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Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years
Abstract
Over the past 15 years, research on focus of attention has consistently demonstrated that an external focus (i.e., on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus (i.e., on body movements). This article provides a comprehensive review of the extant literature. Findings show that the performance and learning advantages through instructions or feedback inducing an external focus extend across different types of tasks, skill levels, and age groups. Benefits are seen in movement effectiveness (e.g., accuracy, consistency, balance) as well as efficiency (e.g., muscular activity, force production, cardiovascular responses). Methodological issues that have arisen in the literature are discussed. Finally, our current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the attentional focus effect is outlined, and directions for future research are suggested.
... Gray, 2021), but this does not imply that automatization always requires mechanical repetition or that automatized actions necessarily have the detrimental characteristics of a repetitive mechanism . Rote repetition of standardized movements, accompanied by attentive self-monitoring and explicit instructions, may or may not be beneficial during training and pre-performance routines but it is inevitably detrimental and highly disruptive during peak performance, when all the attentional resources must coherently converge toward the action's intended outcomes (Wulf, 2013(Wulf, , 2015. 10 Ultimately, the goal proper of forming well-trained habits is making control more decentralized and thus autonomous, not indefinitely repeatable or inflexible (Dewey 1983;Hutto & Robertson, 2020). ...
... It seems to me that these claims are problematic in at least two ways. Firstly, they are empirically problematic because they are systematically contradicted by evidence: the competition-vs-practice distinction is universally valid across all domains of expertise, including the most intellectual ones, like mathematical problem solving and linguistic expression (Beilock, 2008;Beilock et al., 2002aBeilock et al., , 2002bWulf, 2013Wulf, , 2015 This cannot be accidental. Training practices benefit from attentive self-observation since the trainee needs to deliberately, temporarily, selectively use their focussed reflection to single out and correct this or that element of their execution; peak performance, in turn, demands an entirely different emotional, cognitive, and motivational profile, as the agent must leave in the background all the aspects of the execution that are already automatized in order to maximize their focus on the immediate outcomes of their action. ...
... Advices and instructions given by coaches prevalently promote an internal focus in the practitioner (Porter, Wu & Partridge 2010), soliciting them to voluntarily or involuntarily redirect their attention toward components and processes of their performance that have already been automatized (Baumeister, 1984;Cappuccio et al., 2019aCappuccio et al., , 2019b. This shift from the proximal goals of the performance to the procedural aspects of the execution disrupts the optimal allocation of attentional resources, as demonstrated by several experimental studies on attentional focus Wulf, 2013Wulf, , 2015Wulf et al., 2001). Also, anxiogenic situations tend to trigger a counterproductive tendency to self-representation and introspective thoughts that are prevalently verbal (hence, contentful) in nature (Beilock & Gray, 2012;Castaneda & Gray, 2007): this tendency disrupts performance not only because it overloads the agent's mind with excessive informational content but also and primarily because the analysis of action promoted by reflective thoughts about the agent's own performance hinders the habitual control of the automatised routines that instantiate that very performance, discouraging the agent from confidently relying on habitual dispositions and thus making their action less fluid and adaptive (Beilock & Carr, 2005). ...
Skilful expertise is grounded in practical, performative knowledge-how, not in detached, spectatorial knowledge-that, and knowledge-how is embodied by habitual dispositions, not representation of facts and rules. Consequently, as action control is a key requirement for the intelligent selection, initiation, and regulation of skilful performance, habitual action control, i.e. the kind of action control based on habitual dispositions, is the true hallmark of skill and the only veridical criterion to evaluate expertise. Not only does this imply that knowledge-that does not make your actions more skilful, but it also implies that it makes them less skilful. This thesis, that I call Radical Habitualism, finds a precursor in Hubert Dreyfus. His approach is considered extreme by most philosophers of skill & expertise: an agent –says Dreyfus– does not perform like an expert when they lack the embodied dispositions necessary to control their action habitually or when they stop relying on such dispositions to control their actions. Thus, one cannot perform skilfully if their actions are guided by representations (isomorphic schemas, explicit rules, and contentful instructions), as the know-that that they convey disrupts or diminishes the agent’s habitual engagement with the task at hand. In defence of Radical Habitualism, I will argue that only the contentless know-how embedded in habitual dispositions fulfils (i) the genetic, (ii) the normative, and (iii) the epistemic requirements of skilful performance. I will examine the phenomenological premises supporting Dreyfus’ approach, clarify their significance for a satisfactory normative and explanatory account of skilful expertise, and rebut the most common objections raised by both intellectualists and conciliatory habitualists, concerning hybrid actions guided by a mix of habitual and representational forms of control. In revisiting Dreyfus anti-representationalist approach, I will particularly focus on its epistemological implications, de-emphasizing other considerations related to conscious awareness.
... The first phase is guided training, where feedback is provided in real-time or immediately after task completion. The second phase is retention, where guidance feedback is removed, and participants must perform the task independently and ecologically [34]. High performance during training ensures the participant's capability to do a given motor task well; however, only with high performance during retention is there demonstrable development of intrinsic mechanisms. ...
... High performance during training ensures the participant's capability to do a given motor task well; however, only with high performance during retention is there demonstrable development of intrinsic mechanisms. Transfer tests can further indicate long-term learning whereby a task is presented during a retention test different from training but still leveraging the motor skills practiced during training [34]. Traditional physical therapy approaches aim for the successful transfer of skills through the development of motor skills during training to facilitate improved performance of activities of daily living. ...
... Attention demonstrates the ability to screen out irrelevant stimuli and focus on information directly related to the given task [137]. Attentional focus directly impacts movement performance and efficiency [34]. Rehabilitation methods can be designed to improve attention in persons with neuromuscular pathologies [138]. ...
This paper aims to present previous works in augmented sensory guidance for motor learning and psychophysiological factors and contextualize how these approaches may facilitate greater optimization of motor rehabilitation after neurotraumas with virtual reality. Through library resources at Stevens Institute of Technology, we searched for related works using multiple electronic databases and search engines with a medical focus (detailed in the paper). Searches were for articles published between 1980 and 2023 examining upper extremity rehabilitation, virtual reality, cognition, and modes and features of sensory feedback (specific search terms detailed in the paper). Strategic activation of sensory modalities for augmented guidance using virtual reality may improve motor training to develop further skill retention in persons suffering from impulsive neurological damage. Features with unique motor learning characteristics to consider with augmented feedback signals include representation, timing, complexity, and intermittency . Furthermore, monitoring psychophysiological factors (e.g., sense of agency, cognitive loading, attention ) that represent mental and psychological processes may assist in critically evaluating novel designs in computerized rehabilitation. Virtual reality approaches should better incorporate augmented sensory feedback and leverage psychophysiological factors to advance motor rehabilitation after neurotraumas.
... There is evidence across a range of studies that adopting an external FoA improves both the movement efficiency (e.g., energy used, muscular response) and movement effectiveness (e.g., accuracy) within tasks [11]. Research that has found this FoA effect has been conducted across a plethora of different age groups and domains, including simple physical tasks, form (such as gymnastics), and aiming-based sports, and in non-sports, including patients with motor impairments, such as Parkinson's Disease. ...
... For instance, studies in swimming [12] and darts [13] have failed to find a significant performance difference between either FoAs, whilst a study in gymnastics form found that performance improved when adopting an internal over an external FoA [14]. However, the latter study garnered concerns by Wulf [11] regarding the lack of similarity between FoA task instructions. ...
... Contrary to other findings in FoA research, the study found that while adopting an external FoA was beneficial to experts, the opposite was true for novices, who had improved performance when adopting an internal FoA. Although the study received criticisms from Wulf [11] regarding methodological issues related to confounds within the experimental instructions, the question of whether the impact of FoA is affected by expertise level remains unanswered. ...
Research examining the impact of Focus of Attention (FoA) has consistently demonstrated a benefit of adopting an external FoA over an internal FoA across a variety of sports and other domains. However, FoA research has yet to be applied within the rapidly growing world of competitive gaming. This study investigated whether an external FoA provided benefits over an internal FoA for aiming performance in First-Person Shooter (FPS) videogames, using the aim-training game Aim Lab. The study explored whether the level of participants' previous experience of FPS games impacted any effect, as few studies have investigated this directly. Participants with high (N = 20) and low (N = 17) FPS experience who had a minimum of 200 hours FPS experience were selected for the study. The participants were instructed before each set of ten trials to either attend to their wrist/arm movements (internal FoA) or to the target (external FoA). There was no significant main effect of FoA on performance and no significant interaction between FoA and experience. In contrast to findings in other studies, an external FoA provided no performance benefits over an internal FoA in the FPS game Aim Lab. We discuss methodological issues related to the measures used and suggest avenues for future research with a view to improving understanding of putative underlying mechanisms for FoA effects.
... The acquisition of motor skills is influenced by attentional focus [1]. For example, when throwing a dart, an external focus (EF; e.g., dart trajectory) is more effective in improving skill than an internal focus (IF; e.g., physical motion) [2]. ...
... Studies of FOA have shown that an EF that directs attention toward movements enhances motor performance and learning compared to IF on body movements [1]. EF improves the accuracy of aiming in motor tasks other than throwing darts [2], such as throwing balls [30] and frisbees [31], kicking balls [32], and shotgun shooting [33]. ...
... Previous studies have suggested that the EF plays a crucial role in the training of dart-throwing skills [1]. Furthermore, in line with the motor learning theory in computational neuroscience [3,4], explicit error effectively facilitates the acquisition of motor skills. ...
In this study, augmented reality (AR)-based training did not improve aiming during dart-throwing. Several studies have suggested that motor skill learning is influenced by the learner’s attentional focus. An external focus (EF) of attention (e.g., dart motion) is more important for dart-throwing training than an internal focus (IF) of attention (e.g., physical motion). In computational neuroscience, motor learning theory posits that explicit error feedback is essential for acquiring novel motor skills. Thus, we hypothesized that dart-throwing performance can be improved by feedback based on the dart trajectory in a previous trial using an AR head-mounted display (HMD). To test our hypothesis, we tested an AR training system in 20 participants who threw darts under several conditions, with or without being presented with the trajectory and with or without wearing the AR HMD. However, we did not observe any significant effects of the AR-based trajectory feedback on aiming accuracy during dart throwing. Thus, trajectory feedback does not improve the dart-throwing performance. Our results will provide a basis for further research on AR applications.
... Attention is a cognitive prerequisite that is important in the successful implementation of sports movements and learning motor skills (Wulf, 2013). One way to direct attention during the implementation of the action is the use of instructions. ...
... In the past several years, extensive research has been conducted on the effect of focus of attention on motor learning. Most of the results of this research have shown that an external focus of attention leads to better performance and learning across a variety of populations (Chua et al., 2021;Wulf, 2013). ...
... Second, because we only evaluated female novice players, it's not clear whether the results presented here also apply to male novice players or to players with higher levels of skill. The majority of attentional focus studies have found attentional focus effects to be independent of sex or gender (see Wulf, 2013), but there have been exceptions (Becker & Smith, 2013). Additionally, due to an oversight, this study did not include a manipulation check if participants reported focusing on the instructions. ...
... Attentional focus is one of the primary factors that distinguishes better performances on motor tasks from worse ones (Memmert, 2009;Porter et al., 2010;Abdollahipour et al., 2016;Wulf et al., 2018). Multiple meta-analyses have revealed that an external focus away from one's body is linked to superior motor performance and motor learning (Wulf, 2013;Chua et al., 2021). The locus of attention also affects outcomes, with a focus on more distal loci to the body associated with better performances than focusing upon more proximal loci, as assessed in a variety of sports involving manipulating the body in space (Bell and Hardy, 2009). ...
... When asked to reflect on their self-efficacy, athletes may be prompted to think about their skills and abilities and in turn focus on their body movements while executing the task. Internal attentional focus is linked to poorer performance on motor tasks for both short-term and long-term motor learning (Wulf, 2013;Chua et al., 2021). ...
