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Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years
Abstract
Over the past 15 years, research on focus of attention has consistently demonstrated that an external focus (i.e., on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus (i.e., on body movements). This article provides a comprehensive review of the extant literature. Findings show that the performance and learning advantages through instructions or feedback inducing an external focus extend across different types of tasks, skill levels, and age groups. Benefits are seen in movement effectiveness (e.g., accuracy, consistency, balance) as well as efficiency (e.g., muscular activity, force production, cardiovascular responses). Methodological issues that have arisen in the literature are discussed. Finally, our current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the attentional focus effect is outlined, and directions for future research are suggested.
... is the cognitive function of focusing on specific targets in the surroundings while ignoring other omitted stimuli (Wolfe 1998). The negative effects of poor motor learning show how important it is to come up with effective ways to improve motor learning and motor performance in people with ASD (Wulf 2013). The modification of one's focus of attention is a potential strategy that has drawn considerable interest. ...
... The modification of one's focus of attention is a potential strategy that has drawn considerable interest. Instructions that get the learner to pay attention to the effects of their movements on the environment, like "pay attention to how your movements affect the world around you," have been found to work better than those that tell the learner to focus on their movements, like "pay attention to how your fingers move" (Wulf 2013). A review of previous research shows that most children with developmental disorders, including mental retardation and ASD, show deficits in attention (Burack et al. 2001;Kanner 1943;Mottron et al. 2006;Mundy and Neal 2000;Ornitz 1988). ...
... In both methods of training (errorless learning and analogical learning), the external focus of attention has been used. The advantages of the external focus of attention compared to the internal focus of attention were substantiated in many previous research studies (Abdollahipour et al. 2017;Maxwell and Masters 2002;Wulf 2013;Wulf et al. 2010). Therefore, it can be concluded that the internal focus of attention imposes a greater load on the working memory, and ultimately, it is associated with poorer performance. ...
Purpose
The aim of the current study was to compare implicit learning methods with an emphasis on the external focus of attention on bowling skill in autistic children.
Method
Twenty children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) were selected. After the participants were randomly divided into two groups, the pretest was performed, evaluating the participants both quantitatively (score of bowling pins falling) and qualitatively (TGMD3 subscale test of underhand ball throwing). Group A was trained using the errorless learning method with the external focus of attention, while Group B was trained using the analogical learning method with the external focus of attention.
Findings
The results showed that analogical learning with the external focus of attention has significant effects (p ≤ 0.05) on both bowling and underhand ball‐throwing skills in autistic children. Errorless learning with external focus of attention, on the other hand, had a significant effect (p ≤ 0.05) on the bowling skill.
Conclusion
The results of the research showed that analogical learning with an external focus of attention can be effective in developing both bowling skill and underhand ball‐throwing skill in children with ASD; however, errorless learning with an external focus of attention was useful in developing bowling skill and failed to show a significant effect on enhancing the underhand ball‐throwing skill in children diagnosed with ASD.
Trial Registration
IRCT20220920056007N1.
... While coaches have highlighted their perceived importance of AVF (Raya Castellano et al. 2020) and suggested they see feedback as a tool to improve performance, build athlete confidence, help athletes to monitor progress, and as a tool to improve their own performance (Mason, Farrow & Hattie, 2020a). AVF has consistently been shown to have positive effects on the performance and learning of gross motor and sportspecific skills (Wulf, 2013;Ericsson, 2020;Petancevski et al. 2022). This is due to the ability of feedback to speed up the learning process so that a higher skill level is achieved sooner (Wulf, 2013). ...
... AVF has consistently been shown to have positive effects on the performance and learning of gross motor and sportspecific skills (Wulf, 2013;Ericsson, 2020;Petancevski et al. 2022). This is due to the ability of feedback to speed up the learning process so that a higher skill level is achieved sooner (Wulf, 2013). ...
... How feedback directs an athlete's attentional focus has been shown to play an important role in the learning and performance of sport skills (Wulf, 2013). Feedback related to attentional focus can promote either an internal, neutral or external focus (Halperin et al. 2016b). ...
This chapter focuses on the coach behaviour of feedback which is a popular coaching intervention implemented in some form by coaches in all sports and domains. According to Butler and Winne (1995) “feedback is information with which a learner can confirm, add to, overwrite, tune, or restructure information in memory”. However, not all feedback in a sports setting is equal and is provided in many ways (Williams & Hodges, 2005). One is through intrinsic feedback, where learners use their senses and evaluate their own performances (Williams & Hodges, 2005). Another is through augmented feedback, where external sources (e.g., a coach) provides information about a performance (Anderson, Rymal, & Ste-Marie, 2014). While augmented feedback has been researched in a variety of different modes including verbal, visual, auditory, haptic, and multimodal (Sigrist et al. 2013; Frikha et al. 2019), practically, augmented verbal feedback (AVF) is the most readily available mode of feedback in sporting environments. For this reason, AVF is the focus of this chapter. The purposes of this chapter are to (1) highlight the myth regarding feedback; (2) review the literature on feedback; (3) evaluate why feedback is delivered in certain ways, and then finally, (4) offer some thoughts and recommendations on feedback.
... In fact, in nearly every training situation that involves learning motor skills, athletes are instructed to follow the correct movement pattern or technique. According to the "constrained action hypothesis" proposed by Wulf (7,8), instructions appear to direct the attention towards correct movements, triggering an automatic mode of motor control guided by unconscious processes (operating at an automatic level) and achieving the desired outcome. Moreover, when comparing conditions with instructions to those without them, the muscular activity for the identical performance outcomes is significantly diminished, both in the muscles of agonists and antagonists (9). ...
... This indicates a higher degree of movement efficiency in terms of the recruitment of muscle fibers, as well as enhanced inter-muscular coordination. It appears that the instructions increase movement efficiency and reduce noise in the motor system, which hampers fine control and makes the outcome of the movement less effective (8). ...
... Cowling (3) found that providing a verbal instruction focused on performing the landing (first landing before jumping), the quadriceps muscle activity had a significantly longer duration, than the condition without instruction. This enhancement in agonist/antagonist synergy could be attributed to the fact that verbal instruction enhances the efficacy of inter-muscular recruitment, resulting from an unconscious process (8), possibly triggered by the frontal and parietal cortex (57). From a neuromuscular perspective, the longer muscle activity has been attributed to the need for the quadriceps to control knee flexion during the contact by an eccentric contraction, to prevent the stance limb from "collapsing" under body weight (56). ...
Introduction: The drop vertical jump (DVJ) is extensively utilized for conditioning and evaluating physical performance, as well as reducing the likelihood of injury by enhancing joint stability through the coactivation of muscles acting on the joint. The execution of DVJ can be controlled by verbal instructions and evaluated by the vertical ground reaction force (vGRF)-time profile.
Methods: Our hypothesis was that varying verbal instructions could have an impact on the DVJ's parameter, thereby optimizing vertical performance and minimizing the impact during landing in young female volleyball players. Sixteen female volleyball players volunteered to participate in this study (age: 21.3 ± 2.6 years; stature: 1.66 ± 0.1 m; body mass: 62.0 ± 8.1 kg and BMI: 22.2 ± 1.8). They executed DVJs following verbal instructions ranging from “jump as high as possible” (1A), “jump as quickly as possible” (2A), “jump as high as possible and during the landing attempt to dampen the impact at ground contact” (1B), and “jump as high as quickly as possible and during the landing attempt to damp the impact at ground contact” (2B). The reactive strength index (RSI), vGRF (1st and 2nd peaks), and flight time (FT) were evaluated.
