Article

Comparing Trail Runners and Mountain Bikers: Motivation, Involvement, Portfolios, and Event-Tourist Careers

March 2014
Journal of Convention & Event Tourism 15(1):69-100

DOI:10.1080/15470148.2013.834807

Authors:

University of Calgary

Amateur trail runners and endurance mountain bikers are compared with regard to motivation, involvement in their sport, competitive-event portfolios, and event-travel careers. Participants in two destination events produced by a for-profit company constitute the sample frame, with the respondents having answered a sub-set of identical questions on an online, post-event evaluation survey. The two "destination events" differ considerably in terms of the gender of participants, with a much higher proportion of females in the running event. Both samples were revealed to have a fairly high level of involvement in their sport, but a large proportion of participants in both events also participated in a wider portfolio of challenging sports. Because the dominant motivation for both samples, and for both men and women, was personal challenge, it is concluded that for many respondents involvement is directed more toward physically demanding sport than toward a particular kind of sport or event. This involvement has led a majority to develop an event-travel career. Implications are drawn for sport-event management and event-tourism marketing. Recommendations are made for further research to explore the relevance of brand communities and consumption constellations in event tourism.

VOLUNTEER' LEGACY AT SPORT EVENTS IN QATAR DOCTORATE THESIS

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Mar 2023

Mohammed Ilaiwi

Pre-Event Marketing of Trail Running Events : Stories of People, Place and Experience

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Aug 2023

Raphaela Stadler

The use of storytelling in destination marketing is well explored, but the role of events in this is under researched. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how two different trail running events in Innsbruck, Austria, use elements of storytelling within their communications strategy in the lead-up to the event, and how stories about the two events are interwoven to create a shared meaning around the image of Innsbruck as an alpine-urban destination. Stories on the event websites, social media, local and national media, and in promotional material are thematically analysed to examine the similarities and differences in storytelling approaches. Findings reveal that both events use a combination of three specific elements – people, place and experience – but different strategies when tapping into each other’s story and hence shaping the overall story of the destination. As such, the paper makes theoretical and practical contributions to the event marketing body of knowledge.

Profiling Trail Runners by Experience–Use–History, Environmental Consciousness and Travel Carbon Footprint

Chapter

Jul 2023

Attributes Contributing to the Travel Behaviour of Trail Runners

Chapter

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Jun 2023

Sabah was a renowned trail running destination before the COVID-19 outbreak halted all tourism activity. The primary goal of this research was to determine which trail areas and trail qualities influence trail runners’ travel behaviour following the COVID-19 pandemic. The research was exploratory in character, with a quantitative methodology. Surveys were conducted in twelve distinct trail running locations in Kundasang, Sabah, where 232 questionnaires were collected from trail runners and analysed. The top five event, location, and trail qualities that people look for when selecting an event are a trail that makes them feel good, a well-planned event, a path that goes through a variety of landscapes and natural features, a trail that gives them something to remember, and a well-marked trail, according to the findings. The most essential trail aspects that runners look for when selecting a trail running event are, in order of priority, how the trail is managed, how much the event costs, how simple it is to get to, what the route is like, what the destination is like, and how the event is conducted. The findings of this study aided both trail running events and host destination marketers by highlighting the features that should be used in their events and host destination marketing to meet the needs of trail runners and encourage the growth of sustainable trail running events in Kundasang, Sabah. This study also discovered that trail qualities are distinct features that trail runners want. This means that the organisers and marketers of trail running events, as well as the organisers and marketers of the host destination, should incorporate these features into their marketing and event planning.KeywordsSport tourismEndurance sportTrail runningTravel behaviourTrail attributes

Do they behave the same Identifying the motives and behavioural intentions that influence the event loyalty of different distance triathletes

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Developing a brand personality framework in the context of outdoor small-scale sport events

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Outdoor small scale sport events like trail or local city running races are on a rise. Several event managers pivot their promotional strategies by developing unique brand personality characteristics to support their products from competition. This study aimed to develop a brand personality scale for outdoor small scale running events with the usage of mixed methods approach. First, 24 semi-structured interviews were conducted within event managers and trail runners to conceptualize the brand personality in small scale sport event settings. Then, an exploratory factor analysis was performed in 216 runners to identify the underlying construct. A third study with 396 respondents was carried out to validate the hypothesized scale. The results indicated a five factor model with seventeen characteristics: Safe, Local-oriented, Authentic, Competitive and Excited. This study has theoretical and practical significant contribution for both brand personality literature and sport event marketers as it strengths the promotional actions and provides a better event personality conceptualization for outdoor small scale events. Finally, several managerial implications are discussed in the later sections.

Do they behave the same Identifying the motives and behavioural intentions that influence the event loyalty of different distance triathletes

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Jan 2022

The sky is the limit: a motivation and event attribute typology of trail runners

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Trail running is currently one of the world's fastest-growing running categories. Unfortunately, limited research has focused on trail running as part of sport tourism. Therefore, this research segmented athletes based on their motives to participate and the event attributes they seek when choosing a trail running event in South Africa. An online questionnaire was developed and shared on the social media platforms of the SkyRun event, and 131 responses were obtained. The factor analysis revealed respectively five motives and trail attributes as the segmentation bases. The cluster analysis revealed three distinctive segments (the “all-in” trail finders, “stand-out” trail finders and “trail friend” finders). Each of these segments is extremely viable to consider by both event organizers and destination marketers. The results can help event organizers, and destination marketers develop cost-effective marketing strategies to attract and retain each segment.

Acceptance of Local Environmental Impacts from Event Tourism

Thesis

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Nov 2024

Axel Eriksson

Few other tourism activities attract large crowds to specific areas over a short period of time like events. Yet, despite their environmental impacts, actors—from residents to organisers—seem to accept them. Understanding the socio-cultural mechanisms behind this acceptance can further explain how tourism continues to impact nature without curtailing development in the Anthropocene. The aim of this dissertation is to enhance understanding of the acceptance of environmental impacts from tourism activities. This is achieved by shifting the scale from environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions, to physical impacts on nature, such as the wear and tear on land and trails during nature-based events. The empirical data and qualitative fieldwork were conducted in rural areas of Jämtland, Sweden, integrating interviews, observations and document analysis, and involving four key actors across a compilation of four articles: local government authorities responsible for issuing permits, local residents who use nature in the vicinity of the events, event organisers and participants in trail running and mountain biking events. The empirical data is analysed through a post-development theory lens to challenge established knowledge and development frameworks in tourism and to illustrate how a dynamic use of resources can foster acceptance. The results identified five socio-cultural mechanisms that shape acceptance. First, a mechanism of scale illustrates how actors relate environmental impact to both local and global contexts. Relating the impacts in terms of scale reshapes the actors’ acceptance by comparing the physical impacts on nature to broader global environmental impacts. Second, a mechanism of growth shows how actors view the expansion of events as separate from their environmental impact. Acceptance arises because actors do not fully reflect on the cumulative effects of impacts. When actors place themselves outside of the immediate event, the total amount of impacts becomes more obvious. Third, a mechanism of ownership reveals three types of ownership that influence acceptance: ownership linked to social responsibility, national pride and economic interests. Fourth, a mechanism of responsibility shows how actors shift responsibility for mitigating environmental impacts onto others. When actors distance themselves from the immediate space or become part of a broader chain of responsibility, the physical impacts on nature become accepted. Finally, a mechanism of limits shows that acceptance is tied to shifting boundaries of what is considered acceptable as the event becomes integrated into a wider plurality of activities. The main argument of this dissertation is that the acceptance of physical impacts on nature from events depends on actors’ willingness to adapt to other actors. When events are closely connected to various tourism and other actors in the area, this plurality creates acceptance even if tourism activities affect the actors’ everyday lives.

Trail-Running and Ultramarathon: A Multidisciplinary Scoping Review

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Nov 2024

Les recherches sur les courses à pied d’ultra-endurance se multiplient, et témoignent de la popularité de ce sport. Quelles places occupent les sciences humaines et sociales dans la compréhension de cette pratique ? Cet article contribue à préciser la compréhension d’un véritable phénomène de société à partir d’une revue de littérature pluridisciplinaire dans le domaine des sciences humaines et sociales sur l’ultra-trail. Une analyse qualitative systémique de leur contenu permet d’identifier trois thèmes majeurs : 1) Engagement et profils des coureurs d’ultra-trail ; 2) Motivations et expériences de ses participants ; 3) Territoires et événements du trail running. Ces résultats ont permis de synthétiser les travaux réalisés à ce jour et constituent un point de départ pour développer d’autres approches. Il apparaît qu’au-delà des ancrages disciplinaires, les résultats présentés résonnent entre eux autant qu’ils mettent en évidence un certain nombre de paradoxes, ce qui est représentatif de la discipline elle-même. Au vu de ces observations, certaines pistes peuvent être explorées pour approfondir ces approches et ces études.