Introduction
Previous research indicates that external focused attention is linked to superior performance on motor tasks. This study examined how attention directed toward one’s self-efficacy affected performance in a cricket bowling task.
Methods
In the pre-test phase, participants attempted to bowl in a designated “good length” zone across 12 trials. Following this, participants were randomly assigned to either an experimental group, where they rated their own general and task-specific self-efficacy, or a control group, where they rated someone else’s ability. They each then bowled 12 more trials. Their performance was measured based on the number of trials that were bowled within the standard “good length” zone.
Results
Paired t-tests showed that while the performance of the control group improved significantly from pre-test to post-test, t = 2.613, p = 0.008; the experimental group did not show a significant improvement, t = 1.156, p = 0.131.
Discussion
Results indicate that asking people to rate their self-efficacy level may reduce their improvement on a deliberate practice task. Implications for sport performance and researchers are discussed.
... Therefore, the ability to select relevant stimuli is very present in team sports throughout the competition cycle and should therefore be included in the team's work planning in order to achieve a continuous improvement in attentional cognitive processes (Lohse, 2012;Wulf, 2013;Wulf et al., 2007). However, despite the interest and importance of this variable in sport (Memmert, 2009;Moeinirad et al., 2022), there are few studies in football that have investigated the mechanisms that enable the development of attentional focus in real game situations that are related to performance (Wulf, 2013;Wulf et al., 2007). ...
... Therefore, the ability to select relevant stimuli is very present in team sports throughout the competition cycle and should therefore be included in the team's work planning in order to achieve a continuous improvement in attentional cognitive processes (Lohse, 2012;Wulf, 2013;Wulf et al., 2007). However, despite the interest and importance of this variable in sport (Memmert, 2009;Moeinirad et al., 2022), there are few studies in football that have investigated the mechanisms that enable the development of attentional focus in real game situations that are related to performance (Wulf, 2013;Wulf et al., 2007). ...
The cognitive processes that influence athletic performance have been increasingly studied in recent years. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of an intervention programme aimed at improving the attentional focus of football players, using game situations similar to competitive ones. The participants were 46 male football players belonging to the youth academy of a first division Argentine football club, who were divided into an experimental group and a control group. The methodological design was quasi-experimental, with pre-intervention, post-intervention, and follow-up measures. The measures used were the Psychological Inventory of Sport Performance was used. The results showed significant differences in the variable attentional control in favour of the experimental group compared with the control group after the intervention period and during the follow-up period. On the other hand, the other of the variables analysed (negative coping control, visual image control, positive coping control, and attitudinal control) did not show significant differences between the two groups, but there was a positive trend in the experimental group after the intervention. In conclusion, the use of strategies related to attentional focus in habitual tactical and specific football training tasks seems to have a positive effect on attentional control.
... In the experiments, instructing learners to focus on the wheels of a ski simulator (Experiment 1) or the markers on a balance platform (Experiment 2) led to improved motor learning compared to focusing on one's feet. Dozens of studies have since replicated these initial findings (for reviews see Wulf, 2013Wulf, , 2007. ...
... Previous reviews have argued that research shows benefits of an external focus in four main areas: (a) effectiveness at accuracy and balance tasks, (b) efficiency in electromyographic activity, force production, speed, and endurance tasks, (c) promoting automaticity, and (d) enhancing movement form (Chua et al., 2021;Wulf, 2013Wulf, , 2007Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). A leading explanation for the mechanism causing these benefits is goal-action coupling: a process proposed in Wulf and Lewthwaite's (2016) OPTIMAL theory involving a shift at the neural level that simultaneously directs action toward success and stifles deleterious self-focused cognition. ...
... There are several ways attention can be directed, but motor learning literature has typically compared the efficacy of an external focus (EF) and an internal focus (IF). 4 An IF directs attention to the movement of the performer's body (e.g. focus on extending the knees), while an EF directs attention to the effects of the movement on the environment (e.g. ...
... focus on jumping as far from the starting spot as possible). 5 Numerous studies have demonstrated that directing attention externally is more beneficial for motor performance and learning (for reviews see References 4,6 ). For example, an EF has been shown to improve performance over an IF in sport-related tasks, such as the standing long jump, [7][8][9][10][11] single-leg jump, 12 vertical jump, 13 golf chip shot, 14 basketball free throw 15 and dart throw. ...
Research on attentional focus has consistently shown that an external focus (EF) is superior to an internal focus (IF) for performance with novice performers or learners. When examining experienced performers, the findings have been ambiguous with various attentional focus types proving to be beneficial. Recent research suggests that coaches utilize a combination of attentional focus strategies when instructing highly skilled throwers in track and field. In addition to the traditional EF and IF, a holistic focus (HF) has been found to enhance performance similar to that of an EF. The purpose of the current study was to investigate attentional focus manipulations (i.e. IF, EF and HF) among NCAA Division I track and field athletes. Sixteen females performed a standing long jump under three attentional focus conditions in an outdoor long jump sand pit with an orange cone placed 5-m from the starting line. Participants performed three jumps under each focus condition in a counterbalanced order, nine jumps in total. Focus adherence was measured after each condition. Athletes also reported their preferred attentional focus at the conclusion of the study. A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to analyze jump distance and adherence. It was observed that a HF led to significantly longer jump distances than an IF ( p < .01). No other significant differences for condition were observed for distance ( p > .05). These results suggest that a HF enhanced standing long jump performance among highly skilled individuals and can be used to enhance performance.
... Additional support is provided by Wulf's motor learning theory. This theory is grounded in the idea that an external focus facilitates automatic and natural movement execution by allowing the motor system to self-organize, whereas an internal focus can lead to conscious interference and reduced performance quality [56]. According to this theory, visual feedback constitutes an external focus that encourages action, compared to performance without visual feedback that relies only on the internal focus resulting in fewer changes. ...
Recent studies have analyzed the writing metrics of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) using computerized systems. To date, the use of computerized visual feedback to improve handwriting has not been investigated. This study aimed to examine the effects of computerized visual feedback on handwriting performance in time, spatial orientation, and pressure indices for children with DCD. Twenty-seven children aged 7 to 12 years with DCD assessed by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire received one weekly intervention session for 8 weeks, during which they twice copied an excerpt onto a tablet. Once, they received visual feedback where the writing color corresponded to the degree of pressure on the writing surface, and once they received no visual feedback. The two conditions were counterbalanced throughout the sessions. Pre-intervention sessions were compared with post-intervention sessions and with new texts for time, spatial orientation, and pressure measures. The findings revealed significantly decreased total and mean letter writing, in-air, and writing time and increased capacity in the visual feedback condition. In the spatial variables, a significant decrease in letter height variance was found. Pressure increased significantly throughout the intervention with visual feedback, whereas it decreased post-test in the writing task in both conditions and was maintained in the new text. Visual feedback intervention can increase the kinesthetic–haptic feedback required to regulate pressure during writing, promoting more efficient feedforward processes and improving output quality and capacity. The training effectiveness was transferable, and the intervention accessibility could increase student autonomy.
... Traditional pedagogical materials have focused on giving concise, meaningful cues focused on key elements of the task. 1 Over the last two decades, evidence from motor learning literature has suggested practitioners also must consider how cues impact learners' focus of attention. 2 Research in this area has typically compared cues inducing an internal focus of attention (i.e., focus on the movement of the body) to cues inducing an external focus of attention (i.e., focus on the effects of the movement in the environment. 3 Overwhelmingly, an external focus of attention has been reported to improve motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus. ...
The benefits of an external focus in motor learning have been well-established in adults, but findings in studies with children have been far more variable. Recent research also suggests that a holistic focus of attention may also enhance motor learning relative to an internal focus, but few studies have tested this strategy with children. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of an internal (IF), external (EF), holistic focus (HF) and no focus control condition on the learning of a soccer shooting task in male children. Male participants ( N = 60) between the ages of 9 and 11 completed 60 acquisition trials shooting at a low target at a distance of 7 m while focusing on an assigned cue. After 48 h, participants returned for a 10-trial retention test and a 10-trial transfer test shooting from a distance of 8 m. Results showed that the EF group was more accurate than control throughout acquisition ( p = .027). In retention, all focus groups were more accurate than control ( p's < .001), and an EF trended toward being more accurate than in IF ( p = .059). In transfer, all focus groups were more accurate than control ( p's < .001), and EF was more accurate than HF ( p = .009). To our surprise, a clear benefit of an EF and HF relative to an IF was not observed. Future work should consider whether this may be due to the nature of the cues selected, or if there are other constraints that may influence when children do or do not benefit from an EF and HF.
... Internal perspective during imagery practice seems to be relevant for achieving better strength outcomes, which is consistent with our findings. However, motor learning in training has been shown consistently to be more successful with external focus of attention (Wulf, 2013;Milley and Ouellette, 2021). Indeed, Halperin et al. (2016) showed that isometric maxima were higher with external focus rather than internal focus, supporting the view that external focus can lead to more automatic motor response and less disruption of automatic control during performance (Halperin et al., 2016). ...
Motor imagery training could be an important treatment of reduced muscle
function in patients and injured athletes. In this study, we investigated the
efficacy of imagery training on maximal force production in a larger muscle
group (hip abductors) and potential bilateral transfer effects. Healthy
participants (n = 77) took part in two experimental studies using two imagery
protocols (~30 min/day, 5 days/week for 2 weeks) compared either with no
practice (study 1), or with isometric exercise training (study 2). Maximal hip
abduction isometric torque, electromyography amplitudes (trained and
untrained limbs), handgrip strength, right shoulder abduction (strength and
electromyography), and imagery capability were measured before and after the
intervention. Post intervention, motor imagery groups of both studies exhibited
significant increase in hip abductors strength (~8%, trained side) and improved
imagery capability. Further results showed that imagery training induced bilateral
transfer effects on muscle strength and electromyography amplitude of hip
abductors. Motor imagery training was effective in creating functional
improvements in limb muscles of trained and untrained sides
... In addition, even when rate/rhythm control approaches do not include articulatory instruction, they do also improve articulation (Brendel & Ziegler, 2008;Mauszycki & Wambaugh, 2008;Wambaugh et al., 2012;Wambaugh & Martinez, 2000). The specific mechanisms of action are unknown, but various hypotheses have been proposed to explain these benefits: (a) provision of more time for achieving speech targets (Brendel et al., 2000); (b) improvement in potentially impaired central pattern generators through phase-locking or entrainment (Barlow et al., 2004;Dworkin & Abkarian, 1996;Wambaugh & Martinez, 2000); and (c) promotion of an external focus of attention on rhythmic production, with a decreased focus on articulatory production and impairments (Brendel & Ziegler, 2008;Wulf, 2013). Brendel and Ziegler (2008) introduced a rate/rhythm control treatment approach for AOS called Metrical Pacing Therapy (MPT). ...
Purpose:
The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effects of two specific treatment protocols for acquired apraxia of speech (AOS): Sound Production Treatment (SPT) and Metrical Pacing Therapy (MPT), and to examine changes in communicative participation.
Method:
Four speakers with chronic AOS and aphasia were each administered SPT and MPT in a replicated crossover design (ABACA/ACABA) with nonconcurrent multiple baselines across participants and behaviors. Treatment outcomes were compared with respect to whole word correctness (WWC) for treated and untreated multisyllabic word targets. Speech intelligibility was assessed using the Chapel Hill Multilingual Intelligibility Test, and communicative participation was measured using the Communicative Participation Item Bank at baseline, washout, and follow-up phases.
Results:
Three of the four participants experienced statistically significant improvements in WWC with SPT, and three of the four participants with MPT. Based on a priori criteria, three participants demonstrated relatively greater benefit from SPT and one participant demonstrated relatively greater benefit from MPT. There were measurable improvements in intelligibility following SPT for three of the four participants. Only one participant in this investigation reported a significant change in communicative participation, and only following MPT.
