse om sättet, at bereda lin och
hampa. Stockholm.
1764. Underrättelse om sättet at behörigen plantera
och bereda hampa och lin, uppå hans kongl. maj:ts
nådigste befallning til trycket befordrad, af desz och
riksens commerce-collegio. Stockholm.
1774. Beskrifning om hampa, des såning, skötsel
och beredning på et fördelaktigare sätt, efter kongl.
Maj:ts allernådigaste befalning, uppå dess rikens com-
merce-collegii föranstaltande författad. Stockholm.
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... Hemp or hop (Cannabaceae) pollen has been recovered from a pollen core studied from a pond in the immediate vicinity of Ketohaka 2 (Tolonen 1985). It is probable that such a small pond was used for hemp retting during the Iron Age (Larsson and Lagerås 2015). Archaeological finds and archaeobotanical data thus show that both retting and spinning were conducted at Isokylä, although hemp and flax were most probably also used for producing oil. ...
... The second oldest macrofossil remains of hemp in Finland date to the Late Iron Age (Lempiäinen 1999;Vanhanen 2012). In Sweden, hemp was introduced during the Early Roman Iron Age (Larsson and Lagerås 2015) and in Lithuania the earliest hemp macrofossil date is cal AD 430-620 (Stančikaite et al. 2008; Grikpėdis and Motuzaite Matuzeviciute in this volume). Thus, based on macrofossil plant remains, cultivated hemp was introduced into the Baltic Sea region during the Roman Iron Age, which has been labelled as an introductory phase of hemp retting in Scandinavia (Larsson and Lagerås 2015). ...
... In Sweden, hemp was introduced during the Early Roman Iron Age (Larsson and Lagerås 2015) and in Lithuania the earliest hemp macrofossil date is cal AD 430-620 (Stančikaite et al. 2008; Grikpėdis and Motuzaite Matuzeviciute in this volume). Thus, based on macrofossil plant remains, cultivated hemp was introduced into the Baltic Sea region during the Roman Iron Age, which has been labelled as an introductory phase of hemp retting in Scandinavia (Larsson and Lagerås 2015). Archaeological finds from Isokylä show that it was incorporated in a network with the Baltic Sea region (Raninen 2006), and it is thus possible that knowledge regarding hemp cultivation and use was brought to the area via this network. ...
Chapter
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Iron Age plant cultivation in Finland is poorly known because archaeobotanical studies have been conducted on only a few sites. Marjatta Aalto studied and partly published the rich archaeobotanical material from Salo Isokylä (municipality of Salo), where three sites, Ketohaka 1 and 2 and Vanutehtaanmäki 1, were excavated between 1978 and 1982. This archaeobotanical material has not been previously published in its entirety, and the chronology has been based on conventional radiocarbon dates on charcoal. In this chapter, the plant material is revisited, presented in detail, and AMS radiocarbon dated. The aim is to get a better understanding of Iron Age plant cultivation in the area and to understand whether crop choices reflect contact networks manifested in artefact finds. AMS dates confirm that the plant remains originate from the Roman Iron Age and the Migration period, c. AD 100–500. As was the case at the majority of coeval sites in Finland, barley was the main crop. New identifications show for the first time that naked and hulled barley were cultivated in roughly equal amounts. Emmer/spelt and oat were minor crops. Rye and bread/club wheat appeared as minor crops during the Migration period. Arable weed flora from the sites indicate manured fields where spring-sown crops were cultivated and harvested low on the stem, with a sickle. Flax is present in Roman Iron Age contexts. A hemp seed was AMS dated to cal AD 258–425, which makes it the earliest hemp find in Finland. A comparison with other regions around the Baltic Sea shows that agricultural knowledge as well as hemp cultivation could have been brought to Isokylä via trade networks manifested in the archaeological record.
... Cannabis-type show high values in two wells from one site. In the same two wells, macro-remains of Cannabis sativa (both seeds and stalk fragments) were identified, indicating local over-representation of Cannabis-type pollen due to retting in or nearby the wells (Larsson and Lagerås 2015). Plantago lanceolata shows unusually high pollen percentages in one sample. ...
... Such activities may have been the processing of plants, for instance for fibre, or the dumping of fodder, manure or waste in the wells. In two of the wells used in the present study, macrofossil evidence of hemp retting corresponded to peaks in Cannabis-type pollen (Larsson and Lagerås 2015). This taxon was therefore excluded from the pollen sum. ...