Trail-Running and Ultramarathon: A Multidisciplinary Scoping Review

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The Marketing Mix in Mountain Bike Sports Events in Mexico. The View of the Organisers

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Sep 2023

ABSTRACT This article presents the opinions of mountain bike event organisers on the marketing mix generated by the different events, which will help us to detect areas of opportunity in the preparation of the sporting challenges. The analysis was carried out using a survey of twelve organisers from different municipalities in the state of Michoacán, where the minimum selection requirements were to have held the event for at least 5 consecutive years, to ensure continuity, and to have at least 400 participants in each one of the events, to subsequently analyse the answers through the experton theory, giving as a result what each of the questions asked represents for them, one of the findings was that the price is an important factor in the decision to participate in the events, while, in the same vein, the organisers are not satisfied with what is offered at the events. Keywords: Experton, marketing mix, mountain biking events

Ultra Trail Organizasyon Paydaşları ve Türkiye’de Sürdürülebilir Turizme Yönelik SWOT Analizi

Book

May 2023

Çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye’de ultra trail organizasyonlarının sürdürülebilirliğini incelemek ve turizm sektöründe mevsimsel eğirilerin değişmesini sağlayarak turizmin sürdürülebilirliğine katkı sağlamak ve küçük ölçekli spor organizasyonları için bir çerçeve geliştirmektir. Araştırmanın örneklem grubunu ultra trail organizasyonlarına katılan 429 spor turisti ve bu organizasyonları gerçekleştiren dört organizatör oluşturmaktadır. Karma araştırma yöntemlerinde çeşitleme deseni kullanılarak araştırma verilerine ulaşılmıştır. Çalışmada nicel verilere ulaşmak için Myburgh (2017) tarafından geliştirilen “Seyahat Davranışı Ölçeği” ve “Etkinlik Öznitelikleri Ölçeği” ile Perić ve Tanković (2021) tarafından geliştirilen “Spor Etkinliği Memnuniyet Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada nitel verilere ulaşmak için Yarı Yapılandırılmış Görüşme Formu kullanılmıştır. Ölçeklere ait faktörlerin doğrulanmasında Amos 23 programı kullanılarak DFA uygulanmıştır. Spor etkinliği memnuniyet ölçeğinden elde edilen verilerin analizlerde “maximum likelihood” olabilirlik yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Ölçklerin Türkçe uyarlamasına ait ölçek geçerliliği için yapılan DFA sonuçlarına göre CMIN=982,450; DF=362; p<0,001; CMIN/DF=2,714; RMSEA=0,063; CFI=0,934; GFI=0,864; seyahat davranışı ölçeğine ait CMIN=92.406; DF=23; p<0.001; CMIN/DF=4.018; RMSEA=0.084; CFI=0.969; GFI=0.953; etkinlik öznitelikleri ölçeğine ait CMIN=554,308; DF=164; p<0,001; CMIN/DF=3,380; RMSEA=0,075; CFI=0,898; GFI=0,876 ve olarak elde edilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular ölçeklerin Türkçe uyarlama çalışmasının uygunluğunu doğrulamaktadır. Çalışmada seyahat davranışı ile spor etkinliği memnuniyet durumu ve etkinlik öznitelikleri arasındaki ilişkiyi tespit etmek için yapısal eşitlik modeli kullanılmıştır. Modele göre katılımcıların seyahat davranışı ile etkinlik öznitelikleri arasında pozitif bir ilişki tespit edilmiştir.

Satisfacción en acontecimientos deportivos locales: elementos del destino y del acontecimiento

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Los acontecimientos deportivos locales se han convertido en herramientas de promoción turística y de dinamización económica de los territorios que los acogen. Conocer con exactitud el perfil de los deportistas que participan en ellos, entender sus expectativas y proponerles experiencias satisfactorias es esencial para aprovechar todos los beneficios que estos acontecimientos pueden aportar a los territorios. En este sentido, el objetivo de este estudio se centró en identificar los elementos del destino y del acontecimiento que más influyen en la satisfacción de los participantes. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 476 deportistas que durante el 2019 participaron en acontecimientos deportivos al aire libre en la comarca de Osona. Mediante cuestionarios se evaluaron 13 elementos relativos al acontecimiento y 24 al destino. Los resultados del estudio mostraron el papel relevante de la presencia o no de acompañantes del deportista en los atributos de destino que afectan a la satisfacción del deportista. Y revelaron, también, que la calidad del recorrido, la profesionalidad de la organización y los voluntarios, y la aplicación de medidas de protección del medio ambiente y la calidad de los avituallamientos son los elementos relacionados con el acontecimiento que más influyen en la satisfacción de los participantes. Con respecto al destino, los atractivos naturales y el entorno y el ambiente se mostraron como los elementos más influyentes.

Exploring virtual race participants’ perceptions of event mobile apps and behavioral intention: The stimulus-organism-response approach

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As COVID-19 compels the event industry to embrace a digital transformation with innovative and safer ways of organizing events, investigating event attendees’ emotional responses and behavioral intention toward virtual sporting events becomes extremely important for event stakeholders. However, there is little empirical research on what factors lead to event participants’ hedonic benefit, which is a crucial determinant of satisfaction and revisit intention in the context of virtual sporting events. Based on the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) model, this study therefore develops and examines a conceptually comprehensive model on the interrelationship between mobile app attributes, hedonic benefit, satisfaction with event experience, and revisit intention in the context of a virtual race event. Results identified user interface attractiveness and perceived usefulness as significant determinants of hedonic benefit which, in turn, affect satisfaction with event experience and revisit intention. Further, the results revealed that hedonic benefit mediates the relationships. The findings of this study provide significant theoretical and managerial implications for both researchers and practitioners who are interested in the use of mobile apps in virtual race events.

Characterising Sports Tourists Based on Motivation – The Case of Sachsentrail 2017 (Germany)

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A Self-Identification Typology of Endurance Sport Participants

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Endurance sport participants cannot be regarded as homogenous, and no single marketing effort will satisfy all the individuals' needs. Endurance participants have been segmented based on a variety of bases. The current research moves away from the traditional segmentation bases and implements a novel segmentation base, namely self-identification (how participants classify themselves). An online survey resulted in 498 completed questionnaires from South African endurance sport participants. Self-identification proved to be a useful segmentation base as it revealed five segments (average, recreational, intermediate, hard-core and veteran participants) with specific characteristics and needs. Furthermore, self-identification and their perceived skill level are directly linked to the level of commitment, lifestyle adaption, specific event attributes,and positive travel behaviour. The five segments identified will always be present at any endurance event, and therefore, this research helps event managers determine the appropriate outlets and messages to market their events

Investigating the satisfaction of active event sport tourists

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Active event sport tourists (AESTs) are those tourists who are taking part in organised events as competitors. Each event is held in a particular destination and, as a part of a highly competitive industry, both events and destinations offer an ever-widening range of services, striving to make their visitors satisfied. In order to better understand, conceptualize and manage the AESTs' satisfaction, the primary research based on a questionnaire survey was conducted on 16 small-scale sports events, collecting 502 responses. Results indicate that six satisfaction categories emerged: four event-related dimensions (staff and communication, event reputation, safety, and facilities and key processes) and two destination-related dimensions (destination offering and destination attributes). Understanding the role of the satisfaction of AESTs in a small-scale sport event creates both scientific and practical contributions, where sport event management and marketing need to consider each of these satisfaction categories in order to design and deliver the best active sport tourism experience.

Motives and constraints to bike tourism in Greece: "the Go-bike" project

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Introduction Bike tourism is one of the fast-developing alternative forms of tourism since it can satisfy the main pillars of sustainability (economic, social, and environmental). The current study is part of a larger funded project (GoBike) and aims to profile bike tourists in Greece, examine the motives and constraints to tourism participation, and show the value of using technology as a means of promoting bike tourism. Methods The data was collected through a quantitative study, with one hundred and five individuals who had experience with bike tourism activities, with the use of an online questionnaire. Items were used to measure socio-demographics, motives, constraints, involvement, and attitudes toward a smartphone application. Results The results indicated that “Nature”, “Health”, “Bike eco-friendly place” and “Interesting places” were the most important motives. On the other hand, the lack of “Guides”, “Appropriate Routes” “Bike tourism Programs” and “Limited Information” were reported as the most important barriers. The bikers reported that technology can facilitate their decision to do bike tourism activities. Discussion A smartphone application should include several attributes the most important of which are the “Elevation difference”, the “warnings of obstacles/risks”, “the level of difficulty”, “the bike distance” and the “condition of the routes”.

The Role of Lifestyle Activities (Mountain Trips and Hiking) in Extracurricular and Leisure Options - Part 1/Attractiveness Component Analysis

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Background and Study Purpose. The majority of the population prefers nature activities, trips, and hiking in mountain areas due to the attractiveness of the trails and the beneficial effects. Material and Methods. The investigated group included 647 students from secondary school/336 cases and high school/311 cases. A questionnaire consisting of 23 closed-ended items (Likert scale in 5 levels) was applied between March and May 2024 to study the opinions about trips and hiking in mountain areas. Parametric ANOVA procedures (defining gender-independent variables, area variables, and training level) were applied to identify differences between the resulting groups. Results. Factor analysis with PCA identified a distribution of items on three distinct components: Attractiveness, Usefulness, and Effects/Financial Accessibility. The F values for the three independent variables and the interaction between them correspond to statistically significant thresholds (P < 0.05), so there are differences between the opinions of the surveyed students for the items of the applied questionnaire. Conclusions. The spirit of adventure and escape from everyday life show the highest mean score of all the component items, followed by the attraction to trips and hiking. Females are more interested in trips and hiking than males. High school students are more attracted to these activities than secondary school students. We noted the statistically significant superiority of rural vs. urban students for all items of the Attractiveness component. Recommendation. These differences require identifying different ways to motivate the groups analysed in the future to be more involved in this kind of activity.

Nature always recovers! A degrowth analysis of event participants’ perspective on environmental impacts

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The role of motivations and satisfaction in repeat participation in cycling tourism events

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With the rise of international cycling tourism, it is necessary to study the role that motivations and satisfaction play in explaining the probability of repeat participation. This study analyses a sample of 1098 participants in the “Mallorca312”, an international road cycling race. The results confirm the importance of motivations related to contemplation, lifestyle, social interaction, and the satisfaction dimension before, during and after service increase the probability of repeat participation. Furthermore, the findings contribute to the theory of the characterization and behaviour of cycling tourists, in addition to helping event organisers and destination management to improve their marketing strategies.