Conclusions:
This study demonstrated that individuals in the chronic stages of AOS can benefit from both SPT and MPT, corroborating prior research on articulatory kinematic and rate and/or rhythm control treatment approaches. It contributes a comparison of two protocols for AOS with respect to whole word targets, intelligibility, and individual self-report of communicative participation changes. More participants showed a relative advantage of SPT over MPT. One individual reported communicative participation improvement after MPT.
Supplemental material:
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.23971929.
... Athletes have an increased risk of suffering knee injuries when their attention is diverted to another task or object [25][26][27] . To tackle this problem, researchers and medical experts have examined the physical and cognitive demands of actual sports settings when assessing the biomechanics of lower extremities during sport specific activities like drop jumps and cutting tasks carried out while multitasking 28 . ...
It has been indicated that dual tasks may multiply the possibility of injuries due to divided attention. This study aimed to investigate the effect of dual-task on kinematics and kinetics of jump landing in female athletes with and without dynamic knee valgus. In this study, 32 recreational athletes between 18 and 30 years old were recruited and divided into with (n = 17) and without (n = 15) dynamic knee valgus groups. The 3-D positions of retroreflective markers were recorded at 200 Hz using a 8-camera Kestrel system (Motion Analysis Corporation, Santa Rosa, CA), while ground reaction forces were synchronously recorded at 1000 Hz using 2 adjacent force plates (FP4060-NC; Bertec Corporation, Columbus, OH). Kinematics and kinetics of jump landing were recorded while counting backward digits as a dual task, and also without counting backward digits as a single task. One-way repeated measures of variance were used to analyse data at the significant level of 95% (α < 0.05). The study found that the dual-task affected the angles and moments of hip, knee, and ankle joints (P < 0.05) in both groups. Additionally, the effect of the dual-task differed significantly between the two groups in the angles hip flexion (P < 0.001), knee abduction (P < 0.001), and ankle internal rotation (P = 0.001), as well as the moments hip flexion (P < 0.001), hip abduction (P = 0.011), knee flexion (P = 0.017), knee internal rotation (P < 0.001), ankle dorsiflexion (P = 0.046), ankle eversion (P < 0.001), and ankle internal rotation (P = 0.046). Athletes with dynamic knee valgus may have been less able to protect themselves during the landing and are more prone to lower extremities injuries. As a result, using kinematics and kinetics in athletes with dynamic knee valgus during landing may help identify potential mechanisms associated with risk factors of lower extremity injuries and ACL injuries as well.
... The ultimate goal of this research is to develop effective interventions to prevent choking in athletes. Current interventions, such as mindfulness training, dual-task intervention (Wulf, 2013), and music therapy (Mesagno et al., 2009), have shown some promise in preventing choking by activating different brain areas. Nevertheless, the existing body of research concerning mindfulness interventions specifically targeting athletes facing choking episodes remains somewhat scant, necessitating additional validation of their efficacy. ...
Introduction
It is a well-documented psychological phenomenon for athletes to experience abnormal performance on the field, often called choking. Negative emotions such as perceived stress and state-trait anxiety have been linked to this phenomenon. In an effort to delve into the intricate relationship between mindfulness and state-trait anxiety among athletes susceptible to choking, this study was conducted in Central China during the period from October to November 2022.
Methods
The sample selection process employed a combination of cluster sampling and random sampling, resulting in a total of 377 viable samples encompassing choking-susceptible athletes who frequently grapple with state-trait anxiety and demonstrate performance deviations. The data analysis was executed utilizing AMOS v.26.
Results
The results indicate a negative association between mindfulness and perceived stress (standardized coefficient = −0.224, p < 0.001), resilience and perceived stress (standardized coefficient = −0.237, p < 0.001), as well as perceived stress and state-trait anxiety (standardized coefficient = 0.510, p < 0.001). The positive impact of mindfulness on state-trait anxiety is mediated by resilience and perceived stress (standardized indirect effect = 0.237, p < 0.001). The explanatory power of this study is R ² = 0.35.
Discussion
Drawing from these substantial findings, a key recommendation is to implement mindfulness training programs for athletes prone to choking. This proactive measure, facilitated by sports departments, clubs, and coaches, could potentially alleviate state-trait anxiety, enhancing athletes’ mental well-being and optimizing their performance outcomes during competitions.
... It is well accepted that both young and older adults will direct conscious attention towards monitoring and controlling movement when balance is threatened [11,37,38,[40][41][42][43]. Research has reported that CMP may lead to motor and cognitive inefficiencies during both standing [44][45][46][47] and walking [11,[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57], as it is attentionally demanding and leads to slower movements. Despite this, we argue that when balance is (genuinely) threatened, and fear and anxiety about falling are high, CMP may primarily reflect an adaptive, self-regulatory process [6]. ...
Background:
fear of falling is common in older adults and can have a profound influence on a variety of behaviours that increase fall risk. However, fear of falling can also have potentially positive outcomes for certain individuals. Without progressing our understanding of mechanisms underlying these contrasting outcomes, it is difficult to clinically manage fear of falling.
Methods:
this paper first summarises recent findings on the topic of fear of falling, balance and fall risk-including work highlighting the protective effects of fear. Specific focus is placed on describing how fear of falling influences perceptual, cognitive and motor process in ways that might either increase or reduce fall risk. Finally, it reports the development and validation of a new clinical tool that can be used to assess the maladaptive components of fear of falling.
Results:
we present a new conceptual framework-the Perceived Control Model of Falling-that describes specific mechanisms through which fear of falling can influence fall risk. The key conceptual advance is the identification of perceived control over situations that threaten one's balance as the crucial factor mediating the relationship between fear and increased fall risk. The new 4-item scale that we develop-the Updated Perceived Control over Falling Scale (UP-COF)-is a valid and reliable tool to clinically assess perceived control.
Conclusion:
this new conceptualisation and tool (UP-COF) allows clinicians to identify individuals for whom fear of falling is likely to increase fall risk, and target specific underlying maladaptive processes such as low perceived control.
... Providing them with corrective feedback, on the other hand, may lower their expectations (van de Ridder et al., 2015). Finally, attention is considered to be an important variable in learning skills (Wulf, 2013). Therapists can guide the focus of their participants' attention either internally or externally. ...
Effectiveness of motor interventions depends not only on learning content but also on the used teaching strategies. However, little is known regarding the application of teaching strategies in clinical practice. This study aimed to develop and assess psychometric properties of a new Dutch observational instrument to document teaching strategies: the Optimizing Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning (OPTIMAL) Strategies Observational Tool (OSOT). Based on the OPTIMAL theory for motor learning from Wulf and Lewthwaite, the OSOT includes three variables: (a) expectancies, (b) autonomy, and (c) attention. The OSOT’s content was created by extracting relevant items from literature and existing instruments. To assess its psychometric properties, a convenience sample of 18 physiotherapy sessions for children with developmental coordination disorder was employed. Video recordings of these sessions were analyzed using Noldus The Observer XT. Relative duration (percentage of session time) was calculated for each item. Intraclass correlations were calculated to examine interrater and intrarater reliability. The design process resulted in 43 items in total. Interrater and intrarater intraclass correlations ranged from .48 to .99, with 81% (interrater), respectively, 95% (intrarater) of the items scoring above .75, indicating excellent agreement. The OSOT enables systematic and reliable observation of Optimizing Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning teaching strategies used by therapists in Dutch clinical settings.
... First, feedback can provide benefits simply by reducing monotony or making the learner more aware of their learning progress, which can, in turn, increase motivation (54). Second, feedback can be used to alter the goal-specifications or shift attentional focus (55). For example, adding an accuracy score in a throwing task might shift the learner's goal: Instead of trying to maximize the power output, the desired result might become movement precision or correct form, guiding the learner closer to an optimal solution. ...
Introduction
Recent advances in sensor technology demonstrate the potential to enhance training regimes with sensor-based augmented visual feedback training systems for complex movement tasks in sports. Sensorimotor learning requires feedback that guides the learning process towards an optimal solution for the task to be learned, while considering relevant aspects of the individual control system—a process that can be summarized as learning or improving coordination. Sensorimotor learning can be fostered significantly by coaches or therapists providing additional external feedback, which can be incorporated very effectively into the sensorimotor learning process when chosen carefully and administered well. Sensor technology can complement existing measures and therefore improve the feedback provided by the coach or therapist. Ultimately, this sensor technology constitutes a means for autonomous training by giving augmented feedback based on physiological, kinetic, or kinematic data, both in real-time and after training. This requires that the key aspects of feedback administration that prevent excessive guidance can also be successfully automated and incorporated into such electronic devices.
Methods
After setting the stage from a computational perspective on motor control and learning, we provided a scoping review of the findings on sensor-based augmented visual feedback in complex sensorimotor tasks occurring in sports-related settings. To increase homogeneity and comparability of the results, we excluded studies focusing on modalities other than visual feedback and employed strict inclusion criteria regarding movement task complexity and health status of participants.
Results
We reviewed 26 studies that investigated visual feedback in training regimes involving healthy adults aged 18-65. We extracted relevant data regarding the chosen feedback and intervention designs, measured outcomes, and summarized recommendations from the literature.
Discussion
Based on these findings and the theoretical background on motor learning, we compiled a set of considerations and recommendations for the development and evaluation of future sensor-based augmented feedback systems in the interim. However, high heterogeneity and high risk of bias prevent a meaningful statistical synthesis for an evidence-based feedback design guidance. Stronger study design and reporting guidelines are necessary for future research in the context of complex skill acquisition.
... As opposed to reducing to one solution, the nervous system learns multiple ways to achieve a given motor task. In a training environment, performers' movement effectiveness and efficiency improve to a greater degree when asked to focus on the outcome (called external cues) of a movement rather than on the specific actions of multiple body segments (called internal cues) (11). Consistent practice under a variety of conditions increases the problem-solving repertoire of the motor control system, improving economy of effort, and eventually shifting control to subconscious (reflexive) processes. ...
• Evidence suggests quadrupedal motor control mechanisms aid in balance and coordination during bipedal tasks.
• Quadrupedal movement training provides participants with opportunities to improve total body joint stability patterns by altering the base of support and center of mass through stationary and traveling variations.
• Electromyographic studies on crawling movements in adults have shown substantial muscle activity in the trunk stabilizers and other supporting muscles such as the shoulders, triceps, quadriceps, calves, and hamstrings. The center of mass location changes the pattern of muscle activation in relation to the distribution of the load.
• Promising evidence suggests that quadrupedal movement training may improve joint proprioception and range of motion.
... Sub- 177 group meta-analyses investigated whether the task 178 nature influenced motor memory consolidation. To 179 this end, studies were classified following well- [14,15] was assessed by grouping studies based on 186 whether extrinsic feedback was provided or not, and 187 if so, which type: knowledge of results, performance, 188 or both [14]. Table 1 Task nature classification Sensory Motor Tasks (SMTs) are acquired by learning novel movement kinematics and/or dynamics (e.g., muscle forces and joint coordination). ...
Background:
The ability to encode and consolidate motor memories is essential for persons with Parkinson's disease (PD), who usually experience a progressive loss of motor function. Deficits in memory encoding, usually expressed as poorer rates of skill improvement during motor practice, have been reported in these patients. Whether motor memory consolidation (i.e., motor skills retention) is also impaired is unknown.
Objective:
To determine whether motor memory consolidation is impaired in PD compared to neurologically intact individuals.
Methods:
We conducted a pre-registered systematic review (PROSPERO: CRD42020222433) following PRISMA guidelines that included 46 studies.
Results:
Meta-analyses revealed that persons with PD have deficits in retaining motor skills (SMD = -0.17; 95% CI = -0.32, -0.02; p = 0.0225). However, these deficits are task-specific, affecting sensory motor (SMD = -0.31; 95% CI -0.47, -0.15; p = 0.0002) and visuomotor adaptation (SMD = -1.55; 95% CI = -2.32, -0.79; p = 0.0001) tasks, but not sequential fine motor (SMD = 0.17; 95% CI = -0.05, 0.39; p = 0.1292) and gross motor tasks (SMD = 0.04; 95% CI = -0.25, 0.33; p = 0.7771). Importantly, deficits became non-significant when augmented feedback during practice was provided, and additional motor practice sessions reduced deficits in sensory motor tasks. Meta-regression analyses confirmed that deficits were independent of performance during encoding, as well as disease duration and severity.