Article
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The twofold aim of this study was to investigate the long-term landscape development in an intensely cultivated region of south-western Scania, southern Sweden, and to discuss the potential of pollen records from wells for this purpose. Pollen records from 36 different wells from 12 archaeological sites were compiled. Based on 35 of the wells, ranging ca 800 cal bc–cal ad 1900, regional vegetation cover for seven different time-windows was quantified using the REVEALS model and a multiple small sites approach. According to the REVALS output, landscape openness was high and relatively constant during the last ca 2,500 years (open-land vegetation covered 90–97%), whereas arable land use expanded more gradually (cereal vegetation expanded from 9% cover 800–500 bc to 38% cover ad 1700–1900). This gradual increase in arable farming at the expense of grassland enabled an increase in food production within an already agriculturally colonized landscape. The REVEALS estimates based on pollen records from wells were in general accordance with earlier published REVEALS reconstructions based on lake sediments from neighbouring regions. A GIS analysis of arable land use in south-western Scania around ad 1800, based on old cadastral maps, gave similar results as the REVEALS reconstruction of cereal vegetation cover for the ad 1700–1900 time-window. It gives support to the conclusion that pollen records from wells may be used for REVEALS reconstructions of past vegetation cover.
... During the retting process, the stems were kept in water for a period of time: a process necessary for extracting the fibres that were used for textiles or ropes (Larsson and Lagerås 2015). A study based on sediments from a lake in France has confirmed the relationship between high values of Cannabis-type pollen and hemp retting based on organic chemistry, by correlating the cannabinol molecule related to retting with high values of Cannabis-type pollen (Lavrieux et al. 2013). ...
... A number of studies also indicate hemp retting from the 5th century onwards (Regnéll 1989;Gaillard and Göransson 1991;Rasmussen and Anderson 2005), but the chronologies were based on bulk radiocarbon dates or cross correlation with other sites, and hence, the exact timing for the introduction of hemp cultivation can be difficult to infer. Nevertheless, the earliest evidence for hemp retting in Sweden was found in a pit from an Iron Age settlement in southwestern Scania, based on macrofossil remains of Cannabis sativa and Cannabis-type pollen, dated to the 1st and 2nd century ad (Larsson and Lagerås 2015). ...
Article
Full-text available
The aim of the study was to identify changes in agricultural practices and periods of agricultural expansion and regression during the last 1,300 years in the South-Swedish Uplands. Sediments from the small lake of Skärpingsgölen (1.2 ha) were used to quantify land-cover at a local scale (c. 1 km radius) in 50-year intervals based on pollen analysis and the LOVE model (Local Vegetation Estimates). The results showed a dramatic change in land-cover, starting c. ad 1150, from a grazed, deciduous woodland, dominated by Corylus, Betula and Quercus, to a semi-open landscape dominated by Picea and open agricultural land. A hamlet, situated next to the lake, was probably established during the 12th century, abandoned during the late medieval crisis (late 14th century) and re-colonized during the 16th century. High values of Cannabis-type pollen (up to 10% of the pollen sum) suggest that hemp retting was carried out in the lake from the 13th to the 17th centuries, while elevated levels of microscopic charcoal indicate that slash-and-burn cultivation was practiced during the early 14th and the 16th–18th centuries. The LRA-based estimates of vegetation show that the modern landscape, dominated by managed coniferous woodlands, is very different from the landscape only 50–100 years ago. This type of study is useful for comparisons with historical and archaeological records, and provides sufficient temporal and spatial resolution to identify short-lived abandonments and shifts in agricultural practices.
... Desiccated seeds from a third fibre crop, Cannabis sativa (hemp), have been recently identified from Islamic sites near Madrid (Risco de las Cuevas) and Valencia (Benaxuai cave) (authors' unpublished data) (Fig. 2). Although there is evidence of its cultivation in other parts of Europe from the late Iron Age (Bouby 2002) or from Roman times (Larsson and Lagerås 2015), these examples seem to be the earliest evidence from Iberia (Table 2). ...
Article
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The 1st millennium ce in the Iberian peninsula was characterized by a continuous exchange of people, goods, food, technology, etc. which led to the transformation of agriculture and the introduction of new crops there. This paper presents the archaeobotanical evidence of the plants that were introduced there during the Roman and medieval periods. Cereals such as Secale cereale (rye), Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) and Oryza sativa (rice) appeared for the first time in the archaeological record together with new fruit taxa, Prunus persica (peach), Morus nigra (black mulberry), Prunus armeniaca (apricot), Cydonia oblonga (quince), Mespilus germanica (medlar) and Citrus species, enriching the diet of the Iberian people. There were also fibre plants such as Cannabis sativa (hemp) that are now first recorded. The paper provides the first records of these taxa while awaiting further research that can offer more detailed information on whether some of them may also have been present in earlier periods.
... The threshold for pollen percentages of Cannabis-Humulus-t. used to determine hemp retting differs among authors, thus making it difficult to compare: 8e10% (Whittington and Edwards, 1989;Lagerås, 1996), 20e30% (Peglar et al., 1989;Latałowa, 1992;Mercuri et al., 2002;Laine et al., 2010;Lavrieux et al., 2013;Larsson and Lagerås, 2015) or above 40% (Bradshaw et al., 1981;Gaillard et al.,1991;Schofield and Waller, 2005). However, at M erancis, the expansion of Cannabis-Humulus-t. ...