Why do people cycle (a lot)? A multivariate approach on mental health, personality traits and motivation as determinants for cycling ambition

Article

Jan 2023
J APPL SPORT PSYCHOL

Both recreational and competitive cycling such as strenuous ultra-cycling have grown in popularity over the last decades. Still, the underlying psychological predictors and their interplay with mental health are unknown. We therefore examined the psychological determinants and health outcomes related to the cycling ambitions of 2,331 international cyclists ranging from commuters via leisure to competitive ultra-cyclists. First, groupwise analysis showed that social and external motives, cycling-induced pain affinity, sensation seeking, benign masochism, low neuroticism, openness, conscientiousness and prior mental health problems most clearly differed between the types of cyclists, with values increasing by level of ambition (commuting vs. leisure vs. competitive). Yet, even within groups, we observed a strong variation of ambition. To capture these nuances, we created a path model with cycling ambition as a latent variable based on five indicators (e.g, frequency of cycling, following a training plan). Path analysis confirmed that social and external motives were important determinants of cycling ambition, partly mediating the effects of masochism and sensation seeking. Furthermore, while partly driven by prior mental health problems, cycling ambition positively predicted current mental health, suggesting that cycling may be a safe way to challenge oneself and potentially serves as a strategy to overcome psychopathological episodes. Longitudinal and qualitative research could follow up on some of the causal relationships proposed in the present model, particularly with regard to ambitious cycling functioning as a potentially unconscious self-therapeutic behavior.

Effects of psychological interventions on high sports performance: A systematic review

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Dec 2022

Introduction Intervention programs in sports psychology aid to modify the thoughts and behaviors of athletes in order to improve their performance in sports settings. For high-performance athletes, these interventions are very relevant, given that they constantly face pressure towards obtaining sporting achievements. Methods This systematic review aims to analyze the scientific articles between 2010 and 2020 that evaluated the effect of psychological interventions on high-performance athletes. In the search procedure, nine studies were selected, the most studied variables were psychological skills, psychological flexibility, and stress. Results The 44% of the interventions were designed by the research authors themselves, while the remaining 56% were replicated programs, which already had scientific evidence. Discussion Psychological interventions have a positive impact on sports performance. This review allows sports institutions and professionals to have more knowledge and resources at their disposal to implement these types of programs in their sports planning.

Sport events and Covid-19: Trail runners’ attitudes and intentions during the pandemic

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COVID-19 has affected sport events, marathons, and trail-running events. Thus, it has become essential to understand the attitudes and intentions of runners, regarding their participation in the races. Therefore, this study aims to examine the changes in runners’ attitudes relating to their decision whether to participate in races, and changes in their habits because of the pandemic. Employing a qualitative research design, data were collected from 12 interviewees in Ephesus Ultra Marathon Trail Race, and by using participatory observation method. The results revealed that the participants’ motivations for participating in race events during the pandemic were socialization, healthy living, realizing their goals, and maintaining friendships. Despite the risks, the participants did not hesitate to participate in events for their belief in athlete immunity, confidence in individual precautions, their respect for the rules and the absence of fear. However, the decrease in the number of activities was found to create dissatisfaction, as it limited socialization.

The Influence of Tourism Development Strategies on the Attractiveness of Mountainous Destinations: A Case Study of the Aures Mountains in Algeria

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Tourism development strategies play a crucial role in tourism development. However, the reaction of the former to the needs of visitors and its effect on attractiveness is essential, especially in mountainous destinations. This study evaluates the impact of tourism development strategies on the attractiveness of mountain destinations. The study relied on appropriate elements derived from the literature. The study was conducted in three tourist sites in the Aures Mountains, and the sample included 468 visitors. The results showed that the destination’s attractiveness depends mainly on local factors such as nature, monuments, traditional food, and apple purchase, in addition to the quality of the price, which received the satisfaction of the majority of visitors. In turn, visitors were dissatisfied with the services assigned to tourism development strategies, such as accommodation, entertainment, communications, and transportation. The results also showed that the return to the destination is affected by nature and determined by several factors such as age, gender, use of a specific vehicle, and proximity. Therefore, the destination’s attractiveness is not based on the elements assigned to tourism strategies; this indicates the gap in local potential and tourism development.

Impacts of game attractiveness and color of message on sport viewers' attention to prosocial message: an eye-tracking study

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Aug 2022

Purpose In recent years, neurophysiological tools have been vastly applied in sport marketing research. Eye tracking, a pervasive sensor technology, has received a growing interest to examine the effects of advertising through sport on viewer attention. While there is a plethora of evidence in advertising that supports the positive effects of various advertising types and locations on viewer attention in various sport contexts, little is known about the role of a prosocial overlay ad on viewer attention when watching televised football matches. Therefore, this research aims to examine the differences in viewers' attention (i.e. fixation and duration) with regard to game attractiveness and colors of the prosocial message during televised football matches. Design/methodology/approach To identify the research gap, the authors first reviewed the relevant sport marketing and neuroscience research on advertising effectiveness. The authors selected a prosocial message displayed. Adopting an experimental research design and using eye tracking, this study examined the impacts of game attractiveness and colors of message on viewer attention to the prosocial message displayed on an overlay advertisement during a football match. Findings The authors found that the colors of prosocial messages and game attractiveness had significant effects on viewer attention to the prosocial message. Originality/value In this study, the authors sought to add advertisement color, as well as game attractiveness, to the extant knowledge in marketing literature as effective advertising factors in capturing viewers' attention. These variables can offer marketers new insights in designing effective advertisements for the context of televised sports events in a specialized field.

Task-shifting as a response to human resource crisis facing the Ngwelezana Tertiary Hospital in KwaZulu-Natal

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Sep 2021

ABSTRACT The government is committed to improving the health system by providing universal coverage to all South Africans as articulated in national health policies. The biggest threat facing the health sector today is the shortage of well-trained healthcare workers and the increasing demand for healthcare services. A quantitative study was used to examine the role of task-shifting as response to human resource crisis facing the Ngwelezana Tertiary Hospital in KwaZulu-Natal. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests of association and the Cramer’s V test. The results show that task-shifting was adopted to address staff shortages, delays in serving patients, long waiting periods for patients, increased risks of error and patient mortality. However, task-shifting presented its own challenges such as legal and professional risks and staff morale issues. The paper concludes that task shifting should be used as a relief measure for reducing the impact of staff shortages in hospitals.

A framework of enabling factors for contract compliance in Procuring and Disposing Entities (PDEs) in Uganda. In Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Conference of the Southern Africa Institute for Management Scientists. [Online]. Available: https://www.saibw.co.za/docs/SAIMS-CONFERENCE_PROCEEDINGS_2021.pdf [Accessed: 7 February 2022].

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Sep 2021

Procuring and Disposing Entities (PDEs) in state departments are challenged with missing records, inadequate training, poor enforcement mechanisms, limited funding and poor reports. Taking into account the huge government investment into public contracts, research to understand factors enabling contract compliance is imperative. This study explored the enabling factors for contract compliance in PDEs in Uganda. A qualitative study of twenty-nine telephone interviews and focus group discussions via Zoom were conducted. Thematic and content analysis were used to identify the fourteen major themes. Findings suggest capacity building, funding, reporting, evaluation, contract management, records management, institutional structure, enforcement, legal and regulatory framework, communication, openness, compliance checks, ethical orientation and stakeholder involvement as enablers for a suitable contract compliance environment in state departments in Uganda. The proposed conceptual framework serves as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners especially those involved in public procurement.

Running involvement, loyalty to running, and subjective well-being: A cluster analysis

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Jan 2022

One of the main policy objectives of many government Sports and Health Departments is to increase sports participation to promote citizens’ health and well-being. Running is, after football, perhaps the most popular physical activity. In recent years, studies analysing the effects of physical activity on an individual’s subjective well-being have been rare (Wiese et al. 2017), nor have been well established (Panza et al., 2019), and several gaps seem to exist in the literature (Dolan et al. 2008). The present study uses cluster analysis with the aim of identifying segments of runners based upon running involvement, loyalty to running and subjective well-being. A sample of 736 runners from one of Portugal's most popular athletics races completed a questionnaire, to assess, running involvement (centrality and attraction), loyalty to running, subjective well-being and socio-demographic variables. 52.9% of the respondents were men, and 47.1% were women. The number of clusters was determined using the Bayesian Information Criterion (Schwarz, 1978). Four significant clusters were identified, consisting of one (cluster 4) with relevant levels and another (cluster 2) with lower levels of subjective well-being. The main result showed that the cluster with the highest level of subjective well-being was not the group of runners with the highest level of loyalty to the race. Some clusters reflect relevant age and gender differences. The results allow us to draw an important conclusion: The need to design strategies based on the clusters identified to promote sports participation through running, with the aim of increasing running involvement and subjective well-being.

Exploring Consumer Motivation at Small-Scale Ski Resorts

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A Case Study of ACC Network Fall Programming During Covid-19

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COVID-19 provided a uniquely uncharted landscape for sports network programmers who needed to navigate the return of “Live” and “Re-Air” broadcast events. This case study examined the programming schedule of ESPN’s ACC Network during a 28-day period in the Fall of 2020. The ACC Network provided an uncommon opportunity to investigate the trends in sports television programming schedules during a pandemic. Data consisting of the ACC Network’s schedule was collected and labeled for ease of quantifying the contests as well as studio shows aired during the research window. Overall, the results demonstrated a distinct emphasis placed on the airing of college football “Live” and “Re-Air” games during the fall of 2020. The data reinforced that college football content was an important cornerstone of the ACC Network programming philosophy during COVID- 19.