Conclusion:
Our results align with the neurodegenerative models of PD progression and motor learning frameworks and emphasize the importance of developing targeted interventions to enhance motor memory consolidation in PD.
... Subsequently, the participant received video feedback on a screen showing their trial belonging to that score, from both a sagittal and posterior plane view in a randomized order. Third, based on their score, the participants received one EF feedback cue about how to improve their movement execution (Appendix A) (Wulf, 2013). During the training blocks, the YK group was not allowed to ask for feedback. ...
Providing choices, i.e., autonomy, to athletes during practice increases intrinsic motivation and positively influences the motor learning process. The effects of autonomy on the timing of feedback (self-controlled timing of feedback) when optimizing the movement execution of sidestep cutting (SSC), a task that is highly related with ACL injury risk, are unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of self-controlled timing of video and EF-feedback on movement execution of SSC in team sport athletes. Thirty healthy ball team sport athletes (22.9 ± 1.7 years, 185.5 ± 7.2 cm, 79.3 ± 9.2 kg) were recruited from local sports clubs. Participants were alternately assigned to the self-control (SC) or the yoked (YK) group based on arrival and performed five anticipated and five unanticipated 45° SSC trials as pre-, immediate-post and one-week retention test. Movement execution was measured with the Cutting Movement Assessment Score (CMAS). Training consisted of three randomized 45° SSC conditions: one anticipated and two unanticipated conditions. All participants received expert video instructions and were instructed to 'try to do your best in copying the movement of the expert'. The SC group was allowed to request feedback whenever they wanted during training. The feedback consisted of 1) CMAS score, 2) posterior and sagittal videos of the last trial and 3) an external focus verbal cue on how to improve their execution. The participants were told to lower their score and they knew the lower the score, the better. The YK group received feedback after the same trial on which their matched participant in the SC group had requested feedback. Data of twenty-two participants (50% in SC group) was analyzed. Pre-test and training CMAS scores between groups were equal (p > 0.05). In the anticipated condition, the SC group (1.7 ± 0.9) had better CMAS scores than the YK group (2.4 ± 1.1) at the retention test (p < 0.001). Additionally, in the anticipated condition, the SC group showed improved movement execution during immediate-post (2.0 ± 1.1) compared to pre-test (3.0 ± 1.0), which was maintained during retention (p < 0.001). The YK group also improved in the anticipated condition during immediate-post (1.8 ± 1.1) compared to pre-test (2.6 ± 1.0) (p < 0.001) but showed decreased movement execution during retention compared to immediate-post test (p = 0.001). In conclusion, self-controlled timing of feedback resulted in better learning and greater improvements in movement execution compared to the control group in the anticipated condition. Self-controlled timing of feedback seems beneficial in optimizing movement execution in SSC and is advised to be implemented in ACL injury prevention programs.
... A shift to lower sample entropy values has been shown when standing compared to sitting (23), when standing with eyes closed compared to eyes open (26), when standing with changes in the visual complexity of the environment (24), and when standing on a compliant compared to normal support surface (24, 27) with the more challenging task conditions thought to require a higher degree of attentional involvement in balance. In contrast, a shift to higher sample entropy values has been reported when standing and using external attention focus instructions (28,29) or performing a concurrent cognitive task (30, 31) with these task constraints acting to direct attention away from standing promoting a more automatic control of balance (32). Research has also shown that individuals who report a greater tendency to consciously control movement have lower sample entropy values during a quiet standing task (33). ...
Introduction: Postural threat elicits modifications to standing balance. However, the underlying neural mechanism(s) responsible remain unclear. Shifts in attention focus including directing more attention to balance when threatened may contribute to the balance changes. Sample entropy, a measure of postural sway regularity with lower values reflecting less automatic and more conscious control of balance, may support attention to balance as a mechanism to explain threat-induced balance changes. The main objectives were to investigate the effects of postural threat on sample entropy, and the relationships between threat-induced changes in physiological arousal, perceived anxiety, attention focus, sample entropy, and traditional balance measures. A secondary objective was to explore if biological sex influenced these relationships.
Methods: Healthy young adults (63 females, 42 males) stood quietly on a force plate without (No Threat) and with (Threat) the expectation of receiving a postural perturbation (i.e., forward/backward support surface translation). Mean electrodermal activity and anterior–posterior centre of pressure (COP) sample entropy, mean position, root mean square, mean power frequency, and power within low (0–0.05 Hz), medium (0.5–1.8 Hz), and high-frequency (1.8–5 Hz) components were calculated for each trial. Perceived anxiety and attention focus to balance, task objectives, threat-related stimuli, self-regulatory strategies, and task-irrelevant information were rated after each trial.
Results and Discussion: Significant threat effects were observed for all measures, except low-frequency sway. Participants were more physiologically aroused, more anxious, and directed more attention to balance, task objectives, threat-related stimuli, and self-regulatory strategies, and less to task-irrelevant information in the Threat compared to No Threat condition. Participants also increased sample entropy, leaned further forward, and increased the amplitude and frequency of COP displacements, including medium and high-frequency sway, when threatened. Males and females responded in the same way when threatened, except males had significantly larger threat-induced increases in attention to balance and high-frequency sway. A combination of sex and threat-induced changes in physiological arousal, perceived anxiety, and attention focus accounted for threat-induced changes in specific traditional balance measures, but not sample entropy. Increased sample entropy when threatened may reflect a shift to more automatic control. Directing more conscious control to balance when threatened may act to constrain these threat-induced automatic changes to balance.
... While this study, as well as others (Kim et al., 2017;Lee et al., 2022;Uzlaşır et al., 2021), suggests that stroboscopic glasses can be used to improve somatosensory perception, Wohl et al. (2021) suggest the ideal approach to implementing the glasses is when combined with key motor learning principles such as an external focus and implicit learning. Limiting vision and emphasizing a focus outside of the body enables key subcortical areas to make important constructive adaptations that will promote learning and sustained performance outside the training environment (Gokeler et al., 2013;Seidler & Noll, 2008;Wulf, 2013). Future research in this area will identify the ideal parameters of how to implement this emerging technology, the underlying neural mechanisms that are recruited, and establish the limits for what areas of sensorimotor control can most benefit. ...
Historically, research aimed at improving motor performance has largely focused on the neural processes involved in motor execution due to their role in muscle activation. However, accompanying somatosensory and proprioceptive sensory information is also vitally involved in performing motor skills. Here we review research from interdisciplinary fields to provide a description for how somatosensation informs the successful performance of motor skills as well as emphasize the need for careful selection of study methods to isolate the neural processes involved in somatosensory perception. We also discuss upcoming strategies of intervention that have been used to improve performance via somatosensory targets. We believe that a greater appreciation for somatosensation's role in motor learning and control will enable researchers and practitioners to develop and apply methods for the enhancement of human performance that will benefit clinical, healthy, and elite populations alike.
... A study by Durham et al. has shown that instructions with IF were given in 96% of the time in paraplegic patients [19]. During the past 15 years, more studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of EF compared with IF as it accelerates learning and enhances the production of efficient movement patterns [14,20,21]. Additionally, providing instructions with EF might allow a patient to pay more attention to other sportspecific game factors (e.g., position of the ball, field conditions, and other extrinsic factors) and as a result, improve the movement quality of the injured leg and reduce the risk of a second ACL injury [14,22]. ...
Background:
Improving jump-landing technique during rehabilitation is important and may be achieved through different feedback techniques, i.e., internal focus of attention (IF) or external focus of attention using a target (EF). However, there is a lack of evidence on the most effective feedback technique after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential difference in jump-landing techniques between IF and EF instructions in patients after ACLR.
Methods:
Thirty patients (12 females, mean age 23.26 ± 4.91 years) participated after ACLR. Patients were randomly assigned into two groups that each followed a different testing sequence. Patients performed a drop vertical jump-landing test after receiving instructions with varying types of focus of attention. The Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) assessed the jump-landing technique.
Results:
EF was associated with a significantly better LESS score (P < 0.001) compared with IF. Only EF instructions led to improvements in jump-landing technique.
Conclusion:
Using a target as EF resulted in a significantly better jump-landing technique than IF in patients after ACLR. This indicates that increased use of EF could or might result in a better treatment outcome during ACLR rehabilitation.
... When participants were instructed to increase their walking speed, they may have shifted focus to the external goal of walking faster, eliminating the effects of age on step length. Young healthy participants who shift their focus of attention from internal to external factors typically improve motor performance (Wulf 2007), attributed to added reliance on 'automatic control' processes. In contrast, instructions with internal focus degrades older adult gait targeting performance in anxiety-inducing (high elevation) settings . ...
Older adults who report a fear of falling are more likely to subsequently fall, yet, some gait anxiety-related alterations may protect balance. We examined the effect of age on walking in anxiety-inducing virtual reality (VR) settings. We predicted a high elevation-related postural threat would impair gait in older age, and differences in cognitive and physical function would relate to the observed effects. Altogether, 24 adults (age (y) = 49.2 (18.7), 13 women) walked on a 2.2-m walkway at self-selected and fast speeds at low (ground) and high (15 m) VR elevation. Self-reported cognitive and somatic anxiety and mental effort were greater at high elevations (all p < 0.001), but age- and speed-related effects were not observed. At high VR elevations, participants walked slower, took shorter steps, and reduced turning speed (all p < 0.001). Significant interactions with age in gait speed and step length showed that relatively older adults walked slower (β = − 0.05, p = 0.024) and took shorter steps (β = − 0.05, p = 0.001) at self-selected speeds at high compared to low elevation settings. The effect of Age on gait speed and step length disappeared between self-selected and fast speeds and at high elevation. At self-selected speeds, older adults took shorter and slower steps at high elevation without changing step width, suggesting that in threatening settings relatively older people change gait parameters to promote stability. At fast speeds, older adults walked like relatively younger adults (or young adults walked like older adults) supporting the notion that people opt to walk faster in a way that still protects balance and stability in threatening settings.
... These schemas then operate until their task is achieved or a much higher priority schema is triggered. The automaticity of action selection, the firing of overlearned schemata, is a feature of many theories of everyday action (Bicchieri & McNally, 2018;Charlton & Starkey, 2013;Wulf, 2013). This level of task automaticity makes it quite different than many laboratory tasks, and as such gives us an insight into how we record things into memory, or do not. ...
... Additionally, this difference between the groups may be due to the use of different attentional focus during the exercises [78]. It suggests that the PTE+DMT group used an integration of three attentional focus types: (1) external focus (focusing on the effects of movement in the environment) [79], (2) internal focus (focusing on body movements), and (3) holistic focus (focusing on the general feelings or sensations associated with completing a movement) [80]. ...
This pilot study presents a novel fall prevention intervention that integrates physical therapy exercise (PTE) and dance movement therapy (DMT) to address both physical and emotional fall risk factors, as well as factors influencing adherence to treatment. The aim of this study was to examine the feasibility and effectiveness of the intervention in a sample of eight older women (median = 86 [81.25–90.75] years) from a day center for senior citizens. The intervention, based on the Otago Exercise Program and DMT techniques, aimed to address the emotional experience during physical exercise. Participants were randomly assigned to either a PTE+DMT intervention group (n = 5) or a PTE control group (n = 3). A pre–post intervention battery of physical and emotional fall risk assessments, therapist–patient bond, and home exercise adherence was conducted. Non-parametric tests results showed significant improvement in the PTE+DMT group in measures of balance and fear of falling compared to the PTE group. However, no other significant differences were found between the groups in terms of falls-related psychological concerns, self-perceived health status, therapist–patient bond, and home exercise adherence. These findings demonstrate the feasibility and potential benefits of an intervention that integrates both physical and emotional aspects to reduce fall risk in older adults, and provide a basis for further studies and modifications in the research protocol.