Results: The verbal instructions 1A improved the FT and the first peak of the vGRF (P < 0.05), whereas 2A the RSI (P < 0.05). On the contrary, “the damping” required in the 1B, and 2B verbal instruction reduced the 2nd peak of vGRF (P < 0.05), without altering the task required during the jump (P < 0.05).
Discussion: The instructions provided for the final landing (the second peak of vGRF) have the potential to enhance safety by reducing the peak of vGRF without affecting the performance required during the jump. When designing DVJ training, coaches or kinesiologists must consider the use of verbal instructions to induce specific adaptation over time.
Clinical relevance: The present study supports the use of specific verbal instructions to reduce impact forces in landing and injury risk.
... (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2013. Also associated with inducing the individual's attention "near" or "away" the body (Kim et al., 2017), these strategies are commonly distinguished into internal and external focus of attention (Schücker et al., 2009;Wulf, 2013). ...
... . Also associated with inducing the individual's attention "near" or "away" the body (Kim et al., 2017), these strategies are commonly distinguished into internal and external focus of attention (Schücker et al., 2009;Wulf, 2013). In internal focus conditions, attention is focused on the body itself and/or internal movement cues, such as the sensation of muscle contraction and joint movements. ...
... In internal focus conditions, attention is focused on the body itself and/or internal movement cues, such as the sensation of muscle contraction and joint movements. In conditions of external focus, however, the individual's attention is on the external effects of their movement, such as the sound of footsteps while running (Makaruk et al., 2020;Neumann et al., 2020;Wulf, 2013). ...
Attentional focus strategies, especially external focus, are associated with improvements in mechanisms of postural control. This can be important in reducing sports injuries in practices such as running, which has seen an increase in adherence. However, the impacts of these strategies on postural control in runners are unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of internal and external focus strategies on postural control performance with different bases of support tasks in runners. A total of 19 young adults (18–38 years old) were divided into a running group ( n = 9) and a control group ( n = 10). Posturography tests were performed on stable and unstable surfaces, under control, and internal and external focus conditions. The distance, mean velocity, and total velocity of the center of pressure were analyzed ( p ≤ .05). There was a reduction in oscillation under external focus compared to internal and control conditions, as well as under internal focus compared to the control condition. A Group × Surface × Focus interaction for the variables distance and mean velocity in the mediolateral direction was found only for the control group. However, no significant effects were found between groups for postural control performance. Attentional focus strategies were able to reduce postural sway, with external focus condition being the most effective. Practitioners can benefit from these strategies to increase postural control performance to help reduce the number of injuries and improve sports performance. It is speculated that the effects of attentional control strategies on postural control may differ depending on the specific adaptations of each sport.
... The role of attentional focus concerning health or sports performance is multifaceted and has garnered significant consideration in various domains [1][2][3]. Research has shown that a verbal cue during training can shift the attention inside or outside the body (i.e., internal focus or external focus), provoking different consequences on both motor action and the learning process [4]. An internal focus refers to concentrating on one's body movements, whereas an external focus means directing attention toward the external environment or the outcome of a movement. ...
... Such cues, they argue, allow for precise adjustments and refinements. On the other hand, external focus proponents emphasize the naturalness and fluidity that come with external cues [3]. They point to the transformative effects of attentional focus in sports and dance. ...
... A superior performance following an external cue in both able-bodied or intellectually disabled individuals should be partially explained by the constrained action hypothesis [3,4,46]. The constrained action hypothesis suggests that an external focus of attention permits automatic behavior, non-conscious motor control and natural movement with the result of a more fluent movement execution [3]. ...
Little is known about the effect of using an attentional focus instruction on motor performance in people with intellectual disabilities. Therefore, this study explored the effects of different attentional focus instructions on gross motor skill performances in individuals with Down syndrome. Seven community-dwelling participants (age 25.2±3.2 yrs, height 1.70±0.04 m, body mass 72.0±6.3 kg) voluntarily participated in the study. Motor performance on 5-meter running (5m sprint), vertical jump (countermovement jump with arm swing, CMJ), broad jump (standing broad jump, SBJ), forward medball throw (FMBT) or overhead medball backward throw (OMBT) and rising-up from a chair (five repetition sit-to-stand, 5STS) were recorded while performing internal-focus (IF) or external-focus (EF) instructions. EF induced significantly (p<0.05) better performance than IF in CMJ (EF: 15±9 cm; IF: 11±8 cm, median ±interquartile range), SBJ (EF: 0.8±1.05 m; IF: 0.5±1.0 m), FMBT (EF: 1.5±1.4 m; IF: 1.4±1.1 m), OMBT (EF: 4.0±1.5 m; IF: 3.6±1.1 m) and 5STS (EF: 14.2±5.4; IF:15.3±7.7 s). The time over the 5m sprint tended to be shorter with EF (4.0±2.0 s) than IF (5.05±3.3 s) but the difference did not reach the statistical significance (p = 0.29). Physical trainers and school teachers should be encouraged to manage different types of attentional focus instructions to improve cognitive and gross motor performances in persons with Down syndrome.
... Previous studies have brought evidence that an individual´s adopting of an external focus of attention (EFA) during the performing of a motor task may be more beneficial relative to an internal focus of attention (IFA) for learning or performing motor skills in individuals across ages, motor competencies and health conditions (Wulf, 2013;Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). EFA is introduced as focusing on an intended movement effect or outcome, implementation or goal, whereas IFA is defined as focusing on the body-relevant movement or position (Wulf, 2013). ...
... Previous studies have brought evidence that an individual´s adopting of an external focus of attention (EFA) during the performing of a motor task may be more beneficial relative to an internal focus of attention (IFA) for learning or performing motor skills in individuals across ages, motor competencies and health conditions (Wulf, 2013;Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). EFA is introduced as focusing on an intended movement effect or outcome, implementation or goal, whereas IFA is defined as focusing on the body-relevant movement or position (Wulf, 2013). The theoretical explanation of the disadvantage of the IFA relative to the EFA is that the IFA induces a more conscious mode of control that leads to the disruption of automatic motor processes (Wulf et al., 2013). ...
... EFA is introduced as focusing on an intended movement effect or outcome, implementation or goal, whereas IFA is defined as focusing on the body-relevant movement or position (Wulf, 2013). The theoretical explanation of the disadvantage of the IFA relative to the EFA is that the IFA induces a more conscious mode of control that leads to the disruption of automatic motor processes (Wulf et al., 2013). On the contrary, the EFA may reduce an individual's focus on oneself, increasing motor automaticity (Kal et al., 2013) and functional variability (Lohse et al., 2014), reflecting an enhanced movement outcome. ...