Trail Use, Motivations, and Environmental Attitudes of 3780 European Mountain Bikers: What Is Sustainable?

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Dec 2021
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

Background: The extent to which mountain biking impacts upon the environment is largely determined by rider behaviours. The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of how mountain bikers interact with the natural environment and explore their attitudes towards sustainability. Methods: 3780 European mountain bikers completed an online cross-sectional survey. Results: Connection to nature was an important source of motivation and the use of mountain bike trails has increased rider's appreciation of and willingness to protect nature, with a large majority having taken direct action to do so. Mountain bikers are prepared to contribute towards trail maintenance through the provision of labour or financially. Although most mountain bikers make use of wet trails and illegal trails, incidence of conflict is relatively low. A range of characteristics were identified as being fundamental elements of sustainable trails, both in relation to the sustainability of the trail itself and in terms of wider environmental sustainability. Conclusions: European mountain bikers care about the sustainability of the natural environment. Self-reported attitudes and behaviours suggest a willingness to reduce environmental impact and actively protect nature.

Determinants of visitors’ expenditure across a portfolio of events

Article

Aug 2021

Destinations are increasingly recognising the advantages of managing their calendar of events as a strategic portfolio. Currently, however, there is no accepted, workable and proven technique for identifying the most efficient variable(s) to employ as a basis for strategic intervention. This study develops a spare regression model, based on the LASSO method, to select an efficient subset of determinants of visitor expenditure across five annual events taking place in Madeira, Portugal. The results indicate that event attendees’ income, length of stay and travel party size are significant determinants of total expenditure across all the events. Adopting strategic measures to influence these variables, if duly implemented at the portfolio level, can enable the cross-leveraging of additional expenditure that would be inaccessible to the destination if the Events were acting independently of one another. This could, in turn, enable the destination to use its events efficiently to enhance its overall competitiveness.

Communal Pulse across Media: Digital Networked Communication and Communality in Recreational Sport Cultures

Thesis

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Veera Ehrlén

Women's perceptions of and barriers to mountain biking in Northwest Arkansas

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021

The purpose of this study was to better understand women’s perceptions of and barriers to mountain biking in Northwest Arkansas (NWA), known for having some of the best trails in the United States. Using descriptive statistics, the results of an online survey (N = 150) revealed descriptors that detoured women from participating in mountain biking: mountain biking is a male- dominated sport (M = 3.88, SD = 0.92), the gear is too expensive (M = 3.87, SD = 0.96), people who ride mountain bikes are super athletic (M = 3.57, SD = 1.04), when I think of mountain biking, I picture men (M = 3.35, SD = 1.02). The results of this study may influence outdoor education professionals, parks and recreation programming, cycling advocacy organizations, and any who make marketing materials for the outdoor industry.

Medidas de minimización de impactos medioambientales en la organización y celebración de carreras de montaña ¿Qué opinan los participantes?

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Diferentes tipos de iniciativas han intentado aunar esfuerzos en la búsqueda de alternativas que contribuyan en la minimización de impactos medioambientales en la organización de carreras por montaña. Un buen ejemplo de estas iniciativas ha sido la reciente publicación de dos guías de buenas prácticas elaboradas a partir del trabajo de dos grupos de expertos. Pero proponer, no es lo mismo que aceptar. El camino hacia el consenso, en el caso de ser necesario, no es instantáneo, sino que es la suma de un intenso diálogo entre las partes implicadas, y de un ida y vuelta de aciertos y errores que solo pueden ser detectados con un adecuado seguimiento. Tomando como caso de estudio la Salomon Ultra Pirineu, dos fueron los objetivos perseguidos con la realización de este estudio: 1) avanzar en el conocimiento del perfil genérico de los practicantes de esta disciplina deportiva y 2) evaluar el grado de aceptación de las recomendaciones propuestas en ambas guías por parte de los participantes de este evento. Entre los principales resultados obtenidos destacan, por un lado, la presencia de un elevado grado de aceptación de la mayor parte de las recomendaciones propuestas en ambas guías (70%) y por otro, la constatación de la existencia de tres recomendaciones especialmente críticas, si al bajo grado de aceptación por parte de los participantes y alto grado de afectación hacia el medio natural hacemos referencia: desarrollo de las pruebas durante el horario nocturno y meses de primavera.

Trail Runners’ Consumer Profiles: The Landscape Seekers, Sport Devotees, and Eco-Group Travelers

Article

Mar 2025

This study aims to segment trail runners employing psychographic segmentation, specifically sport commitment, as an understudied variable in sport tourism. The purpose is to identify specific trail runner profiles. An online survey was made available via Facebook through sponsored advertisements in South Africa. The final sample consisted of N = 412 trail runners. Three distinct segments were identified using cluster analysis: landscape seekers, sport devotees, and eco-group travelers. These segments differed significantly regarding the factors influencing their sport commitment, with cluster membership influenced by demographic characteristics, behavioral intentions, and sought-after event attributes. To foster the expansion of trail running events in South Africa, it is imperative to concentrate efforts on enhancing accessibility through diverse routes across varied terrains, implementing comprehensive training programs catering to runners of all levels, and deploying strategic marketing initiatives to raise awareness and participation.

Segmenting South Africa’s trail running market through serious leisure characteristics

Article

Dec 2024

Influencia de la regulación del esfuerzo y de las nuevas tecnologías del calzado en el rendimiento de las Carreras por Montaña

Book

Full-text available

Dec 2024

The impact of COVID-19 on tourism expenditures: A Quasi-DiD analysis

Article

May 2024

We investigate the impact of COVID-19 on tourism expenditures by analyzing survey data collected from participants of one of the major amateur cycling races in Italy—the Nove Colli. We gathered information from different types of participants (tourists, residents, day-trippers) about their travel expenses, accommodation, food and beverage, and side goods such as sports equipment. The survey covers three race editions: pre-COVID-19 in 2016, post-lockdown in 2021, and post-COVID-19 in 2022, for a total of 2734 respondents. Using a quasi-difference-in-differences approach, we find a significant increase in total tourism expenditures due to COVID-19, primarily driven by a substantial increase in side goods expenses, which more than doubled the rise in food and beverage expenses. This result can be partly explained through revenge spending as a form of compensatory consumption behavior and inform policy-makers on how individuals’ spending patterns may change in the aftermath of an exogenous shock.

Natural altitude training: what are sportspeople looking for?

Article

Nov 2023

Creating a new event in a time of crisis

Chapter

Apr 2023

A must have collection for all those studying and teaching event management and event tourism.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Sports Tourism Expenditures: A Quasi-DiD Analysis

Article

Jan 2023

Bisiklet Sporcularının Etkinlik Seçimini Etkileyen Faktörlerin İncelenmesi

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Orcun Ocakoglu

In this research, it is aimed to be a guide in determining the planning and marketing strategies of cycling events that have increased in our country in recent years by examining the factors affecting the event selection of cyclists participating in road or mountain bike competitions. The sample of the study consisted of 411 cyclists over the age of 18 who agreed to attend in the study with the non-probabilistic convenience sampling method, participated in a mountain or road bike race at least once in 2022. SPSS 26 and AMOS 23 package programs for validity and reliability tests of the measurement tool and analysis of participant data, (SEM) structural equation modelling was used to test the research hypotheses. As a result, in the event selection of the cyclists; the location of the event, easy access to the event area, the potential of accommodation of the event area, the challenging competition track, the image and reputation of the event, participation to the event in previous years, the popularity of the event sponsors, the opportunity to socialize, the environment of friends and cycling groups have a positive effect, the promotional awards to be distributed are found to have no effect. Bu araştırmada yol veya dağ bisikleti müsabakalarına katılan sporcuların, etkinlik seçimlerine etki eden faktörleri incelemek, ülkemizde son yıllarda artan bisiklet yarışlarının planlama ve pazarlama stratejilerini belirlemede yol gösterici olmak ve benzeri çalışmalara da kaynak teşkil etmek amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmanın örneklemini olasılığa dayalı olmayan kolayda örnekleme yöntemi ile ayrım yapılmaksızın çalışmaya katılmayı kabul eden 18 yaşından büyük, 2022 yılında en az 1 kez dağ veya yol bisikleti yarışına katılmış, 411 bisiklet sporcusu oluşturmuştur. Veri toplama aracı olarak benzer çalışmalarda kullanılan ölçeklerin ifadelerinden yararlanılarak oluşturulan ölçme modelinden faydalanılmıştır. Ölçme modelinin geçerlik, güvenirlik testleri ve katılımcı verilerinin analizi için SPSS 26 ve AMOS 23 paket programları, araştırma hipotezlerinin testi için ise yapısal eşitlik modellemesi kullanılmıştır. Sonuç olarak bisiklet sporcularının etkinlik tercihlerinde; etkinliğin konumu, etkinlik alanına ulaşım kolaylığı, etkinlik bölgesinin konaklama imkânları, yarışma parkurunun zorluk derecesi, etkinliğin imajı ve bilinirliği, etkinliğe önceki yıllarda katılmış olmak, etkinlik sponsorlarının tanınırlığı, sosyalleşme imkânı, arkadaş çevresi ve bisiklet gruplarının pozitif yönlü etkisi olduğu, dağıtılacak promosyonel ödüllerin ise etkisinin bulunmadığı tespit edilmiştir.

The Journal of Convention and Event Tourism: A retrospective analysis using bibliometrics

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

The study provides an in-depth perspective of the Journal of Convention and Event Tourism (JCET). It presents the journal’s evolution and development since 2005 by evaluating the research papers retrieved from the Scopus database. Additionally, it also shows the changing trends in MICE tourism. With the help of the Bibliometrix tool, the study analyzes and visualizes the descriptive, conceptual, social and intellectual structure of JCET. For this purpose, thematic, co-citation, and co-authorship analyses have been conducted. The results revealed that USA and Australia are the leading countries, and Fenich GG is the leading author. The following keywords appear frequently in the journal: convention, meetings, event, meeting planner, satisfaction, and convention centers. The knowledge presented in this analysis provides strategic information on scientific studies that will help researchers develop and plan their future studies in the field of event tourism.