... The interest in using stroboscopic glasses in the field of sport has arisen due to the fact that, at a high-performance level, external focus is superior to internal focus (Wulf, 2013), and shifting attention to the internal, proprioceptive sense contributes to an increase in performance. On the other hand, performing an exercise of increased difficulty during stroboscopic training changes an individual's subjective perception of physical exertion. ...
Stroboscopic training is a form of athletic training during which the individual performs a motor task under intermittently opaque visual conditions. The purpose of this training is to enhance subsequent performance under normal visual conditions as a result of shifting attentional focus within the multisensory integration process. The training performed with the help of this technology that uses specially designed glasses increases the contribution of other somatosensory afferents to motor control by refocusing the individual’s attention on proprioceptive feedback. Other benefits of stroboscopic training include improved short-term visual memory, improved capacity for anticipation as well as increased ability to focus in general but particularly on the central visual field and thus produce coherent movements. The current paper is a meta-analysis of the literature on stroboscopic training and its benefits for professional sport. In sports using stroboscopic (strobe) glasses, for example in hockey, basketball, football, volleyball, baseball or tennis, positive effects on some skills have been identified and training and testing protocols have been described. The aim of this paper is to highlight some practical and methodological benchmarks resulting from the use of stroboscopic training in various sports, and then transfer them to climbing training in order to enhance performance in this sport.
Öz: Genç futbolcuların potansiyellerine ulaşmalarını sağlayabilmek adına mevkilerinin gerektirdiği fiziksel-fizyolojik özellikler ile birlikte bilişsel ve duyuşsal özelliklerinin de incelenmesi önemlidir. Bu araştırmanın amacı, futbol altyapı oyuncularının problem çözme, dikkat ve motivasyon düzeylerinin oynadıkları mevkilere göre karşılaştırılmasıdır. Araştırma, Ege Bölgesinde profesyonel futbol takımlarının altyapılarında oynayan, 14-19 yaşları arasındaki 217 erkek (XYaş=16.01) futbolcu ile yapılmıştır. Futbolculara, Problem Çözme Envanteri, d2 Dikkat Testi ve Sporda Güdülenme Ölçeği, antrenmandan önce antrenörün olmadığı bir ortamda uygulanmıştır. Kruskal Wallis Varyans Analizi ile her bir değişkenin, oyuncuların mevkilerine göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığı incelenmiş, Tamhane Testi ile çoklu karşılaştırmalar yapılmıştır. Farklı mevkilerde oynayan altyapı oyuncularının problem çözme ve motivasyon düzeyleri arasında mevkilerine göre anlamlı fark bulunmamıştır. Stoperlerin konsantrasyon performansları sağ/sol forvet oyuncularınınkinden anlamlı düzeyde yüksek bulunmuştur. Antrenörlere altyapı oyuncularının problem çözme becerilerini geliştirecek ve içsel motivasyonlarını artıracak antrenman programları tasarlamaları önerilmektedir.
An internal focus on movement interferes with automated movement execution, but physical sensations may not diminish performance. We hypothesized that interoception—a perception of the inner workings of the body—is associated with maintaining performance under internal focus. Eighteen competitive swimmers with high interoceptive ability and nine controls with no sports experience executed a golf putting task under pressure and no‐pressure tests, while the direction of attentional focus was manipulated. We recorded electroencephalograms and electrocardiograms during the task in three attentional conditions (i.e., sensation‐focus, movement‐focus, and no‐focus instruction). Interoceptive accuracy was evaluated by a heartbeat counting task and interoceptive sensibility was obtained using the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness questionnaire. Results showed that internal focus on movement led to lower performance compared to the no‐focus instruction in both groups, whereas focusing on physical sensations did not change performance. Higher interoceptive sensibility predicted better performance when focusing on movement. These results suggest that higher interoceptive ability may prevent performance deterioration due to an internal focus toward movement.
We revisit an agenda that was outlined in a previous paper in this journal focusing on the importance of skill acquisition research in enhancing practice and instruction in sport. In this current narrative review, we reflect on progress made since our original attempt to highlight several potential myths that appeared to exist in coaching, implying the existence of a theory-practice divide. Most notably, we present five action points that would impact positively on coaches and practitioners working to improve skill learning across sports, as well as suggesting directions for research. We discuss the importance of practice quality in enhancing learning and relate this concept to notions of optimising challenge. We discuss how best to assess learning, the right balance between repetition and practice that is specific to competition, the relationship between practice conditions, instructions, and individual differences, and why a more "hands-off" approach to instruction may have advantages over more "hands-on" methods. These action points are considered as a broad framework for advancing skill acquisition for excellence (SAFE) in applied practice. We conclude by arguing the need for increased collaboration between researchers, coaches, and other sport practitioners.
Objectives:
According to the OPTIMAL theory (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016), enhanced expectancies (EE), autonomy support (AS), and an external focus (EF) of attention facilitate motor performance and learning. The present study examined whether consecutive implementation of EE, AS and EF during practice would enhance the learning of a square-stepping task in older adults.
Methods:
Participants were randomly assigned to optimized and control groups. After the pretest, one of the three factors was implemented during each of three 12-trial practice blocks, in a counterbalanced order, in the optimized group: positive feedback (EE), choice of mat color (AS), and instructions to focus on the squares (EF). Control group participants practiced without any of these factors.
Results:
Results indicated that the optimized group had faster movement times than the control group during the practice phase and on 24-h retention and transfer tests.
Discussion:
The key variables in the OPTIMAL theory can individually be applied sequentially in any order to facilitate motor performance and learning in older adults.
Prevalence of mental health (MH) concerns among young adults is high and continues to increase. As a specific subset of young adults, National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletes seem to experience these concerns at a similar or greater prevalence rate than their nonathlete, age-matched peers. Yet, how MH affects sport performance has not been robustly studied, and existing studies have not included the diversity of identities present in the collegiate athlete population. Thus, via online survey, this study explored the beliefs of 249 collegiate athletes representing diverse identities and sports regarding how MH affects sport performance. Regardless of demographic variable, 96.4%–100.0% of participants believed that MH affects sport performance. Three themes were identified: (a) collegiate athletes affirm that MH affects sport performance, (b) collegiate athletes’ perceptions of how MH affects sport performance, and (c) collegiate athletes believe that being a collegiate athlete exacerbates their MH concerns. The universality of endorsement and the themes represent novel findings that warrant further exploration of the MH–sport performance connection.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of analogy and explicit learning on dynamic balance performance in individuals with a history of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury. Overall, 42 athletes (all male, mean age = 23.59 ± 2.87 years) with a history of ACL injury were selected as convenience and randomly divided into two groups: analogy and explicit learning. The participants took part in the pre-test (three trials), practice (five sessions of 24 trials), retention (three trials), and transfer under dual-task conditions (three trials) and performed the Y balance task and their maximum reach distance was recorded. Declarative knowledge of the participants was also recorded in the last intervention session. The results showed that in all phases of practice, retention, and transfer conditions, the analogy learning group was superior to the explicit learning group. The results also showed that the accumulation of declarative knowledge in the analogy learning group was less than in the explicit learning group. Therefore, it seems that analogy learning can be suitable for improving the dynamic balance performance in people with a history of ACL injury.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Funktionelle neurologische Bewegungsstörungen gehören zu den häufigsten neurologischen Erkrankungen, führen oft zu einer erheblichen Einschränkung der Lebensqualität der Betroffenen und zu einer massiven finanziellen Belastung des Gesundheitssystems. Die Diagnose wird klinisch anhand positiver Diagnosekriterien gestellt, was apparative, kostenintensive Zusatzdiagnostik meist unnötig macht. Gehäuft kommt es allerdings zu einer erheblichen Verzögerung der Diagnose und damit verbunden, der Einleitung einer krankheitsspezifischen Therapie. In unserem Artikel möchten wir die Hauptpfeiler der klinischen Diagnose – die Inkongruenz und Inkonsistenz – die allen funktionellen Bewegungsstörungen gemeinsam ist, erläutern und darauf aufbauend die unterschiedlichen Subgruppen mit ihren individuellen klinischen Charakteristika und den dazugehörigen Untersuchungstechniken praxisnah erklären. Dies soll dazu beitragen, dass die Diagnose schnell und sicher gestellt werden kann. Außerdem ergeben sich aus den aufgeführten klinischen Charakteristika für die Therapie bedeutsame Strategien, z. B. die Modulation von Aufmerksamkeit, die in der Physio- und Psychotherapie zur Anwendung gebracht, aber vor allem durch die Patienten selbst genutzt werden können.
Attentional focus strategies eliciting an external focus of attention effectively enhance drop jump (DJ) performance, however, their effects vary depending on the words used for the instructions. We aimed to examine the effects of different words on DJ performance using instructions eliciting external focus to minimize contact time (CT) or maximize jump height (JH). Twenty collegiate athletes performed DJs from a 30 cm platform after receiving one of four instructions: two instructions (COND 1 and 2) about minimizing CT and two instructions (COND 3 and 4) about maximizing JH. Reactive strength index (RSI), CT, JH, relative peak vertical ground reaction force (vGRF), and leg stiffness (kvert) were compared between conditions using repeated-measures analysis of variance. There was no significant main effect of conditions on RSI, relative peak vGRF, and kvert (p > 0.05). CT was significantly shorter in COND 1 and 2 than in COND 3 (p < 0.05); JH was significantly higher in COND 3 than in COND 1 and 2 (p < 0.05), and in COND 4 than in COND 1 (p < 0.05). When using attentional focus strategies in DJ, it is necessary to use different words and purposes according to the players' tasks.
Basketball shooting is a complex skill that requires visual routines and trained players typically evidence a specific oculomotor pattern. This study aimed to examine visual patterns in male novice youth and professional adult players while performing a jump shot. The sample included 20 basketball players grouped as under-16 youth (n = 10) and professional adult (n = 10) players. Each participant completed 50 shots at two distances (long range: 6.80 m; middle range: 4.23 m). Eye tracking glasses were used to obtain quiet eye (QE), the number of fixations, total fixation duration, duration of first and last fixation. An independent t-test was used to assess differences between groups. Shooting accuracy given by % of efficacy indicated that under-16 players attained poorer scores at both distances: long (t = −4.75, p < 0.01) and middle (t = −2.80, p < 0.012) distance. The groups also differed in QE time (long: 600 ms vs. 551 ms; middle: 572 ms vs. 504 ms) and total duration of the fixations (long: 663 ms vs. 606 ms; middle: 663 ms vs. 564 ms) in both long and middle distance shots. Significant differences also occurred in the last fixation (long distance: t = −4.301, p < 0.01; middle distance: t = −3.656, p < 0.01) with professional adult players presenting the value of, on average, 454-458 ms, while youth shooters 363-372 ms. In summary, visual strategy differed between under-16 youth and professional adult basketball players. To support their long-term sport development, it is recommended that youth basketball players focus their attention with longer final fixation before releasing the ball to improve their shot.
Interpretation and presentation of the variety of methods employed by coaches to develop their craft and the experiences that informed them along the way.
Objective:
Aim of this systematic review was to summarise training interventions designed to reduce biomechanical risk factors associated with increased risk of lower extremity landing injuries and to evaluate their practical implications in amateur sports.
Design:
Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Data sources:
MEDLINE, Scopus and SPORTDiscus.
Eligibility criteria:
Training intervention(s) aimed at reducing biomechanical risk factors and/or injury rates included the following: (1) prospective or (non-)randomised controlled study design; (2) risk factors that were measured with valid two-dimensional or three-dimensional motion analysis systems or Landing Error Scoring System during jump landings. In addition, meta-analyses were performed, and the risk of bias was assessed.
Results:
Thirty-one studies met all inclusion criteria, capturing 11 different training interventions (eg, feedback and plyometrics) and 974 participants. A significantly medium effect of technique training (both instruction and feedback) and dynamic strengthening (ie, plyometrics with/without strengthening) on knee flexion angle (g=0.77; 95% CI 0.33 to 1.21) was shown. Only one-third of the studies had training interventions that required minimal training setup and additional coaching educations.