Most studies on balance training in individuals with Parkinson´s disease (PD) reported ambiguous effects. Therefore the study aimed to investigate the effect of an attentional focus and severity of PD on dynamic balance. In the study, 31 patients with idiopathic PD in stage I-III, aged 69.6 ± 6.6 years, performed the five times sit-to-stand (FTSS) task two times in each of three conditions: control, i.e., with no attentional focus instruction, the external focus of attention (IFA) induced by the instruction: „concentrate on quick movement of shoulders up and down“, and external focus of attention (EFA) induced by the instruction: „ concentrate on quick movement of the tape markers up and down“ (the markers glued on one´s shoulders). As a result, the FTSS time was shorter and the number of symptoms of imbalance manifested during performing of the task was lower in the EFA condition as compared to control and IFA conditions. No significant interaction between the focus of attention and severity of PD operationalized as the Hoehn and Yahr´s PD stage and the risk of falls suggested the generalizability of the effect of focus of attention on dynamic balance across the PD stages I-III and regardless of whether moderate risk of falls or no risk in PD patients. This study also provided evidence that these individuals with PD can adopt task-specific instructions to perform movement skills.
... First, the beneficial impact of an external focus of attention when learning or practising a skill has been repeatedly shown in the literature (for a meta-analysis, see Nicklas et al., 2022). These results have been explained through the constrained action hypothesis, suggesting that attention to internal parameters may disrupt automatic processing (Wulf, 2013;Wulf & Prinz, 2001). However, during the past decade, several authors have challenged Wulf and colleagues' work (Herrebrøden, 2023;Montero et al., 2021). ...
... Moreover, the attentional focus effect explained through the constrained action hypothesis relies on experimental designs that study closed skills in controlled conditions (see Wulf, 2013). The ecological validity of these studies has been challenged (Montero, 2016;Montero et al., 2021). ...
This study aimed to identify attentional foci and coping strategies of elite fencers during competitive matches, explore the co-occurrences between both, and examine their impact on performance. Twenty-two epeeists (11 males and 11 females) from a national team took part in self-confrontation interviews during two simulated tournaments. Data were analysed using inductive and deductive content analyses. Moreover, a quantitative analysis of qualitative data was conducted to examine the impact of attentional foci and coping strategies on objective performance. Three categories of attentional foci were identified: (a) cues, (b) strategies and tactics and (c) extraneous attention. To depict the coping processes of elite fencers, appraisals, coping strategies and emotions were coded. Coping strategies were mainly task-oriented, and often co-occurred with strategic foci. Analysis of the co-occurrences showed that athletes could combine information from their sensations and their environment during a point. They could also use several coping strategies within or between points. Chi-square tests revealed that focusing on environmental cues, particularly spatial-temporal characteristics, was associated with more touches won and fewer touches lost. Focusing on distance/timing of actions could be relevant cues in elite fencing. Focus on internal aspects did not impair performance in the present sample. This study furthered knowledge of attentional foci and coping strategies described by elite athletes in naturalistic settings. Following the present research results, practitioners should seek to develop pre- and post-point routines that pair taskoriented coping strategies with relevant attentional focus.
... In the experiments, instructing learners to focus on the wheels of a ski simulator (Experiment 1) or the markers on a balance platform (Experiment 2) led to improved motor learning compared to focusing on one's feet. Dozens of studies have since replicated these initial findings (see Wulf, 2007Wulf, , 2013, for reviews). ...
... Previous reviews have argued that research shows benefits of an external focus in four main areas: (a) effectiveness at accuracy and balance tasks; (b) efficiency in electromyographic activity, force production, speed, and endurance tasks; (c) promoting automaticity; and (d) enhancing movement form (Chua et al., 2021;Wulf, 2007Wulf, , 2013Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). A leading explanation for the mechanism causing these benefits is goal-action coupling, a process proposed in Wulf and Lewthwaite's (2016) OPTIMAL theory involving a shift at the neural level that simultaneously directs action toward success and stifles deleterious self-focused cognition. ...
Evidence has ostensibly been accumulating over the past 2 decades suggesting that an external focus on the intended movement effect (e.g., on the golf club during a swing) is superior to an internal focus on body movements (e.g., on your arms during a swing) for skill acquisition. Seven previous meta-studies have all reported evidence of external focus superiority. The most comprehensive of these concluded that an external focus enhances motor skill retention, transfer, and performance and leads to reduced eletromyographic activity during performance and that more distal external foci are superior to proximal external foci for performance. Here, we reanalyzed these data using robust Bayesian meta-analyses that included several plausible models of publication bias. We found moderate to strong evidence of publication bias for all analyses. After correcting for publication bias, estimated mean effects were negligible: g = 0.01 (performance), g = 0.15 (retention), g = 0.09 (transfer), g = 0.06 (electromyography), and g = −0.01 (distance effect). Bayes factors indicated data favored the null for each analysis, ranging from BF01 = 1.3 (retention) to 5.75 (performance). We found clear evidence of heterogeneity in each analysis, suggesting the impact of attentional focus depends on yet unknown contextual factors. Our results contradict the existing consensus that an external focus is always more effective than an internal focus. Instead, focus of attention appears to have a variety of effects that we cannot account for, and, on average, those effects are small to nil. These results parallel previous metascience suggesting publication bias has obfuscated the motor learning literature.
... 12,13 In this way, performance and learning in, for example, aiming tasks (e.g., golf or darts) can benefit from external focus cues (i.e., a focus towards the target or movement effects). 14,15 Where external foci are challenging to identify (e.g., in non-implement tasks), holistic focus cues, which conceptualise the feeling of the movement overall (e.g., 'a smooth rotation', 'explosive on the breakout') have been shown to confer similar learning benefits. 16,17 In contrast, tasks which require the performance of aesthetic/form skills with high precision could also benefit from relevant internal foci (i.e., a focus on component parts of the body movement). ...
... 'Mechanical' movements are indicative of a more conscious form of motor control, as opposed to more automatic modes of control which would typically be characterised by fluidity in movement. 15 It is possible that the coaching of intellectually disabled athletes amplifies any detrimental effects of explicit coach instructions, and in turn any beneficial effects of more implicit, non-prescriptive instructions such as analogies. Given the substantial proportion of intellectually disabled athletes on the British Para Swimming Team (34% at the time of writing), this offers a promising opportunity for future skill acquisition research. ...
In response to calls for examples from sports settings that highlight successful collaborations between skill acquisition specialists and coaches, this study evaluated the effectiveness of a skill acquisition coach education intervention. After an analysis of practice by a skill acquisition specialist, which provided context to impact learning design, two senior coaches from British Para Swimming with no prior knowledge of skill acquisition principles were observed and interviewed. The intervention harnessed coach experiential knowledge by emphasising development in understanding of theory underpinning three key principles of skill acquisition (i) implicit learning, (ii), focus of attention, and (iii) contextual interference, and encouraging informal and experiential learning between sessions. Following the intervention, coaches had adapted their approach to practice design to incorporate theory-informed techniques. Coach observations and interviews highlighted a range of novel findings in skill acquisition. First, outcomes indicated the use of implicit learning techniques in the form of analogy or metaphor cues can facilitate learning for athletes with intellectual disabilities. Second, coaches reported the learning benefits of utilising external and holistic focus cues in the elite athlete setting. Finally, through an increased understanding of the learning-performance distinction, coaches described the benefits of incorporating contextual interference, which emphasised temporal spacing between learning events. The coaches’ interpretation and implementation of skill acquisition theory are discussed with reference to potential avenues of exploration in future research.