Determinants of Canadian and US mountain bike tourists’ site preferences: examining the push–pull relationship

Article

Apr 2022

The purpose of this research was to examine the travel behaviors, travel motivations, and site preferences of Canadian and US mountain bikers to better understand the determinants of destination attractiveness during mountain bike-specific travel. An online questionnaire was distributed through social media of Canadian and US mountain bike clubs to collect data. A total of 1346 responses were collected, however, responses with missing data or from outside of Canada and US were deleted, resulting in a sample of N = 720. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and multiple regression analysis. EFA analysis of the 41 pull items extracted seven pull factors consisting of climate, trail conditions, natural setting, information sources, trail features, tourism infrastructure, and entertainment options. EFA analysis of the 20 push items extracted five push factors comprised of stimulus-avoidance, adventure experiences, novelty, competency-mastery, and social encounters. Multiple regression analysis revealed that push factors were correlated with pull factors, indicating that travel push motives and destination pull factors interact to form a mountain bike tourists’ perception of destination attractiveness. The findings offer recommendations for developing and marketing a mountain bike-specific travel destination.

The antecedent of event attachment influence on tourism sustainability: the case of Jember Fashion Carnaval, Indonesia

Article

Mar 2022

Purpose This study aims to highlight the influence of community attachment and community involvement on perceived value and social impact with event attachment, emphasizing the mediating effect on tourism sustainability. Design/methodology/approach A quantitative approach is used in this study to explain the causality relationship based on statistical analysis. The total sample collected in distributing questionnaires to the communities involved in the Jember Fashion Carnaval is 221 from various types of communities. Construct this study’s validity, reliability and hypothesis testing using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to produce SEM. Findings The results of this study that show positive and significance are community attachment and community involvement on perceived value, community attachment and community involvement on perceived social impact, perceived social impact on event attachment and event attachment on tourism sustainability. Meanwhile, the effect of the perceived value relationship on event attachment is not significant. This study also presents the mediating role, which has also been described. Research limitations/implications The study was only conducted on the most significant event in Jember City, Indonesia, and therefore, the results cannot be generalized for other cities worldwide. Practical implications The proposed study model suggests the need to review the current condition of event community members, especially regarding the attachment and closeness they feel to maintain the event’s sustainability. Social implications Achieving sustainable tourism in different types of event tourism (cultural, exhibition and culinary) requires specific development models concerning existing community and environmental conditions. Originality/value This study emphasizes the sustainability of tourism, as explained in the event tourism literature that the role and involvement of the community greatly contribute to the success of an event’s sustainability. Therefore, the community must also feel the social impact as an essential aspect of increasing the sustainability of participation aimed at improving quality, image and value.

We are Serious Event Travelers: Event Travel Careers And the Social Worlds of Arts Practitioners to International Arts Festivals and Events

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022

For most arts practitioners, going on tour with their shows or to participate in international arts festivals and events is an essential part of developing their careers. An event travel career (ETC) is formed when people are serious enough about their leisure interests to travel to participate in related events. Existing studies on event travel career, are focused on the serious sport tourists. This study employs an arts-informed life history approach to gain insights into the constraints and facilitators of the ETCs of 19 Singaporean arts practitioners. The theory of serious leisure, social worlds and the event travel career concept provide a framework to qualitatively examine their ETCs. In an integrative framework constructed from their lives lived, the participants’ membership in their social worlds emerged as the key driver throughout the development of their ETCs. The findings also draw attention to the emergence of new social worlds’ leaders and stakeholders in attracting serious event travelers to new social worlds destinations, and recommend that destination marketers and event managers work with them for future planning in event tourism marketing.

Cross-leveraging synergistic benefits from across an event portfolio: Empirical evidence from Madeira

Article

Sep 2021

While most tourism destinations host a range of events, these are often planned and delivered without explicit reference to one another. There may, however, be benefits to recognising the potential inter-relatedness of events in a destination and developing synergies between them. This study analyses a calendar of events based in Madeira, Portugal, to identify areas of relatedness that could be cross-leveraged by managing and marketing the events as a strategic portfolio. Accordingly, a questionnaire was administered among attendees at five major events, yielding 3118 responses. These data were analysed using ANOVA and two types of regression. The results suggest that, firstly, it is prudent to employ a range of analytical techniques to the available data to identify appropriate strategic levers. Secondly, the findings demonstrate the potential for post-hoc analysis not only to identify areas of relatedness between the events but also to discover gaps that can be filled by new events. Thirdly, the findings emphasise the pivotal role that destination marketing organisations can play in facilitating the design and implementation of event portfolio strategies based on the cross-leveraging of areas of relatedness between the events.

Running for Their Lives: A Qualitative Analysis of the Exercise Experience of Female Recreational Runners

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2005

This study explores the relationship between self-cognitions and running behavior in a group of female recreational runners. Consistent with theories of self-esteem and exerciser self-schemata, it aims to identify how running can impact on the self, and how self-cognitions can influence motivation and adherence to running. In-depth interviews were conducted with 16 women of varying age, ability, and running experience who had entered a major women’s 10K race. Inductive data analysis revealed that there was a bi-directional relationship between running involvement and self-cognitions. Running provided experiences which led to enhanced self-esteem, notably through perceived improvements to the physical self, but also through increases in mastery/achievement and physical competence. These changes contributed to the value of running for the women, strengthened their exercise self-schema, and increased the likelihood of adherence to running. However, family responsibilities constrained the women in their ability to run, impacting on the exercise-self relationship outlined.

The Forest or the Trees?: A Gestalt Approach to Symbolic Consumption, in: Marketing and Semiotics

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1987

Mapping product constellations: A social categorization approach to symbolic consumption

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1988

Michael Robert Solomon

Older vs. younger adult male marathon runners: Participative motives and training habits

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2000

A typology of marathon runners based on cluster analysis of motivations

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2003

The Social Nature of Leisure Involvement

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2002

The involvement construct has been used to explain a variety of leisure-related phenomena. While these efforts have made valuable contributions toward furthering the field's understanding of leisure behavior and involvement in particular, many of these investigations have been limited by the measures used to operationalize the construct. Most research that has incorporated the construct in their investigations has been quantitative and has employed one of several standardized scales. Unfortunately, the performance of these scales has been inconsistent and has possibly raised more questions relating to construct validity than they have addressed. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to develop an understanding of leisure involvement from a naturalistic perspective using several ethnographic research methods. Data were collected from campers attending an agricultural fair in central Pennsylvania and was used to address the primary research question, "Why do campers annually return to participate in the Fair?" and two sub-questions, "What is the focus of their involvement?" and "How is their involvement maintained?" Results indicated that the relationships informants shared with significant family and friends was the primary source of personal relevance and was identified as the most important element of their Fair experience. Additionally, the relationships and interactions with members of their immediate social worlds shaped what they perceived to be personally relevant. These results have implications for the way in which the construct is conceptualized and measured. Specifically, greater consideration of the social component of the leisure experience is warranted.

Leisure Involvement Revisited: Drive Properties and Paradoxes

Article

Full-text available

Jun 1999

This paper reviews 52 leisure involvement data sets in the context of 13 propositions developed a decade earlier (Havitz & Dimanche, 1990). The review suggests that five of the propositions have been strongly or moderately supported in subsequent research and eight have received little or no support. Those receiving the most support related to involvement as a mediator of purchases and participation. Most of the remaining eight have been only partially tested. We critique reasons underlying our varying degrees of understanding and identify shortcomings in the existing leisure involvement literature for the purpose of improving future research designs.

An Exploration of the Relationships Among Social Psychological Involvement, Behavioral Involvement, Commitment, and Future Intentions in the Context of Birdwatching

Article

Full-text available

Sep 1997

Using data collected from 517 visitors to a birding festival, interrelationship were investigated among two social-psychological measures of involvement (Laurent and Kapferer's IP and Zaichkowsky's PII scales), five generic behavioral involvement scales, and a commitment scale that measured centrality to lifestyle. Correlation analysis revealed that commitment and social psychological involvement were interrelated, and that commitment and the importance/pleasure dimension of Laurent and Kapferer's IP were closely related to behavioral involvement. The efficacy of different measures of social psychological involvement, commitment, and behavioral involvement in explaining intention to go on birding trips was also measured. Findings revealed that behavioral measures of involvement are likely to be substantially more useful in predicting birders' intentions than measures of social psychological involvement and commitment.