Conclusion:
This systematic review highlights that amateur coaches can decrease relevant biomechanical risk factors by means of minimal training setup, for example, instructing to focus on a soft landing, even within only one training session of simple technique training. The meta-analysis emphasises implementing technique training as stand-alone or combined with dynamic strengthening into amateur sport training routine.
An explicit attentional focus is needed in performing a task. The focus of attentional cues during skill execution has received much attention in delivering the correct technique in action. However, internal attention focus that focuses on body’s coordination is more complex to be followed compare to external attention focus which focusing on environmental effects. This study investigates the impact of specific attentional focus on novices in overhand volleyball serve. The participants (N = 132) were assigned into three groups that received different attentional focus: IF group (n = 44) internal focus attention, EF (n = 44) external focus attention, and CONF group (n = 44) no attentional focus attention. The measurements transpired (acquisition test and retention test). The participants performed 30 trials divided into seven blocks of five trials of overhand serve in volleyball skill using their dominant hand. North Carolina State University Volleyball Skills Test Battery and instruction scoring were used to evaluate the overhand serve performance of 7 blocks of 5 trials. ANOVA-repeated measures revealed a significant interaction between groups and measurements in a 3(groups: IF, EF, and CONF) × 2(measurements: acquisition test and retention test) design and post-hoc Bonferroni adjustment analysis revealed that the EF group demonstrated the most significant improvement in instruction scoring and serving to score. Furthermore, participants from EF understand better in executing the action compared to other groups. Conclusion: Individuals’ skill-based performance can be impacted by directing their attention to internal or external stimuli. By focusing their attention externally while doing a motor task, novices can improve their serve technique. Recommendations are made to explore several criteria that may affect the participant’s learning process in greater detail.KeywordsInternal focus attentionExternal focus attentionMotor skill performanceOverhand serveNovice
Directing our focus of attention appropriately during task execution can benefit outcome performance, cognitive efficiency, and physiological efficiency. For instance, individuals may benefit from adopting an external focus of attention (i.e., by focusing attention on the effects of one's movements on the environment) over an internal focus of attention (e.g., focusing on one's body movements). However, accounts concerning the theoretical functioning of such effects have primarily relied on hierarchical information processing perspectives; far less consideration has been given to potentially alternative explanations based on ecological dynamics, instances where an internal focus may be desirable over an external focus, and the associated applied implications. Within the present review, we: (a) outline the most recent developments in attentional focus research; (b) evaluate similarities and differences between information processing and ecological dynamics explanations of the focus of attention effect; (c) provide practical recommendations; and (d) discuss future research avenues. In doing so, a case is made for an "Ecological Dynamics Account of Attentional Focus" to act as an alternative to information processing-based hypotheses.
The Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale (MSRS) is used to quantify differences in the propensity that individuals have to consciously engage in movement. Although the MSRS is widely used in movement science, evidence for its theoretically negative association with motor performance remains inconsistent. The aim of this meta-analysis was to summarize research findings between scores on the MSRS and motor performance, and to disentangle theoretical and sampling factors that may moderate the relationship. Following PRISMA guidelines, Web of Science, ProQuest, Google Scholar, PsychInfo and PubMed were searched. Out of the eligible texts, 410 effect sizes from 29 studies were extracted. Multi-level meta-analysis indicated that neither the MSRS total score, nor the MSRS subscales score (movement self-consciousness and conscious motor processing), were significantly associated with motor performance. However, the MSRS total score was significantly and negatively associated with motor performance when either (1) psychological pressure was present, (2) motor performance involved object manipulation, or (3) speed was the outcome unit of motor performance. In conclusion, the MSRS total score was linked to movement failure in certain motor conditions, providing partial support for the central tenet of the theory of reinvestment that a propensity for conscious engagement in movement can impair motor performance.
Superimposing neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on voluntary muscle contractions has shown the potential to improve motor performance even more than voluntary exercise alone. Nevertheless, the neurophysiological and neurocognitive mechanisms underlying this technique are still unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the acute responses in spinal excitability, and brain activity following three conditions: NMES superimposed on isometric contractions (NMES+ISO), passive NMES, and voluntary isometric contractions (ISO). Each condition involved fifteen intermittent ankle plantar-flexions at submaximal level. Before and after each condition, tibial nerve stimulation was used to elicit H-reflexes, which represent a measure of spinal excitability, and somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs), which index the activity of subcortical and cortical somatosensory areas. H-reflex amplitudes increased following NMES+ISO and decreased following passive NMES compared to baseline values. Subcortical lemniscal activity remained unaltered after the conditions. Activity in both primary and secondary somatosensory cortices (S1 and S2) increased after the NMES+ISO and decreased after the ISO condition. At later stages of S2 processing, cortical activity increased also after NMES, however the NMES+ISO effect was greater than that produced by NMES alone. These findings indicate that the beneficial effects of the NMES may be mediated by potentiation of the reflex pathways at the spinal level. At the brain level, peripheral input representation in the brainstem was not influenced by the experimental conditions which, conversely, altered cortical activity by affecting the synaptic efficiency through the somatosensory pathway. While the ISO effect was suppressive, the NMES was excitatory, especially if combined with voluntary contractions.
Adopting an external focus of attention (EF) has been found beneficial over internal focus (IF) for performing motor skills. Previous studies primarily examined focus of attention (FOA) effects on performance outcomes (such as error and accuracy), with relatively less emphasis on movement coordination. Given that human movements are kinematically and kinetically abundant (Gefland & Latash, 1998), FOA instructions may change how motor abundance is utilized by the CNS. This study applied the uncontrolled manifold analysis (UCM) to address this question in a reaching task. Healthy young adults (N = 38; 22 ± 1 yr; 7 men, 31 women) performed planar reaching movements to a target using either the dominant or nondominant arm under two different FOA instructions: EF and IF. Reaching was performed without online visual feedback and at a preferred pace. Joint angles of the clavicle-scapula, shoulder, elbow, and wrist were recorded, and their covariation for controlling dowel endpoint position was analyzed via UCM. As expected, IF led to a higher mean radial error than EF, driven by increases in aiming bias and variability. Consistent with this result, the UCM analysis showed that IF led to higher goal-relevant variance among the joints (VORT) compared to EF starting from the first 20% of the reach to the end. However, the goal-irrelevant variance (VUCM)-index of joint variance that does not affect the end-effector position-did not show FOA effects. The index of stability of joint coordination with respect to endpoint position (ΔV) was also not different between the EF and IF. Consistent with the constrained action hypothesis, these results provide evidence that IF disrupted goal-relevant joint covariation starting in the early phases of the reach without affecting goal-irrelevant coordination.
Although researchers have highlighted the benefits of adopting an external focus of attention for rehabilitation, studies have consistently revealed low external focus use by physiotherapists. Consequently, the purpose of this research was to explore factors influencing physiotherapists’ focus of attention use and to gain insight into the barriers, and potential solutions, related to effective external focus use. Eight physiotherapists, working with musculoskeletal rehabilitation clients, first completed the Therapists’ Perceptions of Motor Learning Principles Questionnaire and then participated in virtual one-on-one interviews. The interviews followed a semistructured interview guide and were analyzed using a total quality framework approach to qualitative content analysis. Data showed that physiotherapists’ focus of attention use was influenced by physiotherapist, client, and task characteristics/experiences, as well as focus of attention statement provision strategies. Furthermore, the main barriers discussed related to educational experiences, reinforcement of internal focus of attention statement use and aspects related to research. Solutions presented to these barriers included the incorporation of focus of attention content into both the Canadian physiotherapy curriculum and continued education. Overall, these results advance our knowledge of factors underlying physiotherapists’ focus of attention use and barriers that must be overcome to successfully translate the focus of attention research into physiotherapy.
Although researchers have consistently demonstrated the potential benefit of an external focus of attention for rehabilitation, research has shown that this finding has yet to be translated into Canadian physiotherapy. Further, specific barriers to external focus use have been reported by Canadian physiotherapists, and as a solution toward increasing physiotherapists’ use of external focus, these same physiotherapists recommended the development of an educational workshop on focus of attention. Considering this, described herein is the process of developing such a workshop, which involved (a) gathering input from physiotherapists concerning content and format via one-on-one interviews and (b) engaging in discussion about content with focus of attention researchers. Analysis of the interview data featured key content for the workshop, the types of activities to include, and a recommended sequencing for the activities: specifically, sharing didactic information on focus of attention research, then providing instruction and demonstration of external focus use, and finally, finishing with opportunities for generating and delivering external focus statements. This input, along with that of the researchers, led to the development of a two-component focus of attention workshop, which includes an asynchronous component, featuring seven self-directed learning modules and a synchronous component, which consists of a virtual group session.
Initial research evidence suggests that learners may benefit from focussing their attention upon the demonstrated movement of a distal point of an action, also known as end-point trajectory matching. In the present study, verbal instructions were used by rowing coaches to promote either an end-point focus (i.e., the oar blade) or an internal focus of attention (i.e., the rower's movements) amongst novice learners. The goal for the learners was to practice and improve the 'catch', which is the instant that the blade of the oar enters and locks onto the water. The learners were coached in 24 training sessions over a six-week period, they then rowed in retention and transfer tests seven weeks later. The End-point group showed improvements in technique (i.e., more effective and efficient oar placement in the water) at the end of the skill acquisition period and also in retention and transfer conditions. The Internal group did not show the same level of improvement by the end of the acquisition phase but did demonstrate some improvements by the retention and transfer tests. This study suggests that paying attention to the end-point is beneficial for novices learning complex, whole body movements (such as rowing) as well as for relatively simple, precision tasks.
We examined effects of attentional focus on swimming speed. Participants' task was to swim one length of a pool (16 m) using the front crawl stroke. In Experiment 1, intermediate swimmers were given attentional focus instructions related to the crawl arm stroke or the leg kick, respectively. Participants were instructed to focus on "pulling your hands back" or "pushing the instep down" (internal focus), or on "pushing the water back/down" (external focus), respectively. Swim times were significantly shorter with an external focus. In Experiment 2, a control condition was included. Times were significantly faster in the external focus compared with both the internal focus and control conditions. These findings have implications for enhancing performance in swimming.
Porter, JM, Wu, WFW, Crossley, RM, Knopp, SW, and Campbell, OC. Adopting an external focus of attention improves sprinting performance in low-skilled sprinters. J Strength Cond Res 29(4): 947-953, 2015-For more than 10 years, researchers have investigated how the focusing of conscious attention influences motor skill execution. This line of investigation has consistently demonstrated that directing attention externally rather than internally improves motor skill learning and performance. The purpose of this study was to test the prediction that participants completing a 20-m sprint would run significantly faster when using an external focus of attention rather than an internal or no-focus of attention. Participants were college-aged volunteers (N = 84; 42 women, 42 men; mean age = 20.32, SD = 1.73 years) with no prior sprint training. This study used a counterbalanced within-participant design. Each participant completed 3 days of testing, with each day utilizing a different focus of attention (i.e. internal, external, or control). Running times were collected automatically using infrared timing gates. Data were analyzed using a 1-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of the ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for condition, F (1, 83) = 6565.3, p ≤ 0.001. Follow-up analysis indicated that the trials completed in the external focus condition (mean = 3.75 seconds, SD = 0.43) were significantly faster than trials completed in the internal (mean = 3.87 seconds, SD = 0.64) and control conditions (mean = 3.87 seconds, SD = 0.45). The analysis also indicated that the control and internal conditions were not significantly different. The results of this study extend the findings of previous research and demonstrate sprinting performance can be improved by using an external focus of attention.
