Social Inequality
Abstract
What is the state of social inequality today? How can you situate yourself in the debates?
This is an essential book that not only introduces you to the key areas, definitions and debates within the field, but also gives you the opportunity to reflect upon the roots of inequality and to critically analyse power relations today. With international examples and a clear interdisciplinary approach throughout, the book encourages you to look at social inequality as a complex social phenomenon that needs to be understood in a global context. This book:
•Looks at social divisions across societies
•Explores global processes and changes that are affecting inequalities
•Discusses social inequality in relation to class, gender and race
•Examines current social policy approaches to explore how these relate to inequality
•Reflects upon the potential solutions to inequalities
This engaging and accessible introduction to social inequality is an invaluable resource for students across the social sciences.
... Transferring general definitions of social inequalities (Warwick-Booth, 2013) to age relations in organizations, age inequalities can be defined as differences in material and symbolic resources of socially constructed age groups within and between organizations. Accordingly, age inequalities are context specific and thereby differ depending on country, industry, organization, team or job (Segers, Inceoglu and Finkelstein, 2014). ...
Age diversity research calls for new approaches in explaining the persistence of age inequalities, which integrate different levels of analysis and display greater context sensitivity. Concurrently, neoinstitutionalist research interested in social inequalities calls for merging institutional theory with critical perspectives and to account for issues of power. In this study, we address the calls of both research streams through developing the concept of ‘age work’: the institutional work actors undertake on age as a social institution. Applying our novel concept to a multi-actor study of four German organizations known for their age management, we come across a counterintuitive insight regarding actors’ age work: maintaining stereotypical age images can serve to counter age inequalities, whereas deconstructing age images can reinforce age inequalities. The multi-actor perspective of our study allows us to categorize different forms of power-laden and interest-driven age work and to portray the reproduction of age inequalities as a result of actors’ age work, embedded in different contexts and complex power relations. Comparing employees’ forms of age work across sectors and organizations, we detail how notions of masculinity as well as income and job security shaped the categorized forms of age work.
This entry addresses social and spatial mobility in contemporary societies, and in doing so examines a wide array of concrete practices (commuting, residential mobility, travel for leisure and also migrations) on an individual and collective level. Access to mobility is subject to social stratification, and spatial mobility is often disconnected from social mobility. For the future, in the face of intensifying globalization, four processes have special implications in terms of the societal stakes of mobility, namely, the relationship to living environments, spacetimes, sustainability and borders.
The premise of this paper arose from negative spatial legacies, a global and regional focus on inequality and questions about the success of spatial transformation in post-apartheid South Africa. This paper responds by filling a gap in representing the spatial dimensions of socio-economic inequality on a local level. The aim is to describe the spatial patterns of socio-economic inequality in the City of Tshwane, South Africa, through a relative socio-economic classification (comprising multiple variables) and identify underlying influences to enduring socio-economic inequality. The results show the enduring spatial legacies of socio-economic status and segregation in the study area. There is a strong mutually reinforcing relationship between median household income, unemployment levels and concentrations of tertiary education qualifications which constitute underlying influences to socio-economic inequality and segregation. High and low socio-economic status is spatially polarised and high socio-economic status is concentrated in a small area of the city. The central parts of the study area and the fringes of heritage townships experienced declines in socio-economic status between 2001 and 2011. When considered along with changes in the racial make-up of neighbourhoods there is evidence of class segregation replacing racial segregation, but historical patterns of race and class remain significant. Future spatial transformation efforts should consider a variety of spatial trends (including housing development and economic restructuring), but should target the inner city and also focus on tertiary education attainment and improving access to employment opportunities to encourage greater social equality in the study area.
Social transformation refers to major changes in the ways in which societies live. Globalisation and transnationalisation of today’s world are prime examples of such transformative understanding. While globalisation is considered as an economic interdependence of nation-states with macro-level dynamics, transnationalisation refers to the sustained cross-border social and symbolic ties, social formations occurring at least between two nation-states, and their implications mainly due to international migration of people with an agency-oriented perspective. This chapter is set to introduce different conceptualisations of social transformation and argue that international migration is both a cause and consequence of it. In the light of these processes, this chapter focuses on the nexus of migration and health in particular reference to asylum seeking and refugee movements. The social and geographical contexts influence health and migration patterns of persons. Looking at interrelated macro-, meso-, and micro-levels, this chapter frames the nexus of migration and health in the broader understanding of social transformation.