Measuring Consumer Involvement Profiles

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1985

There is more than one kind of consumer involvement. Depending on the ante-cedents of involvement (e.g., the product's pleasure value, the product's sign or symbolic value, risk importance, and probability of purchase error), consequences on consumer behavior differ. The authors therefore recommend measuring an in-volvement profile, rather than a single involvement level. These conclusions are based on an empirical analysis of 14 product categories. The degree of consumer involvement in a product cat-egory is now widely recognized as a major variable rel-evant to advertising strategy (Ray 1982; Rothschild 1979; Vaughn 1980). Depending on their level of involvement, individual consumers differ in the extent of their deci-sion process and their search for information. Depending on their level of involvement, consumers may be passive or active when they receive advertising communication, and limit or extend their processing of this communi-cation. To adapt to these differences, advertisers may consider a number of operational variables such as the type of media, the degree of repetition, the length of the message, the tone of the message, and the quantity of information (Tyebjee 1979). In practice, however, one question arises frequently: how can we know whether a specific group of consumers is indeed highly involved in some product category? Today, this question generally receives qualitative as-sessment from advertising and product managers. When quantitative indicators of involvement are used, the in-straments often boil down to a single scale (Vaughn 1980) or to a single-item measure of perceived importance (Agostini 1978; Hupfer and Gardner 1971; Lastovicka and Bonfield 1982; Traylor 1981). Should involvement be reduced to a single dimension? Does "perceived im-portance" alone captures all the richness of the involve-ment concept? Is it sufficient to classify people in terms of a single involvement indicator or should involvement be analyzed in terms of multiple facets, which need to be measured simultaneously if one wants to provide *Gilles Laurent and Jean-Noel Kapferer are Associate Professors, Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales (H.E.C.) and Institut Sup^rieur des Affaires (I.S.A.), Jouy-en-Josas, France. The order of the au-thors' names results from a random drawing. The authors thank the anonymous JMR reviewers and the Editor for their helpful suggestions. managers with a full picture of the type of involvement of a specific target group? Fifteen years ago, in their extensive review of the in-volvement concept, Kiesler, Collins, and Miller (1969) called it a pot-pourri concept which may encompass sev-eral independent elements. More recently Rothschild (1979) concluded that no single indicator of involvement could satisfactorily describe, explain, or predict involve-ment. In line with these remarks, we suggest that mar-keting researchers stop thinking in terms of single in-dicators of the involvement level and instead use an "involvement profile" to specify more fully the nature of the relationship between a consumer and a product category. Our objective is to provide marketing and advertising managers with a scale specifying the nature and level of consumer involvement that is reliable and valid but also convenient. Satisfying the convenience criterion implies that the items should make sense for any product class— from yogurt to bras, from color TV sets to detergents— and that the total number of items allows the scale to be inserted at little extra cost in a usage and attitude survey. In the next section we review the uses of the involve-ment concept, as revealed by the literattire and man-agers' interviews with the authors. This review suggests that consumers differ not only in level of involvement, but also in type of involvement. Then we describe a method by which indicators can be developed for each type of involvement. Finally, data analysis provides evi-dence about the reliability and validity of the indicators as well as the usefulness of thinking in terms of involve-ment profile to predict selected aspects of consumers' decision processes and receptivity to advertising.

Developing the Travel Career Approach to Tourist Motivation

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2005
J Trav Res

The purpose of this study lies in the conceptual adjustment of the travel career ladder (TCL) approach to travel motivation. In this context, the study examined the relationship between patterns of travel motivation and travel experience. This research was conducted through two studies: an interview phase to guide the further conceptual development of the travel career approach and a major survey phase for further empirical exploration of the ideas. Overall results suggested that host-site-involvement motivation (e.g., experiencing different cultures) and nature-related motivation (e.g., being close to nature) were more important factors to the more experienced travelers, whereas motivations such as stimulation, personal development, relationship (security), self-actualization, nostalgia, romance, and recognition had a higher priority for the less experienced ones. Importantly, a core of travel motivation factors including escape, relaxation, relationship enhancement, and self-development seem to comprise the central backbone of motivation for all travelers.

Competing priorities as constraints in event travel careers

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2012
TOURISM MANAGE

An event travel career is a potentially lifelong pattern of travel to events linked with an individual’s preferred leisure activity. This paper applies the concept of an event travel career to non-elite triathletes. For these active sport tourists, ongoing pursuit of an event travel career is arguably constrained by competing priorities that intervene between everyday life and their pursuit of an event travel career. Indepth interviews were conducted with 21 triathletes identified as pursuing an event travel career. Interpretive analysis revealed seven domains of competing priorities that could work to constrain their event travel career aspirations. These domains included familial relationships, domestic responsibilities, sociability, finances, leisure, wellbeing, and work/education. The seven competing priority domains were interrelated, and cyclical in their constraining effects. Data assisted in clarifying some defining characteristics of the event travel career concept, and challenged notions of leisure participation as entirely positive and fulfilling.

A Qualitative Exploration of Participant Motives Among Committed Amateur Triathletes

Article

Full-text available

May 2012

This study explored motivations of amateur triathletes using an interpretive approach. In-depth interviews were conducted with 21 triathletes in two Australian east coast states. Data were interpreted through the theoretical lenses of self-determination theory and flow. Nine motivation themes emerged. The triathletes were motivated to participate in triathlon partly for intrinsic reasons, though extrinsic motives were also extensively prevalent. Different motivations were found to be cyclical in directing behavior contingent upon individual goals, event schedules, and personal circumstances. There is a need for further inquiry into endurance sport participants’ endorsement of intrinsic versus extrinsic motives.

A Modified Involvement Scale

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2007

This investigation examines the psychometric properties of a modified involvement scale (MIS) using recreationists sampled at a national forest in upstate South Carolina and consumers enquiring about angling opportunities in the Low Country of South Carolina. Following the testing of several model configurations, support for a conceptualization of enduring involvement was observed consisting of five correlated facets: attraction, centrality, social bonding, identity expression and identity affirmation. This conceptualization was an extension of McIntyre’s measure. Notable departures from McIntyre’s conceptualization include the extraction of a social component previously embedded in the centrality facet and greater distinction in the leisure identification processes. This led to the construction of two identification facets. Testing using multiple criteria of validity and reliability illustrated that the MIS was a sound indicator of enduring leisure involvement.

Serious Leisure, Social Identity and Sport Tourism

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2005

‘Serious leisure’ is a concept used to describe leisure activities that are ‘sufficiently substantial and interesting in nature for the participant to find a career there acquiring and expressing a combination of its special skills, knowledge, and experience’ [1]. Serious leisure participants are often highly identified with the subculture of their chosen activity. Consequently, sport tourism can provide serious leisure participants with (1) a way to construct and/or confirm one's leisure identity, (2) a time and place to interact with others sharing the ethos of the activity, (3) a time and place to parade and celebrate a valued social identity, (4) a way to further one's leisure ‘career’, and (5) a way to signal one's career stage. By understanding the nexus of serious leisure, social identity and subculture, we are better able to describe and explain participation in what we term ‘serious sport tourism’.

I Can't do Everything! Competing Priorities as Constraints in Triathlon Event Travel Careers

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2010

The term “event travel career” describes how highly involved and/or committed persons pursue a career of travel to organized events linked to their preferred leisure activity. The introduction of this significant, discretionary social role may lead to individuals experiencing dilemmas in prioritizing between day-to-day needs and desires and those of their event travel career. This article discusses how the concepts of competing priorities and opportunity costs are useful in understanding constraints faced by serious leisurists pursuing an event travel career. The sport of triathlon was chosen as a context in which to examine these concepts. A textual analysis of postings to an Australian online forum for triathletes was undertaken over 4 weeks. The data supported the contention that persons who train for and travel to triathlon events face significant resource-related constraints in the form of competing priorities. Three domains where the triathletes encountered competing priorities in their lives were identified: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural. In terms of negotiating constraints presented by their competing priorities, the triathletes appeared willing to accept a range of opportunity costs in order to maintain momentum in their event travel career. This study contributes to enhancing knowledge regarding constraints faced by serious leisurists in a tourism context, and also in understanding the broader implications of constraints negotiation at the individual level.

Active sport tourism: who participates?

Article

Full-text available

Apr 1998
Leisure Stud

Heather J Gibson

Sport tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors in the tourism industry. This paper reviews the status of active sport tourism in the US. Taking a lead from sport sociologists who have repeatedly shown that sport in the US is still stratified on the basis of gender, class, and race among others, this paper examines the notion that by its evasiveness active sport tourism has gained mass appeal. Who is the active sport tourist? Are men more likely to be active sport tourists than women? Has active sport tourism become democratized? Male, affluent, and college educated are characteristics that describe the typical active sport tourist. A discussion focusing on gender, race, and social class is used to examine the participation patterns in active sport tourism and to suggest future avenues for research.

International Sport Event Participation: Prior Sport Involvement; Destination Image; and Travel Motives

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2007

Yes Yes

Brand Community

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2001

This article introduces the idea of brand community. A brand community is a specialized, non-geographically bound community, based on a structured set of social relations among admirers of a brand. Grounded in both classic and contemporary sociology and consumer behavior, this article uses ethnographic and computer mediated environment data to explore the characteristics, processes, and particularities of three brand communities (those centered on Ford Bronco, Macintosh, and Saab). These brand communities exhibit three traditional markers of community: shared consciousness, rituals and traditions, and a sense of moral responsibility. The commercial and mass-mediated ethos in which these communities are situated affects their character and structure and gives rise to their particularities. Implications for branding, sociological theories of community, and consumer behavior are offered. Copyright 2001 by the University of Chicago.

Situation Variables and Consumer Behavior

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1975

Russell Belk

This paper suggests that explicit recognition of situational variables can substantially enhance the ability to explain and understand consumer behavioral acts. A definition and description of situations is offered, existing research is summarized, and implications for consumer research are considered.

Contextual Influences on the Meanings Ascribed to Ordinary Consumption Objects

Article

Full-text available

Dec 1991

Although the perception of contextualized objects pervades our everyday experiences, the literature provides little insight into how consumers ascribe meaning to contextualized.products, or indeed into what meaning is. The authors address this gap in the literature by providing a conceptualization of consumption-object meaning and an a priori model for measuring it. An experiment tested several hypotheses concerning how the kind and amount of context affects the meanings people ascribe to ordinary consumption objects (and the labels that they use to identify those meanings). Overall, the findings support the proposed conceptualization. Copyright 1991 by the University of Chicago.