Wulf and colleagues (e.g., Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999) have demonstrated that the adoption of an external focus of attention is preferable for the learning of complex motor tasks. The present investigation extends the attention focus literature in two ways: (a) it compared the effectiveness of three different foci (internal, proximal external, and distal external) in a sample of skilled performers in a naturalistic environment, and (b) it examined the use of attentional foci under conditions of anxiety. Thirty-three skilled male golfers were assigned to one of three attentional focus groups and completed five blocks of ten pitch shots, three in neutral conditions and two in anxiety conditions. Results from two separate mixed model analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that regardless of anxiety condition, those assigned to a distal external focus of attention performed most accurately (p < 0.05), whereas assignment to an internal focus of attention was associated with the least accurate performance (p < 0.05). Findings offer support for the constrained action hypothesis and point to the importance of skilled performers adopting a distal external focus, especially in competition.
Attentional processes governing skilled motor behavior were examined in two studies. In Experiment 1, fi eld hockey players performed a dribbling task under single-task, dual-task, and skill-focused conditions under both low and high pressure situations. In Experiment 2, skilled soccer players performed a dribbling task under single-task, skill-focused, and process-goal conditions, again under low and high pressure situations. Results replicated recent fi ndings regarding the detrimental effect of skill-focused attention and the facilitative effect of dual-task conditions on skilled performance. In addition, focusing on movement related process goals was found to adversely affect performance. Support for the predictive validity of the Reinvestment Scale was also found, with high reinvesters displaying greater susceptibility to skill failure under pressure. Results were consistent with explicit monitoring theories of choking and are further discussed in light of the conceptual distinction between explicit monitoring and reinvestment of conscious control.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate if children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) would show enhanced motor skill learning with instructions to adopt an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement effect) rather than an internal focus (i.e., on the movements themselves). The task involved throwing tennis balls with the dominant arm at a circular target that was placed on the floor at a distance of 3 m. Twenty children with ADHD, ranging in age from 8 to 11 years, were randomly assigned to either an external or internal focus group. Participants performed 180 practice trials with focus instructions and reminders before each block of 30 trials. Learning was assessed 48 hrs after practice. The external focus group demonstrated more effective learning than the internal focus group. This finding has implications for applied settings that involve sports or physical activity with children who have ADHD.
provide a perspective on the roles of mental control and hedonism in human behavior / the essence of the argument is that mental representations develop as a means of coordinating the conduct of time-consuming actions, and that the attainment of effective coordination—the calibration of mind and action—comes to complement and sometimes supplant simple hedonism as the driving force in thought and behavior
what is the source of plans, goals, motives, and the like that provide the basis for the . . . conscious control of action / how do such representations come to control behavior / are mental representations typically stable over time, providing consistent bases for action, or are they instead malleable, showing dramatic change in response to events and social forces / when does mental control become ineffective or otherwise maladaptive / what is the relationship between mental control and emotion (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A growing body of research has demonstrated that the type of information emphasized in the verbal instructions given to individuals can significantly influence subsequent move-ment production as a function of the direction of attentional focus. Specifically, Wulf and colleagues (for reviews, see Wulf, 2007; Wulf & Prinz, 2001) have consistently shown that instructions or feedback which direct performers' and learners' attention toward their own bodily movements (an internal focus of attention) results in poorer movement execution and learning when compared to instructions which emphasize directing atten-tion toward the intended effects of the movements (an external focus of attention). Such findings have been demonstrated with sports skills (e.g., golf: Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999; soccer: Wulf, McConnel, Gärtner, & Schwarz, 2002), core movements skills (e.g., Novices threw darts during two sessions (one week apart) using either internal or external attentional focusing instructions. During session one, participants used internal instructions for half the throws and external instructions for the other half of the throws, whereas session two required the use of only one strategy for all throws. Accuracy during session one was not affected by attentional strategy, although a significant interaction indicated that accuracy is influenced when changing from one strategy to the other. After session one, significantly more participants reported a preference for the external instructions. During session two, the external strategy group was significantly more accurate than the internal group. Of those using the external strategy, participants indicating an internal strategy preference after prac-tice were significantly less accurate than those who indicated a preference for the external strategy. Participants rated their preferred strategy as requiring less effort than the alternative.
I t is well documented that directing attention externally enhances motor skill learning and performance under controlled experimental conditions. What is not well understood is how verbal instructions (VI) and feedback provided by coaches in authentic environments influences athletes' focus of attention. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the type of VI and feedback provided by experienced coaches during practice, and how this information influenced elite athletes' focus of attention during competition. Participants were athletes competing at the USA Track and Field Outdoor National Championships. Participants completed a survey inquiring about the VI and feedback provided during practice and what they focused on while competing. The data revealed that 84.6% of the participants reported that coaches provided instructions during practice that promoted an internal focus of attention. Participants also reported they utilize internal focus cues 69% of the time during competition. These results suggest that this sample of coaches provided instructions that focused athletes' attention internally. This practice strategy is inconsistent with motor learning research, which shows learning and performance are enhanced when using an external focus of attention during motor skill execution. Recommendations are made to improve coaching education curriculums, bridging the gap between science and application.
Discusses issues in the cognitive representation and control of action from the perspective of action identification theory. This theory holds that any action can be identified in many ways, ranging from low-level identities that specify how the action is performed to high-level identities that signify why or with what effect the action is performed. The level of identification most likely to be adopted by an actor is dictated by processes reflecting a trade-off between concerns for comprehensive action understanding and effective action maintenance. This suggests that the actor is always sensitive to contextual cues to higher levels of identification but moves to lower levels of identification if the action proves difficult to maintain with higher level identities in mind. These processes are documented empirically, as is their coordinated interplay in promoting a level of prepotent identification that matches the upper limits of the actor's capacity to perform the action. Implications are developed for action stability, the psychology of performance impairment, personal vs situational causation, and the behavioral bases of self-understanding. (87 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
SUMMARY Targeted human movements show considerable variability in the kinematics and in the result of the movement. Even when the conditions under which they are performed remain constant and the movement is highly trained, repeated attempts show deviations in kinematic and dynamographic parameters. This characteristic of human movement becomes critical when the task requires a high degree of consistency in movement outcome. In two experiments on this kind of task the variability of the result of the movement and of selected parameters of the performed movement itself were recorded. It can be shown by the example of throwing darts that, above all, good throwers succeed in reducing the variability in movement outcome to a greater extent than would seem to be possible considering the variability occurring during the course of the movement. U sing a virtual dart throwing task in a second experiment it is shown that this phenomenon is a consequence of a convergence of the position-time curves of the throwing movement towards the so called "equifinal" path of movement.
A performer’s focus of attention has been shown to influence motor performance and learning in a variety
of motor skills. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of an external and internal focus of attention on discus throwing. Participants (N=20; mean age: 22 years, SD: 1.58) were recruited from an undergraduate male student population that had limited experience with the task. Using a within-participants design, all participants completed five maximum effort trials under each attentional focus condition (external and internal). The results of a repeated-measures ANCOVA revealed that participants had a significantly more effective performance in external focus of attention condition compared with the internal attentional focus. These findings are in line with the previous studies showing enhanced motor performance as a result of using external versus internal focus of attention. Therefore, it is suggested that coaches and practitioners give instructions that promote an external focus of attention.
The influence of internal (movement focus) and external (outcome focus) attentional-focusing instructions on muscular endurance were investigated using three exercise protocols with experienced exercisers. Twenty-three participants completed a maximal repetition, assisted bench-press test on a Smith's machine. An external focus of attention resulted in significant (p < .05) improvements in performance compared to the internal focus of attention, but not the control condition. Seventeen participants completed repetitions to failure at 75% 1-RM on free bench-press and squat exercises. In both tasks, externally focused instructions resulted in significantly greater repetitions to failure than control and internal focus conditions (p < .05). These results support previous research showing beneficial effects of externally focused instructions on movement efficiency.
Novice darts throwers completed a dart‐throwing task using either control (no additional instruction), external, or internal attentional focusing instructions. Ratings of the experience of using the instructions were collected post‐task (e.g., instructional difficulty). Participants using the external and control instructions performed significantly more accurately than those using the internal focus instructions but did not differ themselves. The control instructions were rated as significantly easier and less mentally demanding to use than the external instructions. The external and internal conditions did not differ in ratings of mental demands, but the external instructions were rated as more successful than the internal instructions. These results support previous research advocating the use of instructions that emphasize external goal‐related information and that novices can benefit immediately from such instruction.
Background:
The present study examined whether the learning benefits of an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement effect) relative to an internal focus (i.e. on the movement), found previously in non-disabled children and adults would also be found in children with intellectual disabilities (IDs).
Methods:
Participants (n = 24; average age: 12.2 years) with mild intellectual deficiency (IQ = 51-69) practiced throwing beanbags at a target. In the external focus group, participants were instructed to direct their attention to the movement of the beanbag, while in the internal focus group, participants were asked to direct their attention to the movement of their hand. The practice phase consisted of 40 trials, and attentional focus reminders were given after every third trial. Learning was assessed 1 day later by retention and transfer (greater target distance) tests, each consisting of 10 trials. No focus reminders were given on that day.
Results:
The external focus group demonstrated more effective learning than the internal focus group, as evidenced by more accurate tosses on the transfer test.
Conclusions:
The present findings show that instructions that induce an external focus of attention can enhance motor learning in children with IDs.
ObjectivesStudies using young, non-impaired adults have shown that by directing attention to the outcome of movements (external focus) rather than directing attention to the movements involved in a specific skill (internal focus), motor skill acquisition is enhanced. The purpose of this study was to investigate the generalisability of these attentional focus findings to balance in subjects with Parkinson's disease.DesignExperimental, repeated measures design.SettingPhysiotherapy research facility.ParticipantsTwenty-two subjects diagnosed with idiopathic Parkinson's disease.InterventionsSubjects were tested under three attentional focus conditions; no instruction, internal focus and external focus.Main outcome measureBalance equilibrium scores from three computerised dynamic posturography conditions.ResultsA significant condition x attentional focus interaction was found (F [4, 84] = 2.86, P < 0.05), indicating increased sway with internal focus relative to no focus instructions (control) under the eyes-open condition. More importantly, when only subjects with a history of falls were considered, there was a significant interaction between condition and attentional focus (F [4, 36] = 4.40, P < 0.01). Post hoc tests revealed that the external focus instructions resulted in less sway than both internal focus and no attentional focus instructions under sway-referenced conditions.ConclusionThese findings support previous research studies on attentional focus. In particular, it was demonstrated that the balance of subjects with Parkinson's disease and a fall history can be enhanced by instructing subjects to adopt an external focus.
Research suggests an external focus of attention positively affects motor learning more than an internal focus; however, little research has considered this relationship in motor control situations. The present study examined the role of varying focus of attention conditions on dart throwing performance. Experts (n = 6) and novices (n = 6) performed 84 throws under two internal and one external conditions and in the presence and absence of knowledge of results (KR). Results indicated clear differences between experts and novices on both performance and motor control outcomes. Further, there was some evidence that movement execution was slowed in experts but not in novices, although results were somewhat inconclusive. Our analyses suggest that varying focus of attention affects temporal parameters of movement execution in experts but not spatial parameters. Interestingly, both experts and novices generally perceived all instruction conditions to be hindrances to performance, with the exception of the external focus with KR condition. Further work is necessary to determine the extent to which these results apply to other open and closed skills.