Background:
This study is born from a partnership between Web editors of Naître et grandir (N&G) and AboutKidsHealth (AKH) and researchers who developed and validated the Information Assessment Method (IAM). N&G and AKH are popular Canadian websites with high-quality comprehensive information about child development, education, health, and well-being. IAM allows parents to assess online information and provide feedback to Web editors. High-quality online consumer health information improves knowledge, self-efficacy, and health. However, low-socioeconomic status (SES) parents underuse N&G and IAM, despite these parents being more likely to report decreased worries and increased confidence as outcomes from N&G information.
Objective:
The study is aimed to improve low-SES parents' use of online child information and interaction with Web editors and explore subsequent health outcomes for parents and children.
Methods:
Multiphase mixed-methods design. Our general approach is centered on organizational participatory research. In phase 1, we will conduct a qualitative interpretive study to identify barriers and facilitators to using N&G information and to interacting with N&G editors via IAM; interview more than 10 low-SES parents about their experience with N&G and IAM and more than 10 nonusers of N&G and IAM; and use thematic analysis to identify main barriers and facilitators. In phase 2, we will integrate parents' views (phase 1 findings) in N&G and IAM and implement a new version: IAM+N&G+. In phase 3, we will conduct a quantitative prospective longitudinal study (pre-/postimplementation monitoring of knowledge use and outcomes). We will compare the use of original (IAM and N&G) and new (IAM+ and N&G+) versions using Google Analytics variables, IAM variables, a material and social deprivation index, and demographics. We anticipate increased use post implementation (linear mixed modeling). In phase 4, we will conduct a qualitative descriptive study on outcomes of information use. We will interview more than 30 low-SES parents who receive and rate the N&G+ newsletter using IAM+ and analyze data in the form of life histories to describe how parents and children experience perceived outcomes.
Results:
The project was funded in 2017 by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and received an ethics approval by the McGill University's institutional review board. Data collection for phase 1 was completed in 2018. Phases 2 to 4 will be conducted until 2020. Findings from this study will also be used to develop a free toolkit, useful to all Web editors, with recommendations for improving health information for low-SES persons and interactions with them using IAM.
Conclusions:
The results of this study will provide a deep understanding of how low-SES parents use online child information and interact with Web editors. Following the implementation of IAM+N&G+, results will also elucidate subsequent health outcomes for low-SES parents and children after interaction with Web editors has been optimized.
International registered report identifier (irrid):
PRR1-10.2196/9996.
Economic and population growth in Mexico City (CDMX) is the main cause of an increase in water demand against a naturally limited endowment, which increases the gap between water demand and supply. In a water scarcity environment, households are facing pressure to maintain their involvement in the city's only operating body, the Water System of Mexico City (SACMEX) total supply. The objective of this work is to measure the inequality in the distribution of drinking water and water subsidies between households connected to the public network of CDMX in order to generate objective indicators of the phenomenon. Having such information provides a baseline scenario of the problem and allows for the delineation of a policy covering the minimum levels of well-being in the supply of drinking water that is appropriate for the most important city in the country. The method consists of measuring inequality through continuous variables estimating the Lorenz curve, the Gini coefficient, the targeting coefficient and elasticity in water consumption and in water subsidies among households in CDMX. Data comes from a household survey carried out in 2011, Consumption Habits, Service and Quality of Water by Household in Mexico City (EHCSCA). Results show that drinking water and subsidies present a regressive distribution, benefit high-income households and, to a lesser degree, the poorest households in the city and highlight the urgency and importance for SACMEX to redefine its policy on water distribution, fees and subsidies. The present study's scope can contribute to the monitoring of the distribution of drinking water and of subsidies among household groups. The study justifies that the indicators employed in this work can be used and are recommended as a valuable tool in water management, especially in a dynamic environment.