... Moreover, the external attentional focus instruction on supra-postural task, compared with the internal one, has led to better postural control (6). The usefulness of external attentional focus in tasks that take time to perform is established as well (4). ...
... This matter is more conspicuous regarding children motor behavior, because as mentioned before, research in this area reported different results. One reason is methodological issue (4). ...
Background: In this research, we investigated the role of conscious control propensity in determining the effects of attentional foci on performance and learning of basketball accuracy pass in children (10-12 years old). Materials and Methods: To determine the children's conscious control propensity, the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale was used. Seventy-two children in two high and low conscious control groups that each group divided to three subgroups (internal, external, and control) entered the acquisition and transfer and retention tests in the basketball accuracy pass task. Results: The results showed that during the acquisition period, low and high conscious control propensity did not have any effect. Though there was a significant interaction between conscious control propensity and attentional foci in transfer and retention tests, but the main effects were not significant. Conclusion: Based on these results, children's motor learning is more effective when the instructions for attentional foci suited their natural tendencies.
... In Experiment 1, we directly manipulated conscious movement investment and investigated whether increased and reduced conscious movement investment differently affected movement inhibition as assessed by the GNG task. A common approach to manipulate conscious movement investment is to provide participants with instructions that encourage them on where to focus (Wulf, 2013). It has been shown that focusing on the movements themselves (i.e., internal focus) increases conscious investment of explicit movement-related knowledge while focusing on the effects of movements (i.e., external focus) reduces conscious movement investment . ...
... To increase conscious movement investment, we instructed participants to direct attention to the movement while performing the GNG task (i.e., internal focus; Wulf and Su, 2007) and compared this with their performance when instructed to focus on the effect of the movement (i.e., external focus). It is presumed that an internal focus increases conscious attention to the movement, which not only results in less fluent (or automatic) movement execution (Kal et al., 2013) but also in worse performance outcomes compared to an external focus (Wulf et al., 1998;Wulf and Prinz, 2001;Wulf and Su, 2007;Wulf, 2013). ...
The relationship between a performer’s conscious involvement or investment in movement control and monitoring and the ability to inhibit the movement is still unclear. We conducted three experiments to investigate whether a higher inclination for conscious movement investment benefits the inhibition of a simple keypress response. In all experiments, the inclination for conscious movement investment was measured with the Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale. In Experiment 1, participants performed the go/no-go task and conscious investment was manipulated by directing conscious attention either to the finger movement (i.e., internal focus) or to the resulting motion of the key (i.e., external focus). The results showed that neither the participants’ inclination for conscious movement investment, nor the direction of conscious attention affected inhibition performance. In Experiment 2, participants performed the stop-signal task, which is more attention demanding than the go/no-go task. The results showed that participants with a high or low inclination for conscious movement investment did not differ in inhibition performance. In Experiment 3 an ego-depletion procedure was included that limits resources for conscious movement investment. Before and after this ego-depletion procedure, participants performed the stop-signal task. The results showed that participants with a high inclination for conscious movement investment slowed down inhibition when they felt mentally depleted, while no slowing down of inhibition was found among participants who felt less depleted and/or had a low inclination for conscious movement investment. Together, the study provides evidence that increased conscious movement investment is beneficial for movement inhibition. Yet, these effects only emerge against the dynamic background of interacting individual (e.g., inclination for conscious movement investment, available attentional resources) and task constraints (e.g., task difficulty).
... Music not only helps reduce the perception of fatigue through changes in attentional focus [20], but also promotes an improvement in the efficiency of muscle contractions [41]. The relationship between attention and muscular efficiency is described by the constrained action hypothesis [42]. It suggests that focusing attention on external elements, such as emotions or memories evoked by music, rather than on internal muscular sensations, may facilitate the use of more automatic control mechanisms. ...
... This approach could contribute to greater fluidity and stability of muscle contraction, promoting more gradual and efficient recruitment of motor units without the interruption of conscious monitoring of actions [43]. Conversely, focusing on one's muscular sensations (internal attention) during a task could lead to a more conscious and deliberate control of the action, which may interfere with the efficiency of the contraction, resulting in a less stable and more fragmented execution [42,44]. ...
External motivational stimuli have been shown to improve athletic performance. However, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this improvement remain poorly understood. This randomized crossover study investigated the effects of music and verbal encouragement on measures of muscle excitation and myoelectric manifestations of fatigue in the biceps brachii (BB) and brachioradialis (BR) muscles during an endurance task. Fifteen untrained (mean age 29.57 ± 2.77 years) and 13 trained individuals (mean age 32.92 ± 2.90 years) were included. The endurance task, performed to exhaustion, consisted of keeping the dominant arm flexed to 90 degrees while holding a dumbbell loaded to 80% of 1RM with a supine grip in three randomized conditions: standard, with self-selected music, and with verbal encouragement. The untrained subjects showed an increase in task duration of 15.26% (p < 0.003) with music and 15.85% (p < 0.002) with verbal encouragement compared to the condition without external stimuli. There were no significant differences in the myoelectric manifestations of fatigue between the dif-ferent conditions. Regarding the muscle excitation metrics, although the mean amplitude, peak value and area under the curve remained unchanged across conditions, a significant reduction in the trend coefficient, indicating motor unit recruitment over time, was observed with both music (BB: -10.39%, p < 0.001; BR: -9.40%, p < 0.001) and verbal encouragement (BB: -7.61%, p < 0.001; BR: -6.51%, p < 0.001) compared to the standard condition. For the trained participants, no significant differences were observed between conditions in terms of task duration and outcome measures related to muscle excitation and myoelectric manifestations of fatigue, suggesting the possible presence of a ceiling effect on motivation. These results highlight the significant role of external motivational stimuli, such as music and verbal encouragement, in improving task performance in untrained subjects, probably through more ef-fective and efficient recruitment of motor units.
... According to the OPTIMAL theory, the combination of attentional (EF) and motivational (EE & AS) factors is proposed to improve functional connectivity across brain regions, due to dopaminergic responses associated with reward (i.e., successful performance), to prepare the motor system for action and clarifying task-goals through the suppression of unwanted neuromuscular activity to promote motor system self-organisation (i.e., more effective goal-action coupling) (Foreman et al., 2014;Jenkinson & Brown, 2011;Meadows, Gable, Lohse, & Miller, 2016;Wulf, 2013;Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). The finding suggests that in the OPT condition goals were more effectively coupled with actions leading to better DC scores. ...
An external focus of attention, enhanced expectancies, and autonomy support (i.e., OPTIMAL factors) are key factors to optimise motor performance and uncover latent movement capabilities. However, research on the combination of OPTIMAL factors, particularly in children's dynamic movement settings is limited. Therefore, this study examined the combined effects of OPTIMAL factors on children's performance on a dynamic movement assessment battery, hypothesising higher performance scores in the optimised version of the assessment battery versus standardised version of the assessment. Forty-nine children (15 boys, 34 girls; mean age 10.61 ± 1.38 years) completed the Dragon Challenge (DC) dynamic movement assessment battery. Performance was measured via a summation of movement process (technique), outcome, and time-to-completion scores (max score N = 54) with higher scores representing better performance. Participants completed a standardised and an optimised version of the DC in a counterbalanced fashion. For the latter, DC protocols were optimised via the provision of choice (autonomy support); external focus instructions augmented by simple knowledge statement, positive feedback and promotion of a growth mindset (Enhanced expectancies). Results indicate that motor performance (DC score) was better in the optimised (M = 31.08 ± 6.66) vs. standardised (M = 29.04 ± 5.88). The findings indicate that the combination of OPTIMAL factors can improve children's motor performance in dynamic movement settings and that standardised motor assessment may not reveal children's true movement capabilities.