Measuring the Involvement Construct

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1985

Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky

A bipolar adjective scale, the Personal Involvement Inventory (PII), was developed to capture the concept of involvement for products. The scale successfully met standards for internal reliability, reliability over time, content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity. Tests of construct validity demonstrated that the scores were positively related to perceived differences among brands, brand preferences, interest in gathering information about the product category, and comparison of product attributes among brands.

The Forest or the Trees?: A Gestalt Approach to Symbolic Consumption

Chapter

Oct 2012

Although it is clear that many products possess symbolic content, research on symbolic consumption tends to focus upon the meanings imparted by individual products in isolation. It is proposed that the meanings of many products are in part derived from their occurrence, or expected occurrence, with other products in the inventories of prototypical social role occupants (e.g., doctors, yuppies, grandmothers, Southerners, etc.). Sets of products, although functionally unrelated, may nonetheless possess symbolic complementarity; they are used to define social roles and/or situations, and consumers' social realities are structured according to the definitions communicated via these product constellations. Consumers use the gestalt imparted by constellations to place themselves and others in cognitive categories, which are processed much like other types of cognitive structures. These knowledge structures are organized according to culturallydefined roles and are composed of product, brand, and activity attributes. Data are presented to illustrate both the contents of some product constellations and the degree of consensus across consumers regarding the gestalts employed to define selected social roles.

The Ulysses Factor

Book

Jan 1988

Philip L. Pearce

Leisure Value Systems and Recreational Specialization: The Case of Trout Fishermen

Article

Jul 1977

Hobson Bryan

A conceptual framework of trout fishermen is developed around the concept “recreational specialization.” This refers to a continuum of behavior from the general to the specialized. It is reflected by equipment, skills used, and preferences for specific recreation setting. Two hundred sixty-three on-site interviews with fishermen in Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, supplemented by participant observation, yielded four types. They range from sportsmen with minimal interest and skill in the sport to those highly committed and, specialized members of a leisure social world. Resulting propositions are: (1) Fishermen tend to become more specialized over time, (2) the most specialized comprise a leisure subculture with unique minority recreationist values, (3) increased specialization implies a shift from fish consumption to preservation and emphasis on the activity's nature and setting, and (4) as specialization increases, dependency on particular resource types increases. Management implications of these propositions are discussed.

Sport tourist behavior: The example of the Masters Games

Article

Jan 2005

Motives of competitive and non-competitive cyclists

Article

Jan 2006

Robert LaChausse

Involvement and Travel for Recreational Runners in North Carolina

Article

Jul 2003

This study utilized an adaptation of the uni-dimensional involvement scale developed by Josiam, Smeaton, and Clements (1999) to test Havitz and Dimanche's Proposition XI, which states that "an individual's involvement profile with a recreational activity, tourist destination, or related equipment is positively related to frequency of participation, travel, or purchase" (1990, p. 189). Relationships between recreational runners' involvement in travel to road races and behavioral characteristics, including preparation for and participation in road races, travel behavior and running-related expenditures were examined. Proposition XI was partially supported. The research found statistically significant differences between the high involvement group and medium involvement group in terms of travel behavior and running-related expenditures. There were no significant differences between involvement groups and preparation for or participation in road races. It was concluded that involvement should be considered by sport and tourism agencies when planning, marketing, and managing events targeted at traveling recreational runners.

Serious Sport Tourism and Event Travel Careers

Article

Jul 2011

This article seeks to advance theory pertaining to serious sport tourism, through the application of serious leisure and ego-involvement theory and the analysis of a survey of participants in the TransRockies Challenge mountain-bike event. Participants were questioned postevent about their motives, involvement in their sport, event-related travel, and destination and event preferences. Analysis revealed that most respondents were highly involved in competitive mountain biking, and were primarily motivated by self development through meeting a challenge. Many respondents also participated in a portfolio of other competitive sport events that provided similar personal rewards. Results suggest that many serious sport tourists develop travel careers centered on competitive events. A hypothetical framework for assessing six dimensions of event travel career trajectories is developed, leading to consideration of practical management implications and research needs.

Sport tourism destinations: Issues, opportunities and analysis

Chapter

Dec 2005

James Higham

Sport tourism destination analysis (Bull) Destination resource analysis Understanding sport tourism markets(Delpy-Neirotti): Understanding sport tourist experiences (Gibson) Players and teams (Francis & Murphy) Destination planning and development (Hall) Sport and tourism management (Stevens) Sport tourism policy (Weed) Sports tourism destinations: Planning and development issues (Hall) Strategies for sport tourism destinations (Webb) Destination marketing and management Marketing, media and place promotion (Chalip) Sport tourist behaviour (Ryan, Trauer) Sport and tourism seasonality (Hudson) Sport and urban destination management Sport tourism impacts and environments The economics of sport tourism at major sports events (Gratton) Sport tourism and resource impacts (Orams) Sport, culture and place (Hinch) Sport and the evolution of destinations (Butler) The future of sport tourism

The Event‐Tourist Career Trajectory: A Study of High‐Involvement Amateur Distance Runners

Article

Dec 2010

Drawing from theory on serious leisure, social worlds, recreation specialization, ego‐involvement, and travel motivation, it is proposed that many people with specific sport or lifestyle interests will develop event‐specific careers. These careers will follow a trajectory that can be measured in terms of six dimensions: motivations (especially the pursuit of higher‐level personal needs); changing travel styles; spatial and temporal patterns, event and destination choices. As a partial test of the event‐tourist career trajectory, a large sample of registrants for a half‐marathon in Sweden was questioned in a pre‐event survey about their motives, involvement in their sport, and event‐related travel. Employing an involvement scale specific to amateur distance runners, analysis revealed that most runners were not highly‐involved in this sport. However, a comparison of the most highly‐involved (constituting the top decile of the sample), and the remainder, revealed many significant differences that do support the hypotheses in all six dimensions. Implications are drawn for theory development and future research, as well as for the design and marketing of sport events aimed at niche market segments.

Getz, D. (2008). Event tourism: Definition, evolution, and research. Tourism Management, 29 (3): 403–428.

Article

Jun 2008
TOURISM MANAGE

Donald Getz

This article reviews ‘event tourism’ as both professional practice and a field of academic study. The origins and evolution of research on event tourism are pinpointed through both chronological and thematic literature reviews. A conceptual model of the core phenomenon and key themes in event tourism studies is provided as a framework for spurring theoretical advancement, identifying research gaps, and assisting professional practice. Conclusions are in two parts: a discussion of implications for the practice of event management and tourism, and implications are drawn for advancing theory in event tourism.

How Brands Become Icons: The Principles Of Cultural Branding

Book

Jan 2004

Douglas B Holt

Travel Patterns of Destination Mountain Bikers

Article

Donna Green

The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure

Book

Jan 1969

Victor Witter Turner

British Nonelite Road Running and Masculinity A Case of “Running Repairs”?

Article

Oct 2000
MEN MASC

STUART L. SMITH

A figurational framework is employed to analyze aspects of the phenomenon of mass nonelite road running in Britain, using data derived primarily from a series of 48 in-depth interviews with a range of participants. More particularly, the article explores the motivations of nonelite runners in the context of social change over their life course. It argues that many changes in Britain since the 1950s have involved shifts in power ratios to the relative disadvantage of the middle-class men in their thirties and forties, who dominate the entry at many events and have undermined traditional bases of masculine identity in work and the home. The data indicate that many nonelite runners, male and female, believe they enjoy the respect and admiration of nonparticipants through a demonstration of physical prowess that running long distances involves, a capacity traditionally more closely associated with the male.

Amateurs, Professionals, and Serious Leisure

Book

Jan 1992

Robert Stebbins

This book explores the relationship between amateurs and professionals within the framework of serious leisure.

Resource Investments and Loyalty to Recreational Sport Tourism Event

Article

Sep 2010
J Trav Tourism Market

Sport tourism events have a marketing possibility in the Japanese tourism industry. The ultramarathon is a very popular recreational sport event in the world. This type of sport tourism event has shared with completive and enjoyment factors in relation to participant's motivation. Loyalty is a very important factor with attendance to recreational sport events. Generally, as many researchers indicated, that participants' loyalty will lead to repeat attendance or purchase. However, there is no consensus as to how loyalty develops. In the files of recreational sport tourism event research, the process leading to participants' loyalty with a specific event is not evident.The purpose of this article is to test a conceptual framework of the development of loyalty (Morais et al., 200453. Morais , D. B. , Dorsch , M. J. and Backman , S. J. 2004. Can tourism providers buy their customers' loyalty? Examining the influence of customer-provider investments on loyalty. Journal of Travel Research, 42(3): 235–243. [CrossRef]View all references) that is grounded in resource theory. According to the proposed model, when participants and organizers invest specific profiles of resources in each other, the participants tend to develop a bond with the customer and become dedicated to maintaining a stable relationship. The model is used to discuss the mixed results of current loyalty from recreational sport event tourists to organizers and to outline future research efforts.

The Great Suburban Everest: An 'Insiders' Perspective on Experiences at the 2007 Flora London Marathon

Article

Feb 2008

Using the concepts of serious leisure and social identification, this paper explores the experiences of ‘serious’ participants travelling to take part in the 2007 Flora London Marathon (FLM). An ethnographic research design was utilised using a combination of interviews, observation and participant observation. Data collection commenced four months prior to the Marathon and involved monitoring the experiences of participants, all of whom viewed their activity as a ‘serious leisure’ pursuit (Stebbins, 199231. Stebbins , R. 1992. Amateurs, Professionals and Serious Leisure, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. View all references). This was followed up with a number of semi-structured interviews with participants in the two-week period after the event. The key finding was the strength of identification that participants had with the activity of running. The salience of this identity was heightened by the act of travel to, and residence in, London both before and after the marathon. A number of themes emerged from the data that were seen as consequences of this sense of identification, these being the unique ethos, language and behaviours of participants, the need for significant personal effort to complete the event, the perseverance of participants in the activity, both in terms of training and competing, the durable benefits obtained by the runners through participation, and the ‘career structure’ associated with distance running. Participants also followed behaviours prescribed by a particular prototype associated with the running subculture, resulting in homogeneity of dress, behaviour and values amongst the group.