This manuscript presents two experiments designed to explore the effects of attention on perceived exertion and time to failure in a fatiguing athletic task. There were two major motivating factors for these experiments. First, there are few studies evaluating attentional focus effects in endurance tasks and, second, there is a lack of integration between studies of attentional focus as external/internal (e.g., Wulf, 2007a) compared to associative/dissociative (e.g., Stevinson and Biddle, 1998). In Experiment 1, we used a fatiguing wall-sit posture (essentially a complex, isometric task) to compare two different types of external attention with an internal focus on the position of the legs. An external focus (regardless of type) increased the time taken to failure and reduced perceived exertion. In Experiment 2, we manipulated subjects' expectancy of fatigue to test the interaction of attention and expectancy (both top-down factors) in this highly fatiguing task. Previous theories of attention during endurance tasks have suggested that as fatigue/pain increase, bottom-up factors begin to dominate subjects' attention. While this may be true, Experiment 2 showed that even in a highly fatiguing task, attentional strategies, and expectancies affected the time to failure and perceived exertion.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning explores how a person's focus of attention affects motor performance and, in particular, the learning of motor skills. It synthesizes the knowledge coming from recent research examining the effects of attentional focus on motor performance and learning, and it provides practical implications for both instructional and rehabilitative settings.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning challenges traditional views that the method of learning a motor skill involves focusing attention on each part of the skill and internalizing proper execution. Instead, author Gabriele Wulf argues that the learning of new motor skills suffers when attentional focus is on the coordination of movements. When attention is directed to the desired movement effect, however, performance levels rise. Not only is a higher level of performance often achieved faster with an external rather than an internal attention focus, but the skill is retained better. The advantages of external focus apply to a variety of skills and skill levels and may be used while instructing athletes, children, and those with physical impairments as well as in any setting in which effective and efficient training of motor skills is a concern.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning not only presents the latest research on attentional focus, but it also offers practical solutions for bypassing or at least shortening the first “conscious” stage of learning. Instructors may then use these suggestions to provide their students or patients with a faster and more effective way to develop and perform motor skills.to develop and perform motor skills.
This text turns research into application by
- detailing how a person's attentional focus changes with age and type of task and in later stages of learning, allowing readers to apply the information to a variety of ages and settings;
- providing specific instructional examples and challenges in “Practical Applications” sections that may be used in everyday teaching scenarios; and
- including comparison tables and offering suggestions for differentiating instructions regarding internal and external foci of attention.
To help teachers understand how the wording of their instruction can facilitate the learning process, Attention and Motor Skill Learning shares insights from athletes, musicians, and speech therapists on their thinking as they perform or teach selected skills in each chapter's “Attentional Insights” section. The “Future Directions” sections at the end of each chapter highlight potential research studies that challenge readers to use and further develop the methods and practices in the book. Other useful features include case studies and chapter-opening scenarios that present motor-learning problems and demonstrate the role of attentional focus in solving them.
The present study examined whether the previously observed benefits of an external focus of attention (i.e., focusing on the movement effect), relative to an internal focus (i.e., focusing on one's body movements) and control conditions, would generalize to tasks requiring maximum force production, such as jumping. In two experiments, participants performed a vertical jump-and-reach task. A Vertec™ measurement device was used to determine jump-and-reach height. Participants performed under three conditions in a within-participant design: External focus (i.e., focus on the rungs of the Vertec that were to be touched), internal focus (i.e., focus on the finger, with which the rungs were to be touched), and control conditions (i.e., focus on jumping as high as possible). Experiment 1 showed that participants' jump-and-reach height was greatest with an external focus. Those results were replicated in Experiment 2. In addition, it was observed that the vertical displacement of the center of mass was greater under the external focus condition, compared to the other two conditions. This suggests that participants jumped higher by producing greater forces when they adopted an external focus. These findings indicate that the previously shown benefits of an external attentional focus generalize to tasks requiring maximal force production.
The study examined effects of attentional focus on swim speed in expert swimmers. In previous studies, an external focus directed at the movement effect has been shown to enhance automaticity, relative to an internal focus directed at the body movements (or no particular focus). The swimmers in the present study were given focus instructions related to the arm stroke in crawl swimming. All participants swam 3 lengths of a 25-yard pool, once under each of 3 conditions. In the external focus condition, they were instructed to focus on "pushing the water back", in the internal focus conditions they were asked to focus on "pulling your hands back", and in the control condition they were not given instructions. Swim times were similar in the control and external focus conditions, but they were significantly slower with an internal focus. Furthermore, questionnaire results revealed that most swimmers focused on the overall outcome (e.g., speed) in the control condition, whereas others indicated that they focused on specific body parts. Post-hoc analyses demonstrated that those in the latter group had slower swim times in the control condition than those with a focus on the outcome. Overall, the results provide converging evidence that a body-related, internal focus hampers performance. Moreover, when movements are already controlled automatically at a high skill level (and the focus is on the outcome), external focus instructions may be superfluous.
This chapter focuses on the effect of external attention resources on effortless movements of individuals and concerned importance in enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of such movements. It examines the findings of studies related to investigations on the effects of different attentional resources on the effectiveness and efficiency of movements. Evidence from the studies reveals that a greater focus on the effects of movements enhances the performance of effortless movement compared with more focus on the movement itself. Some other studies investigating the role of external attention in a variety of sports also reveal that more focus on external sources of movements enhances the results of such efforts.
We examined the effects of attentional focus instructions on the learning of movement form and carry distance
in low-skilled golfers. The X-factor describes the rotation of the shoulders relative to the pelvis, and its
increase during the downswing (so-called X-factor stretch) is associated with the carry distance of the ball.
X-factor stretch and carry distance have been shown to be associated with an early weight shift toward the
front leg during the downswing. In our study, one group (internal focus, IF) was instructed to focus on shifting
their weight to their left foot while hitting the ball, whereas another group (external focus, EF) was instructed
to focus on pushing against the left side of the ground. A control (C) group was not given attentional focus
instructions. Participants performed 100 practice trials. Learning was assessed after a 3-day interval in a retention
test without focus instructions. The EF group demonstrated a greater carry distance, X-factor stretch, and
higher maximum angular velocities of the pelvis, shoulder, and wrist than both the IF and C groups, which
showed very similar performances. These findings demonstrate that both movement outcome and form can
be enhanced in complex skill learning by providing the learner with an appropriate external focus instruction.
Moreover, they show that a single external focus cue can be sufficient to elicit an effective whole-body
coordination pattern.
The attentional focus of an individual can influence performance and physiological outcomes during strength training exercises. However, prior research has largely investigated this issue with male participants performing a biceps curl exercise and has not investigated the full range of attentional focus strategies. In the present experiment, 24 females did a sit-up exercise while adopting an associative or dissociative strategy of attending to cues that were external or internal to result in four conditions: external association, internal association, external dissociation, and internal dissociation. The external association condition produced the lowest electromyographic activity of the abdominal muscles, the lowest heart rate, and the greatest range of movement. The internal dissociation condition produced the lowest level of exercise satisfaction. The results suggest that a focus on the effects of muscle action is the most economical and least strenuous way to exercise with sit-ups and similar forms of exercise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
In two separate experiments, this study examined changes in motor pattern and performance accuracy when low-level throwers focused on internal variables, external variables, and/or velocity of throw. In Experiment 1 the task goal was to improve the throwing pattern. In Experiment 2 the task goal was to throw as accurately as possible at a target. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that increasing velocity was most effective for changing the throwing pattern, with external focus more effective than internal focus. The results of Experiment 2 indicated that external focus was the most accurate condition and increasing velocity was most effective for changing the throwing pattern.
To test the extent to which learners performing a simple keyboard passage would be affected by directing their focus of attention to different aspects of their movements, 16 music majors performed a brief keyboard passage under each of four focus conditions arranged in a counterbalanced design—a total of 64 experimental sessions. As they performed the test passage, participants were directed to focus their attention on either their fingers, the piano keys, the piano hammers, or the sound produced. Complete MIDI data for all responses were digitally recorded by software written specifically for this experiment. Consistent with findings obtained in tests of other physical skills, the results show that performance was most accurate and generalizable when participants focused on the effects their movements produced rather than on the movements themselves, and that the more distal the focus of attention, the more accurate the motor control.
The present study assessed the influence of different attentional focusing instructions upon muscular activity during biceps curl movements. Twenty-nine participants carried out 10 biceps curl repetitions on an isokinetic dynamometer at 60oás-1 using control, internal (focusing upon arm movements) and external (focusing upon movement of the bar) attentional focusing strategies whilst Electromyography (EMG) activity of the biceps brachii was recorded. Significantly higher levels of EMG activity were observed in the internal and control conditions when compared to when an external strategy was used. When data was normalised against the control condition, the internal strategy resulted in significantly higher levels of EMG activity when compared to the external strategy. Attentional focusing strategies and instructions influence the observed muscular activity, which has direct implications for both skill execution and physical training settings. Coaches, trainers, and physiotherapists should be aware of the effects that different instructional emphases can have at a muscular level.
The present study examined the influences of instructions that directed the learner’s attention to either an internal focus or external focus on the performance and learning of a dynamic balance task. The instructions given were related to either the participant’s own body movements (internal focus) or to the effects their movements had on the apparatus (external focus) (Wulf et. al, 1998). The purpose of this study was to investigate balance performance and learning in 9-12 year old children using internal and external focus of attention strategies. Participants were 9-12 year olds (N= 88) from intact physical education classes at a K-12 public school in Tallahassee, Florida. The hypotheses tested were instructions referring to an external focus of attention would be more effective in promoting balance performance and learning than internal focus instructions for 9-10 year olds and 11-12 year olds. Participants were randomly assigned into an external focus group, internal focus group and control group for 9-10 year olds and 11-12 year olds. A Biodex Dynamic Balance System was used to measure select dependent variables (overall stability, anterior/posterior stability, medial/lateral stability, mean deflection, anterior/posterior deflection and medial/lateral deflection) for six instructional set trials. A questionnaire was given to participants following the testing trials to examine whether or not participants were focusing on the instructional set cues. The instructional set cues were as follows: stand as still as possible while “keeping your feet still” (internal focus), stand as still as possible while “keeping the platform still” (external focus), stand as still as possible (control group). Two days following the testing trials, each group completed three retention trials with no focus of attention instructions provided. Participants who were given an external focus cue and said they used it based on the results of the questionnaire were significantly better in balance performance and learning than those who were given an internal focus cue and said they used it. All participants who said they used an external focus cue regardless of what focus group they were randomly assigned were better in balance performance and learning than participants who said they used an internal cue.
This experiment followed up on previous studies showing learning benefits of instructions directing the performers' attention to the effects of their movements (external focus) relative to instructions directing attention to the movements themselves (internal focus). The main purpose was to determine whether similar advantages could be achieved by preventing learners from focusing on their movements through the use of an attention-demanding secondary task. Participants practiced balancing on a stabilometer. External and internal focus group participants were instructed to focus on markers attached to the balance platform or on their feet, respectively. A third group was required to shadow a story presented to them while balancing. In addition, a control group without attentional focus instructions or a secondary task was included. The external focus group showed more effective balance learning than the other groups. The results provide evidence for the learning benefits of external focus instructions. In addition, they show that similar advantages cannot be achieved by simply preventing learners from focusing on the task to be learned.
This chapter is concerned with some of the issues involved in understanding how perception contributes to the control of actions. Roughly speaking, the term of action refers to any meaningful segment of an organisms intercourse with its environment. Two important features of this preliminary definition can be brought out more clearly when “actions” are contrasted with “responses” and “movements”. Unlike response-centered approaches to psychology, which consider the organisms activity more or less determined by the actual stimulus information, the action approach emphasizes intentional control as being simultaneous with (or even prior to) informational control of activity, assuming that intentional processes fix the rules for the selection and use of stimulus information (Heuer Prinz, 1987; Neumann Prinz, 1987). Unlike movement-centered approaches, which describe the organisms activity in terms of the dynamics of muscular contraction patterns and the kinematics of the resulting body movements, the action approach stresses the environmental consequences that go along with these bodily events, contending that meaningful interactions with the environment, rather than movements per se, should be considered the effective functional units of activity (Fowler Turvey, 1982; Neisser, 1985).
The present study examined the effectiveness of distal versus proximal external foci of attention as a function of performers' preferences for a certain focus. We used a dart throwing task, and participants were instructed to direct their attention either to the target (distal focus) or the flight of the dart (proximal focus). Participants were asked to select their preferred focus after one trial under each focus condition without knowledge of results. Subsequently, all participants performed two 24-trial blocks, one under each condition, with focus order (preferred first vs. non-preferred) counterbalanced. Significantly more participants preferred the distal compared to the proximal focus. Also, dart throwing accuracy was generally enhanced when participants adopted a distal focus, regardless of focus order or preference. The present findings provide further evidence that the “distance” effect in attentional focus is a general phenomenon that does not depend on individual preferences.