... Or, it can be a dynamic interactive focus (Gose and Abraham 2021), centered on the interactive relationship of the body to the environment via sensory gateways. Although plentiful research concludes that an external focus is a more efficacious strategy for learning motor skills (Wulf 2013), other research is mixed (Beilock et al. 2002;Perkins-Ceccato, Passmore, and Lee 2003;Toner and Moran 2015). In both performance or learning contexts, teachers often use an internal focus for a variety of purposes, including exploring body awareness and sensations, facilitating habit reeducation, fostering presentcentered awareness, providing relevant perceptual or kinesthetic information (Guss-West and Wulf 2016), or as a stimulus to inspire expressive movement. ...
... external focus) results in superior motor performance compared to those instructions that focus attention on the movement (e.g. internal focus) (see Wulf, 2013 andYamada, Higgins &Raisbeck, 2022 for reviews). The findings of Castaneda and Gray (2007) are consistent with the predictions of the challenge point framework. ...
... For example, the statement "Better good, good well done" could be considered as enhanced expectancies but neutral in the attentional focus and autonomy categories. As there were occasions where a statement could be coded to more than one category (e.g., attentional focus and autonomy), each statement was coded three times (Halperin et al., 2016) Statements which directed attention to the intended movement effect or outcome (e.g., "dribbling around trying to keep the ball nice and low" [sic]) were coded as EF (Wulf, 2013). In contrast, statements which directed attention to the self, body parts or muscle groups were coded as IF (e.g., "elbows out, extend your arms"; Wulf, 2013). ...
In physical education (PE), the use of instruction and feedback is central to children’s motor skill learning. Recently, it has been identified that instruction, and feedback, which promote OPTIMAL theory motor learning factors (e.g., an external focus of attention, enhanced expectancies, and autonomy support) can enhance children’s motor learning. However, it is unclear how PE teachers use OPTIMAL instructional approaches and therefore, was examined in the present study. Verbal statements ( n = 5,765) from seven PE teachers (mean age: 39.29 ± 7.19 years) over 10 PE lessons were collected and thematically analyzed. Results indicate that PE teachers use more externally focused (25%) versus internally focused (10%) instructional behaviors. Moreover, PE teachers used instructional approaches that enhanced (35%) as compared with diminished expectancies (8%) in addition to statements which supported (35%) rather than thwarted (23%) autonomy. Overall, PE teachers appear to use instructional behaviors which support OPTIMAL motor learning; however, more efforts are needed to improve the provision of optimized instructional behaviors. Additionally, the findings indicate that OPTIMAL instructions and feedback are rarely delivered in isolation and may be influenced by the contextual factors of PE and sometimes conflict in their delivery (i.e., externally focused and autonomy thwarting).
... Attentional focus and perceived pressure. The effect of attentional focus [2,42,43] was controlled at the end of Phases 2, 3, and 4 when participants were asked about where they had focused their attention during the throws, using the following question: "In this phase, during the dart throws, where did you focus your attention: (a) on the dartboard, where you wanted to aim the dart (External Focus); (b) on the arm-hand position, the sensations and movement of the body and arms (Internal Focus); and (c) mixed, alternating between both (Mixed Focus)". At the same time, and to assess whether the pressure to achieve the maximum number of points was influenced by the information received, they had to quantify this pressure on a scale that ranged from 0 ("I didn't notice any pressure") to 10 ("I noticed a lot of pressure"). ...
Featured Application: This study's results can be applied in sports coaching and rehabilitation by using attributional negative feedback to enhance motor performance and improve skill retention, providing a more effective approach for teaching and training motor tasks. Abstract: Augmented feedback can alter motor performance. We examined if presenting attribu-tional versus non-attributional negative normative feedback differently impacted short-term motor performance. With a double-blind experimental design, 49 students (36.7% female, Mage = 17.14 and SD = ±0.35) were assigned to the following two groups: G1: Attributional Negative Normative Feedback group (n = 24) and G2: Non-Attributional Negative Normative Feedback group (n = 25), with the dependent variable being the score obtained on a dart-throwing test. The results showed that those participants who received negative social comparative feedback presented in an attribu-tional way (internal, controllable, and unstable) obtained higher scores in the dart throwing task than those who received negative social comparative feedback presented in a non-attributional way. Furthermore, these differences were maintained in the retention and transfer tests conducted 24 h after the practice phase. These findings have practical implications in motor behavior learning and performance.
... x ± s movement) [20][21][22] found that during the maximal isometric contraction of BB, healthy subjects who directed their attention to the bent rod of the device (external focus) achieved greater PT in the elbow exor muscle compared to when they focused on the arm muscles (internal focus) 21 . Moreover, Wulf et al. observed that participants who focused on an external focus could generate more power, resulting in a higher vertical jump 23 . ...
Current clinical practice lacks quantitative assessment methods for elbow joint movements. In response to existing research limitations, this study introduces the innovative elbow joint torque measurement device (EJTMD), which concurrently measures muscle strength and active range of motion (AROM) using multi-source sensing detection technology. Healthy subjects (n=22) and stroke patients (n=22) were recruited in this randomized crossover study. Each participant underwent two measurement methods: EJTMD or traditional tools like a protractor and muscle strength tester. Participants were randomly allocated to EJTMD first or traditional tools first. The efficacy of EJTMD was assessed by comparing muscle strength and AROM with traditional tools. Integrated EMG (iEMG) and root mean square (RMS) were utilized to analyze outcomes during elbow movements. The peak torque (PT) and peak torque/body weight (PT/BW) were examined to explore the differences in mechanical characteristics of bilateral elbow joints. Motor evoked potentials (MEP) and central motor conduction time (CMCT) were employed to investigate potential mechanisms of underlying motor discrepancies post-stroke. EJTMD demonstrates superior muscle strength, AROM, iEMS, and RMS during elbow movements compared to traditional tools ( P <0.05). Repeated EJTMD measurement outcomes have a good correlation on the same day (r≥0.999, P <0.001). EJTMD exhibits a statistic difference in measurement outcomes pre- and post-treatment among stroke patients than traditional tools ( P <0.05). Stroke patients reveal weaker PT and PT/BW on the lesion side during low-speed testing ( P <0.05). Stroke patients show decreased iEMS and RMS on the affected side during elbow movements ( P <0.05), with prolonged MEP latency and CMCT ( P <0.001), and reduced MEP amplitude ( P <0.001). Based on the results, EJTMD demonstrates reliability and effectiveness in elbow movements for healthy subjects and stroke patients, showing sensitivity to minor joint changes. Stroke patients have decreased flexor and extensor function on the lesion side, potentially due to blocked corticospinal tract conduction.