Serious Leisure

Article

May 2001
SOCIETY

Robert Stebbins

The Nature of Social Worlds

Article

Jul 1980
Pac Socio Rev

David R. Unruh

The notion of "social worlds" is used here to refer to a form of social organization which cannot be accurately delineated by spatial, territorial, formal, or membership boundaries. Rather, boundaries of social worlds must be determined by interaction and communication which transcend and cross over the more formal and traditional delineators of organization. The term "social world" is used here to develop a common referent for a number of related concepts which refer to similar phenomena. Thus, social world phenomena encompass that which other sociologists have referred to as: occupational contact networks, invisible colleges, behavior systems, activity systems, and subcultures. After tracing some of the sociological history of social world analysis, a series of concepts are developed which bring together and bind all of the previously mentioned concepts into a systematic whole. Major aspects of individual involvement, structural features of social worlds, levels of social world analysis, and some implications of a social world perspective are presented. In this way, a program for study and unification of related concepts is presented in preliminary form.

Bundling sports events with host destinations

Article

Aug 2004

An emerging challenge in sport event tourism is to incorporate events more strategically into the host destination's overall mix of tourism products and services. An effective means is to bundle event elements with the host destination's attractions using a mixed bundling strategy. Appropriate event elements include activities that support the subculture of the sport, as well as complementary cultural events. Appropriate destination attractions include sightseeing, visits to destination‐specific attractions, opportunities to shop, and activities consistent with the values or interests of the sport subculture. The potential for bundling sport event elements with the host destination's attractions is illustrated for eight bundle components and two destination features at the Gold Coast Marathon. Conjoint analysis followed by clustering identified four distinct market segments among a sample of 277 distance runners from two large domestic source markets. On the basis of cluster profiles, the segments were labeled: dedicated runners, running tourists, active runners, and runners who shop. Some host destination attractions were attractive to all but the dedicated runner segment. However, different segments were attracted to different attractions. It is argued that further work is needed to elaborate optimal procedures for bundling sport event elements with activities and attractions at host destinations.

From a Fall in the Mall to a Run in the Sun: One Journey to Ironman Triathlon

Article

May 2007

Ron McCarville

This autoethnographic account describes my personal leisure journey through an Ironman triathlon. The purpose of this paper is to highlight three themes that shed light on events like the Ironman as a leisure experience. The first theme reveals personal predispositions and the roles they play in deciding what constitutes leisure. The second theme discusses social or support networks within and around the Ironman experience. Third, the roles of key encounters are discussed as a way to make sense of what I was doing and how I was feeling. My Ironman experience represents an effort to escape the ordinary within defined, but extreme, limits. It is part of a larger search for complexity and, most of all, balance.

Racing Cyclists as Sports Tourists: The Experiences and Behaviours of a Case Study Group of Cyclists in East Kent, England

Article

Aug 2006

C.J. Bull

What little work exists on cycling tourism tends to be focused entirely on economic impacts with little coverage of the participants themselves and, furthermore, the coverage looks mainly at ‘cycling holidays’ of one sort or another with day visits and cycle racing being largely ignored. This paper offers a modest attempt at redressing this imbalance by examining the travel behaviour of a small group of racing cyclists in East Kent together with their attitudes towards place and environment and their socio-economic and demographic profile. The work is part of a broader study concerned with cycle tourism and, more generally, sports tourist typologies and is also designed to explore various ideas underpinning the ‘sports tourism participation model’ outlined in Weed & Bull (2004)42. Weed , M. E. and Bull , C. J. 2004 . Sports tourism: participants, policy and providers , Oxford : Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann . View all references. The paper shows that the cyclists constitute an important group of sports tourists, in terms of their overall travel patterns and related behaviour and motivations. As sports tourists, both the importance of the activity and the level of participation is high and thus they can be located towards the driven end of the sports tourism participation model.

An Examination of Sporting Event Direct-Spending Patterns at Three Competitive Levels

Article

Apr 2010

The purpose of this study was to examine direct-spending patterns while competing in participant-oriented sporting events at three competitive levels. XTERRA off-road triathlon participants were the subjects of this study. Regional, national, and world championship XTERRA events were studied through the use of an online direct-spending survey. Results revealed that the participants, on average, were in their upper 30s, with the majority of respondents being well-educated Caucasian males with middle to upper-middle income levels. Lodging, food and beverage, and transportation were the direct-spending categories at each competitive level that realized the highest levels of direct spending. Significant differences were found to exist between direct-spending patterns at each of the three competitive levels.

Running away from home: Understanding visitor experiences and behaviour at sport tourism events

Article

Sep 2007
Int J Tourism Res

Existing sport tourism research has been subject to claims of lacking coherence, theoretical underpinning and empirical support. This paper addresses these issues through an examination of a group of distance runners participating in the Cyprus International Four-day Challenge. Using the concepts of ‘serious leisure’ and social identification, the behaviours of this group of sport tourists are described and explained. The key finding was the strength of identification that participants had with the activity, and the nature of the event itself, which made this identity much more salient than other identities during the course of the event. This sense of identification was used to explain the unique ethos of the group, the use of significant personal effort, the perseverance of participants, the durable benefits obtained by the runners and the career structure associated with this social world. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sport tourism as the celebration of subculture

Article

Apr 1998
ANN TOURISM RES

Tournaments designed to attract sport participants to a destination have become significant elements of tourism marketing. This study examines participants' motives for traveling to a women's flag football tournament. In addition to collection of observational data, participants were interviewed, tournament communications analyzed, and tournament records reviewed. It is shown that participants seek opportunities to share and affirm their identities as football players. It is the occasion to celebrate a subculture shared with others from distant places, rather than the site itself, that attracts them. Implications for marketing and for theories of sport tourism are discussed.RésuméLe tourisme sportif comme célébration d'une subculture. Des tournois qui sont conçus pour attirer des participants à une destination sont devenus un élément significatif du marketing du tourisme. Cette étude examine les motivations des participantes pour voyager à un tournoi pour femmes d'une variante du football américain. En plus de rassembler des données d'observation, on a interviewé les participantes, analysé les communications du tournoi et examiné les archives du tournoi. On voit que les participantes cherchent des occasions pour communiquer et affirmer leur identité comme joueuses de football. C'est l'occasion de célébrer une subculture partagée avec d'autres personnes qui habitent loin, plutôt que le site même, qui les attire. On discute les implications pour le marketing et pour les théories du tourisme sportif.

Motivation and Personality

Chapter

Jan 1987

Maslow AH

Understanding the Motivation and Travel Behavior of Cycle Tourists Using Involvement Profiles

Article

May 2010

Bicycle tourism is a growing niche tourism market which has potential economic, social, and environmental outcomes for individual participants and host communities. However, there has been a lack of research into heterogeneity of this market and their respective motivations and behavior. This article applies the concept of enduring involvement, in conjunction with tourist motivational theory, to segment and better understand cycle tourist behavior and intentions. A total of 564 completed questionnaires was collected from an online survey of bicycle club members in Australia. Respondents were segmented into five initial clusters by their level of enduring involvement. A number of significant differences were found on their travel motivations, travel behavior, and behavioral intentions, as well as their sociodemographics and cycling behavior. The results lend support to the application of enduring involvement in a tourism context to better understand the behavior of niche markets which include popular leisure pursuits. Recommendations as a result of the findings are made for product development and marketing communication, while future research opportunities are also outlined. Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.

Race around the world: Identifying a research agenda for the distance runner

Article

Jan 2009

Participation in the sporting activity of distance running has increased considerably over the last two decades. The sport is one that requires a strong dedication from its participants due to its arduous nature. It is this dedication, coupled with the growth in interest in the sporting activity of distance running, that makes the distance runner market potentially lucrative for practitioners in the fields of tourism and leisure. Studies investigating distance runners have to date tended to have been conducted in a random manner, and this may be contributed to by the fact that such research has emanated from several different disciplinary perspectives. The haphazard nature of the research may also have contributed to the limited academic interest in the area. This paper therefore aims to contribute to the understanding of the niche market of the distance runner as a sport tourist by consolidating the research conducted in this area. We conclude by suggesting future research agendas that investigate the distance running phenomenon.

A role-theoretic approach to product symbolism: Mapping a consumption constellation

Article

Feb 1991
J BUS RES

The relationship between sets of products and social roles has long been discussed by researchers. In this paper, a construct termed the consumption constellation is proposed to formalize this discussion. The properties of consumption constellations are mathematically operationalized, and their interrelationships are discussed. These measures are used to explore product/role relationships in a large-scale empirical example, based on the annual survey conducted by the Simmons Market Research Bureau. Using a consumption constellation associated with the stereo- typical “yuppie” role, a total of 1,197 participants in the Simmons data base were selected who fit predetermined demographic criteria. A series of conditional probabilities was calculated to assess the extent of joint consumption of selected products hypothesized to comprise this particular constellation, both within the specified sample and in the population as a whole (i.e., the entire Simmons data base). Results of these analyses provided evidence for the existence of joint consumption patterns of products related symbolically rather than functionally (e.g., gourmet ice cream and foreign cars). Further consumption constellation measurement techniques and conceptual issues also are considered.

Comparing Trail Runners and Mountain Bikers: Motivation, Involvement, Portfolios, and Event-Tourist Careers

Abstract

No full-text available

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