Article
This article assesses the long-term hydro-sedimentary and ecological consequences of the urban pressure around Paris over the last 3000 years on the M erantaise river. Using a geoarchaeological approach combining sedimentological, geochemical, palynological and geophysical investigations enabled us to identify the transformations of the hydrosystem and to discuss the consequences of the different types of pressure and to put the role of biophysical and historical legacies into perspective with respect to contemporary dynamics. Using two study sites, one a former pond (M erancis), the other a former mill site (Ors mill), nine cores, two auger holes and four trenches dug in the valley floor and two electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) profiles, it was possible to reconstruct the geometry of the sedimentary deposits. Chronostratigraphy was based on 41 radiocarbon dates and the history of vegetation and anthropogenic activities was reconstructed from 42 pollen samples and non-pollen palynomorphs collected from the former pond site. Despite the expansion of wetlands in the valley bottom, the pollen data revealed strong agropastoral activities and cereal growing in the Iron Age and up until the end of the Middle Ages. For the first time, sedimentological data associated with pollen data revealed hemp retting activities from c. 675 CE. From the Late Middle Ages onwards, water management led to the creation of two ponds to feed water mills. Despite the persistence of wetlands, this study highlights the early onset of anthropogenic modifications and in particular, the start of organic pollution and eutrophication in the Early Middle Ages, attesting to early eutrophication of water quality and aquatic environments resulting from the transformation of agropastoral practices and hydraulic pressure around the largest European city during the last 1500 years, well before the inset of urban sprawl in the watershed.
... In understanding the details of past societies, it is essential to know which types of resources were being exploited, and how specific plants were prepared for food and other uses [1][2][3][4][5] . The identification of bast fibres from archaeological textile assemblages makes an important contribution to understanding prehistoric material culture, technologies and social structures. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
A range of plant fibres was used in prehistoric Europe for cordage, woven textiles and string. The analysis of degraded archaeological specimens to determine which types were being used is often challenging, partly due to uncertainties around the reliability of identification techniques. Here, two established diagnostic approaches are standardised, quantified, and blind tested in terms of their combined ability to separate reference material from nettle ( Urtica dioica L.), flax ( Linum usitatissimum L.) and hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.). These approaches are longitudinal microfibrillar angle (MFA) and cross-sectional circularity (Ct) used in a two-step procedure to analyse a set of randomly selected modern fibres (n=48, 16 from each species). The overall success rate for identification was 66.7% but this varied between the species, and the results show differences in the efficacy of the methods. In the first stage, MFA distinguished between hemp and flax/nettle, with 81.3% of the hemp samples being successfully identified. Twenty-seven samples proceeded to stage 2 and were classified using Ct analysis after which 66.7%% of all flax, and 50% of all nettle samples were identified successfully. This suggests that some evidence for the use of wild nettles may have been under-represented in archaeological reports.
... Tevrat'ta kenevir ile ilgili ayetler yer almaktadır 54 .Kenevirin Avrupalı denizcilerle tanışması oldukça geç olmuştur. MS ilk asırda kenevir tarımı yapılmaya başlanmıştır55 . Geç Roma dönemindeki gemiciler kenevirden mamul halatlar yapmışlardır. ...
Book
In Cannabis Textiles I explores traditional and manually manufactured hemp textiles, primarily from botanical and garden history perspectives, shedding light on the peoples behind their production from seed to sewing, while sharing methods to distinguish hemp fibers and fabrics from similar looking hop, flax, nettles and cotton. The text is richly illustrated with a wide variety of hemp textiles from Europe and Asia. Available upon request for research purposes, or ordered on Amazon: https://www.amazon.de/-/en/Git-Skoglund/dp/9152722112/ref=sr_1_1?crid=3G0FRGKP0CMU9&keywords=Git+skoglund&qid=1660724355&sprefix=git+skoglund%2Caps%2C178&sr=8-1
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Peripheral nerve injury is a common condition with a multitude of signs and symptoms. The major consequence of injury is limited physical activity. Presently, we are lacking effective therapies for PNI and it is need of the hour is to explore potential remedies for the recovery of functional loss. Here, we have investigated the role of crude Cannabis sativa L. leaf powder in promoting functions recovery, in mouse model subjected to a traumatic sciatic nerve injury. A dose of 200mg/kg of the body weight per day was administered orally from the day of nerve crush till the end of the experiment. The motor functions were evaluated by measuring sciatic functional index, muscle grip strength and muscle mass; whereas the sensory functions were assessed by hotplate test. The haematology and serum analyses were carried out to estimate the effect of treatment on the systemic index and oxidative stress. The gain of motor functions was significantly improved and was early noticed in the treated mice. Restoration of muscle mass and elevated haemoglobin level were statistically significant in the treatment group. This study indicates that Cannabis sativa L. supplementation accelerates the motor functions recovery after nerve compression injury.
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