... Adaptif biyofeedback sistemleri, sporcuların antrenman sırasındaki fizyolojik tepkilerini izleyerek anında geri bildirim sağlamaktadır. Bu sistemler, sporcuların kalp atış hızı, solunum frekansı ve kas aktivasyonu gibi parametreleri takip eder ve bu verilere dayalı olarak antrenman yoğunluğunu ayarlamalarına yardımcı olur (Wulf, 2013). Biyofeedback teknikleri, sporcuların hareketlerini ve tekniklerini doğru bir şekilde uygulamalarını sağlar ve bu da adaptasyonların daha verimli bir şekilde gerçekleşmesine katkıda bulunur. ...
Antrenman bilimi, sporcuların performansını artırmak ve uzun vadeli başarı sağlamak için sürekli gelişen bir alan olmuştur. Ancak günümüzün dinamik spor dünyasında, sadece kısa vadeli performans artışı değil, uzun süreli sürdürülebilir bir gelişim de giderek daha fazla önem kazanmaktadır. Sürdürülebilirlik kavramı, antrenman bilimi içinde, hem sporcuların fiziksel ve zihinsel sağlığını korumayı hem de spor kaynaklarını ve çevresel etkiyi optimize etmeyi içerir. Bu bağlamda, sürdürülebilir bir antrenman yönetimi, sporcuların uzun yıllar boyunca en üst düzeyde performans gösterebilmesi ve sporun gelecek nesiller için aynı etkiyi devam ettirebilmesi açısından kritik bir rol oynamaktadır. Antrenman bilimi alanında sürdürülebilirlik, üç temel bileşen etrafında şekillenir: fizyolojik, psikolojik ve çevresel. Fizyolojik sürdürülebilirlik, sporcuların aşırı antrenman, sakatlık ve yorgunluk gibi sorunlarla karşılaşmadan gelişimlerini sürdürebilmelerini sağlamayı hedefler. Psikolojik sürdürülebilirlik ise sporcuların zihinsel dayanıklılığını artırarak, motivasyonlarının uzun süre devam etmesine katkı sağlar. Çevresel sürdürülebilirlik ise antrenman süreçlerinde kullanılan malzeme, ekipman ve tesislerin çevre dostu olmasını ve antrenmanların doğaya minimum zarar vermesini içerir. Bu noktada, nitel araştırmalar, sürdürülebilir antrenman uygulamalarının anlaşılması ve geliştirilmesi açısından önemli bir yöntemdir. Niteliksel araştırma yöntemleri, sporcuların bireysel deneyimlerini, antrenörlerin stratejilerini ve uzun vadeli başarı planlarını daha derinlemesine anlamamıza olanak tanır. Mülakatlar, vaka incelemeleri ve katılımcı gözlem gibi nitel yöntemler, sürdürülebilir antrenman programlarının nasıl yapılandırılması gerektiği konusunda değerli bilgiler sunar. Örneğin, nitel araştırmalar yoluyla sporcuların antrenman süreçlerinde karşılaştıkları zorluklar, motivasyon kayıpları ya da sürdürülebilir bir başarı için hangi stratejilerin daha etkili olduğu gibi sorulara yanıt bulmak mümkündür. Aynı şekilde, antrenörlerin sürdürülebilirlik konusundaki bakış açıları, bu alandaki politikaların ve uygulamaların iyileştirilmesine yardımcı olabilir. Bu kitap, antrenman bilimi alanında sürdürülebilirlik konusunu derinlemesine ele almakta ve bu süreçte nitel araştırmaların nasıl bir katkı sağladığını irdelemektedir. Kitap boyunca, antrenmanların sürdürülebilirliğini artırmak için kullanılabilecek stratejilere ve bu stratejilerin uygulanabilirliğini destekleyen nitel araştırma bulgularına yer verilecektir. Sporcu sağlığı ve performansının sürdürülebilirliği üzerine odaklanan bu çalışma hem akademisyenler hem de pratikte çalışan antrenörler için değerli bir kaynak olmayı hedeflemektedir. Ayrıca bu kitap Sürdürülebilir Spor ve Niteliksel Araştırmalar Serimizin üçüncü kitabını oluşturmaktadır. Alan yazına bilimsel olarak büyük anlamlar katacak bir araştırma kitabı olması temennisiyle.
... An indicator of motor skill learning is a more accurate throw obtained through the optimization of throwing movement (i.e., reduction of error; Jackson et al., 2019;Lefebvre et al., 2012;Shmuelof et al., 2012). Moreover, higher movement consistency (i.e., lower movement variability) between throws contributes to defining a high skill level of performance (Guthrie, 1935;Wulf, 2013). These changes are indicative of improved feedback control and suggest that motor and sensory cortical representations play a pivotal role in reducing such variability (Shmuelof et al., 2012). ...
... This highlights the impact of concentration on selective muscle recruitment during training. Fostering a mind-muscle connection may allow certain synergists to be voluntarily activated at higher levels than they would through passive recruitment alone (Calatayud et al., 2017;Wulf, 2013). ...
Understanding muscle activation during exercises is crucial for devising effective training programs. We examined correlations between self-reported and electromyographic (EMG) muscle activity during upper-body exercises performed at loads corresponding to 4-6 repetition maximums (RMs). Thirteen male sub-elite soccer players who had previously engaged in resistance training participated in two testing sessions. In the initial session, the loads corresponding to 4–6 repetitions were determined for six exercises: Lat Pull Down (LPD), Barbell Bent Over Row (BBOR), Dumbbell Row (DR), Barbell Pull Over (BPO), Dumbbell Reverse Fly (DRF), and Dumbbell Concentration Curl (DCC). At post-exercise, participants rated their perceived muscle activation for three targeted muscles in each exercise on a 1–10 point Likert scale (LS). In the subsequent session, we used EMG to measure the activity of eight agonist and synergist muscles during these exercises. We found that one of two synergist muscles consistently demonstrated higher activity levels. Interestingly, we observed no difference in activity between primary and secondary (or synergist) muscles across all exercises. Most importantly, we found no significant correlation between the perceived muscle activation rate and the EMG measured activation level for any exercise. In conclusion, our findings suggest that, despite differential muscle activity during specific exercises, self-reported muscle activation may not accurately correspond to actual muscle activation, as measured via EMG, due to the participants’ poor interoceptive awareness of muscles. These data highlight the potential limitations of relying on perceived muscle activation as a sole gauge of training intensity.
... According to several studies, the focus of attention an athlete chooses when jumping is an important factor that can affect jump distance and the underlying kinematics that influence distance [1,[6][7][8]. The focus of attention has typically been considered in a dichotomy, comparing an internal and external focus of attention, which has been studied by researchers in different skills for over 25 years [9][10][11]. Based on the extant evidence in this body of literature, it appears that the use of an external focus of attention during the performance of sports skills, regardless of the level and type of skill, can be superior to the use of an internal focus of attention on motor performance and learning [11]. ...
Standing long jump is known as one of the important skills in the success of athletes in most sports. In addition, one of the most effective factors that can affect standing long jump distance and kinematics is the focus of attention used by the athlete. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention instructions on standing long jump performance and kinematics. The participants were 30 novices (all males; mean age = 21.70 ± 2.21 years; mean height = 175.73 ± 6.09 cm; and mean weight = 73.76 ± 11.77 kg) who performed 12 standing long jumps in four focus of attention conditions. Internal focus, external focus, holistic focus, and control conditions were implemented in a counterbalanced order. Jump distance and maximum knee flexion angle before take-off were recorded in all trials. The results showed that in relation to the standing long jump performance, the distance was similar in external and holistic focus conditions, and both were superior to internal or control conditions. There was no difference between control and internal focus of attention conditions. The results related to movement kinematics, however, did not report a difference between the maximum flexion angles before take-off. This study replicates the benefits of external and holistic focus instructions for jump distance, but this difference was not a product of different maximum knee flexion angles. It is suggested that coaches implement external and/or holistic focus cues to maximize athlete performance in jumping tasks.