As low socioeconomic status (SES) and ethnic minority students often experience barriers during their school career, increased levels of referral of these students to extramural support services in education (ESS) can be expected. Yet, research indicates that disadvantaged students are often underrepresented in different types of ESS. The purpose of this study is to examine possible social inequalities in the use of, and referral to, ESS (study 1) and to explore the experiences of disadvantaged students’ parents (study 2). In study 1, 3302 parents of school-aged children completed a survey on the use of ESS. Data were analysed using logistic regression analyses. In study 2, parents of disadvantaged school-aged children (N = 8) participated in focus group discussions, which were analysed thematically. Results of study 1 confirmed the unequal use of ESS according to family SES and migration history, and revealed that inequality was especially prominent in private ESS, whilst subsidised ESS was equally used. Schools did not refer low SES and ethnic minority students more to ESS. In study 2, disadvantaged students’ parents addressed the role of multiple thresholds beyond merely financial barriers in decision processes pertaining to ESS use. Results indicate varying degrees of social inequality in the use of subsidised and private ESS. Such dynamics of unequal access and participation can reinforce unequal education opportunities. Addressing disadvantaged families’ subjectively experienced thresholds may provide one way to reduce this inequality. When disadvantaged families do not reach the necessary ESS, schools should compensate and increase their guidance for these students. © 2017 Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada, Lisboa, Portugal and Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
The overall aim with the study was to describe the knowledge building that was developed in a group of students who were trained nurses enrolled in a Swedish higher education programme. With a point of departure in an interactive research approach, the authors applied the dialogue seminar as method and pedagogical model. When the students in close to practice talks, shared their thoughts about how gender and gender equality could be experienced and understood, the dialogue seminar became useable. At the analysis of the stories which the students shared at the dialogue seminars, it became clear that most of the students had an ambivalent approach to gender equality. When they reflected on gender relations, they brought out the hierarchical and separate gender relations which they experienced as existing within healthcare. Furthermore, their professional lives seemed to be embedded in gender-related practices. An important conclusion is that the students’ reflections oscillated between critical reflection on conditions and critical reflection on processes within their own practice in healthcare. Another finding was that the students’ reflections in dialogue form became important in a learning process, not least in the light of that gender relations and gender equality only to a limited degree had been included in their nurse’s education at the basic level.
Provision of drinking water is considered to be an essential public service. Ensuring adequate water supply remains a challenge in Indian cities that are experiencing rapid growth and often exhibit a mismatch between increasing demands and inadequate supply infrastructure. This study quantifies the existing inequality in water supply within Indian cities through Lorenz curve, Gini coefficient as well as Theil indices. Two types of Theil indices are estimated to gain different perspectives: water supply and population weighted. Both the Theil indices are disaggregated, according to economic and regional categorisation of the cities, to explore the within- and between-group inequality. The water supply and population-weighted Theil indices provide different outlook of the inequality amongst the cities. But the population-weighted index is often better and pragmatic.
Further, the inequality in access to tap water in India is studied by estimating modified Lorenz curves and Theil indices. Again, the Theil indices are decomposed into within and between components according to economic and regional grouping of states. The results suggest that there is disparity in supply of water in India, and infrastructure has to be boosted to meet the growing demand. This study is a step towards quantification of water supply inequality. The approach used in the study can contribute to monitoring of water supply equity as well as in formulating sustainable and equitable water policies.
The German twin family study ‘TwinLife’ was designed to enhance our understanding of the development of social inequalities over the life course. The interdisciplinary project investigates mechanisms of social inequalities across the lifespan by taking into account psychological as well as social mechanisms, and their genetic origin as well as the interaction and covariation between these factors. Main characteristics of the study are: (1) a multidimensional perspective on social inequalities, (2) the assessment of developmental trajectories in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood in a longitudinal design by using (3) a combination of a multi-cohort cross-sequential and an extended twin family design, while (4) capturing a large variation of behavioral and environmental factors in a representative sample of about 4,000 German twin families. In the present article, we first introduce the theoretical and empirical background of the TwinLife study, and second, describe the design, content, and implementation of TwinLife. Since the data will be made available as scientific use file, we also illustrate research possibilities provided by this project to the scientific community.
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