... Research on focus of attention is mainly concerned with the question of whether an external focus of attention (focusing on movement effects) or an internal focus of attention (focusing on movement form) is more conducive to movement learning. The large majority of research indicates that an external focus of attention in different contexts, such as task type or age groups, leads to improved outcomes of both movement effectiveness (e.g., accuracy, balance) and movement efficiency (e.g., muscle activity, cardiovascular responses) (Wulf, 2013). Overall, an external focus of attention appears to be a beneficial condition for optimal motor learning. ...
Background
In research on instructional quality, the generic model of the three basic dimensions is an established framework, which postulates that the three dimensions of classroom management, student support and cognitive activation represent quality characteristics of instruction that can be generalized across subjects. However, there are hardly any studies that examine if the three basic dimensions model could represent a suitable approach to measure instructional quality in physical education. Based on an extended model of the basic dimensions, a measurement model of instructional quality for physical education is presented, which integrates different theoretical approaches from the fields of educational and psychological research as well as different subfields of sports science in order to test the factorial structure of the corresponding measurement model.
Methods
1,047 students from 72 seventh to ninth grade classes from different German-speaking Swiss cantons participated in the study. The conceptualization of the instrument is based on a hybrid approach that integrates generic and subject-specific characteristics. The simultaneous analysis at the individual and class level using MCFA was supplemented by more complex methodological techniques within the relatively new B-ESEM framework at the individual level.
Results
The postulated five-factor structure was initially tested using ICM-CFA and showed a good model fit (e.g., χ²/df = 2.32, RMSEA = 0.03, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97, SRMR = 0.04). MCFA revealed a differential factorial structure at both levels of analysis with five factors at the individual level and four factors at the class level (e.g., χ²/df = 2.23, RMSEA = 0.03, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.96, SRMR within = 0.04, SRMR between = 0.10). ESEM and B-ESEM outperformed the ICM-CFA and showed an excellent model fit (B-ESEM: χ²/df = 1.19, RMSEA = 0.01, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, SRMR = 0.01). Inter-factor correlations and factor loadings are largely in line with expectations, indicating arguments for construct validity.
Discussion
The study represents a substantial contribution in linking physical education and the generic research on instructional quality. Overall, strong arguments for the factorial structure of the measurement model were demonstrated. The study can be interpreted as a first step in a multi-step procedure in terms of further validity arguments.
... In addition, future studies could include a larger sample with greater variance in skill ability, while using a longitudinal Franks et al. 10.3389/fspor.2024.1220795 Frontiers in Sports and Active Living approach, to extend our understanding of the factors that influence reinvestment (7, 54,55). ...
Introduction
Attaining movement proficiency under various constraints is well-researched; of particular interest here is how conscious processing and self-consciousness influence learning and performance. Current research relevant to these variables e.g., reinvestment, tends to utilize quantitative methods and thus overlooks a potentially rich source of understanding. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to apply a qualitative approach to explore the cognitive processes and self-consciousness within a less practiced population of adults participating in a non-competitive leisure activity.
Methods
To achieve this, eleven semi-structured interviews were conducted with adult women learning or relearning to ride a bicycle.
Results
Using thematic analysis, two distinct themes were evident and corroborated those illustrated in scales such as the movement-specific reinvestment scale. These themes included Conscious Processing, Recalling Experiences and Movement Analysis, in addition to Style of Movement, and Self-Consciousness. Anxiety also emerged as an additional and relevant theme to learning a new complex movement skill.
Discussion
The findings indicated that participating women attuned to their movements to the extent that there was a conscious attempt to control their movements, but less so regarding movements being altered by self-awareness. Whilst further research is required, qualitative methods provide a promising basis for exploring the cognitive process involved with the conscious process involved in learning.
... Furthermore, the DL group appears to lead to even better performances than the EF group. Finally, it is suggested that in the initial stages of the learning process 9 as well as the initial phases of rehabilitation after ACL reconstruction, 36 IF should be used to teach correct movement patterns. 9 Then, as the athlete progresses and performs movements with high-level neuromuscular control, the IF should be removed and EF should be used for maximum retention, transfer, and automaticity of sport-specific movements. ...
Context : The best current evidence supports the effectiveness of neuromuscular training in reducing the risk of injury; however, the rate of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries is still high. Neurocognitive training (NT) has successfully improved biomechanical risk factors, but they have been considered in only a few studies. Objective : To review the literature to determine the effect of NT on biomechanical risk factors related to ACL injury in athletes. Evidence Acquisition : We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Science Direct, and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database from inception to August 2011. We included randomized controlled trials that used motor learning approaches and injury prevention programs to investigate kinematic and kinetic risk factors related to ACL injury. The quality of each clinical trial study was evaluated by the Physiotherapy Evidence Database scale. The eligibility criteria were checked based on the PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and study type) framework. Evidence Synthesis : A total of 9 studies were included in the final analysis. Motor learning approaches include internal and external focus of attention, dual tasks, visual motor training, self-control feedback, differential learning, and linear and nonlinear pedagogy, combined with exercise programs. In most of the studies that used NT, a significant decrease in knee valgus; tibial abduction and external rotation; ground reaction force; and an increase in knee-, trunk-, hip-, and knee-flexion moment was observed. Conclusion : In classical NT, deviation from the ideal movement pattern especially emphasizing variability and self-discovery processes is functional in injury prevention and may mitigate biomechanical risk factors of ACL injuries in athletes. Practitioners are advised to use sport-specific cognitive tasks in combination with neuromuscular training to simulate loads of the competitive environment. This may improve ACL injury risk reduction and rehabilitation programs.
Motor performance has been shown to be superior when focusing on a physically farther environmental cue (external focus-far, EF-far) instead of a cue proximal to the body (EF-near). However, little is known about whether these foci affect bimanual tasks. Further, the effect of visual information on attentional focus is unclear. In the present study, healthy young participants were assigned to one of the internal focus (IF; n = 17), EF-far ( n = 17), or EF-near ( n = 17) groups and completed a tracking task on one day and two dual tasks on another day. During the dual-task tests, participants responded to auditory or visual stimuli while performing the primary tracking task. Results showed that both EF groups outperformed the IF group. Our results revealed that the EF groups improved in movement time and error, but the IF group did not improve in errors across the experiment. No distance effect was found. Also, the EF benefits over IF did not appear until later blocks of trials. Regarding the effect of vision, the distance effect was evident only during the auditory dual task condition, but not during the visual dual task condition when the primary task was distracted by the visual secondary task.
Foot position during landing directly influences knee mechanics. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine success in practicing, repeating, and transferring a desired foot progression angle (FPA) during landing, as well as changes in knee mechanics. Twenty females were randomly assigned to a control or verbal instruction group. On day 1, each group performed 40 drop landings. The verbal instruction group was instructed to “Land with 30 degrees of external rotation” before every trial. Feedback was provided on a terminal schedule in the form of knowledge of FPA error. On day 2, retention was assessed with 5 drop landings, while transfer was assessed during a 2-step stop-jump landing. Repeated-measures analyses of variance (2 × 4 [group × time]) were used to assess the influence of verbal instruction on knee mechanics. Participants who received verbal instruction exhibited increased FPA. They also demonstrated increased initial contact knee abduction during acquisition and retention. For all participants, initial contact knee flexion increased, while peak knee adduction moment decreased during acquisition. While the verbal instruction cue was effective in promoting an increase in FPA and reducing some ACL injury risk factors during practice and retention, this cue may only be effective to tasks similar to what was practiced.
Background and Purpose
Chronic diabetes is a prevalent systemic disease that impairs neuromotor functioning and often leads to increased risk of falls. Adopting an external focus of attention during motor skill practice has been shown to improve learning outcomes; however, it has not been examined in this population. We examined how attentional focus instructions (internal vs external) affect balance performance and learning in older adults with and without diabetes.
Methods
Fifty-three older adults (27 with diabetes, 63.7 ± 7.0 years) participated in the randomized, pre-post intervention study. The balance training involved 50 practice trials of a stabilometer task that was novel to all participants. Participants were randomized to receive either internal or external focus task instruction. Task performance was assessed at baseline, during training, and during a retention test. Primary outcomes were changes in balance task performance before and after training.
Results
Participants who received external focus instruction showed a significantly greater increase in balance performance than individuals who received internal focus instruction (95% confidence interval, 0.02-4.05; P = 0.048). While participants with diabetes exhibited poorer baseline task performance ( P = 0.02), both groups improved their relative task performance after training (95% confidence interval, 5.25-18.14; P < 0.0001).
Discussion and Conclusions
Adopting an external focus of attention benefits performance during short-term training of a novel balance task in older adults with and without diabetes. Participants with diabetes were capable of learning the challenging balance task with practice, at a relative rate similar to those without diabetes. This information may be useful for designing interventional strategies to improve physical function and mitigate fall risks in older adults with diabetes.
Background
Stroke is one of the leading causes of chronic disability worldwide. Sensorimotor recovery relies on principles of motor learning for the improvement of movement and sensorimotor function after stroke. Motor learning engages several cognitive processes to effectively learn and retain new motor skills. However, cognitive impairments are common and often coexist with motor impairments after stroke. The specific relationships between poststroke cognitive impairments and motor learning have not been determined.
Objectives
To summarize the existing evidence related to cognitive impairments and motor learning after stroke. Specific goals were to determine: (1) how motor learning is studied in individuals with poststroke cognitive impairments; (2) how cognitive impairments are assessed; (3) which cognitive domains impact motor learning.
Results
Over 400 studies were screened for specific inclusion criteria and 19 studies that related poststroke cognitive impairments to motor learning were included. Studies used a wide variety of experimental designs, sample sizes, and measures for cognitive evaluation. Cognitive impairments impacting motor improvement and learning capacity after stroke were reported in all but 4 studies. The most common domains impacting motor learning were attention, executive function, and memory.
Conclusion
Detailed cognitive assessments, retention testing, and a combination of clinical and kinematic outcomes are recommended for future studies. The presence of specific cognitive impairments measured with sensitive instruments should be considered when designing effective training interventions for patients with stroke to maximize sensorimotor recovery.
Background: Poststroke hemiparesis presents with motor asymmetry and decreased postural control leading to functional limitations. Serious games (SG) for balance rehabilitation of people with stroke may improve motor recovery, and the visual and auditory feedback provided by the SGs helps to explain the therapeutic benefits. However, the contribution of SG combined with kinesthetic and verbal cues during balance training has not been investigated. The aim of this study is to compare the effects of two feedback conditions for an SG balance intervention, with or without the addition of kinesthetic and verbal cues, on balance performance of people with stroke. Methods: Thirty people with chronic poststroke hemiparesis and balance impairment participated in this randomized controlled trial and performed 14 individual SG training sessions combined with kinesthetic and verbal cues provided by the physical therapist or with SG's feedback only. Outcomes were assessed before training (pre), 1 week after the end of training (post), and 8 weeks after the end of training, which were adopted as the follow-up period, using the Balance Evaluation Systems Test, Lower Limb Subscale of Fugl-Meyer, six-minute walk test, and Stroke-Specific Quality of Life Scale. Results: The results showed that SG combined with kinesthetic and verbal cues improved outcomes relating to lower limb function and some balance domains (biomechanical constraints and limits of stability outcomes) better than with SG's feedback only. Both groups had similar significant improvement in quality of life and long-distance walking performance. Conclusion: This study is the first to directly compare two feedback conditions for SG-based balance intervention. The addition of kinesthetic and verbal cues during the SG balance improved aspects of postural control better than without this form of feedback.
Psychological interventions to enhance musicians’ self-regulation are increasingly being recognized as essential for supporting them in their development and optimization of performance skills. The aim of this review was to provide a synthesis of such interventions and examine their effects on expert-rated music performance quality. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) protocol, we initially identified 3,182 articles, of which we selected 89 studies. Using the theoretical framework of self-regulated learning, we present a comprehensive overview of experimental, quasi-experimental, and single-case studies published until April 2022 that tested how musicians can improve their performance through self-regulation strategies such as goal setting, imagery, attention focusing, relaxation, and self-evaluation. The results show mixed evidence with mostly positive or non-significant effects, indicating that expressive writing, external focus, feedback, combined electromyographic (EMG) and electroencephalographic (EEG) biofeedback, and imagery combined with physical practice can increase expert-rated music performance quality. The reported methodological quality, the applied performance task and evaluation, and potential mechanisms underlying the interventions should be considered when interpreting the results. We critically discuss possible improvements for future studies, as well as practical implications.
The OPTIMAL Theory of Motor-Skill learning—Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning—identifies three factors we need to succeed. First, enhanced expectations help us to expect reward, so we put in the necessary effort to obtain it. Positive feedback is a key in continuing to expect the best results. Second, autonomy helps us to put the task first by reducing concerns about our abilities or how we manage ourselves. Third, external focus of attention optimizes our motion and musicality when we plan and make motor movements. The OPTIMAL theory holds that reward, satisfaction, and success can flow in a virtuous and positive cycle for rewarding, successful practicing. I introduce external focus cues that coordinate with different kinds of learning and cover a sampling found in recent research that benefits musicians. High-level external-focus cues incorporate our senses and emotion. Finally, I suggest a summary for incorporating all the methods presented in Chaps. 3–5, covering both explicit and implicit learning for musicians.
Stereotype threat, a key concept in social psychology, occurs when individuals fear they may confirm negative stereotypes about their social group (Steele, 1997). This phenomenon can significantly impair motor learning, particularly in children. Given the robust nature of stereotype threat, research it is now focused on mitigating these negative effects. According to the explicit monitoring hypothesis, it is suggested that distracting individual’s attention can lead to an annihilation of stereotype threat effects, however, to date, this hypothesis has not been examined in children. The present study examined the effect of stereotype threat in a dual task condition on children’s motor learning. One hundred and fifty girls (mean age = 10.96 ± 0.80 years) were randomly assigned into 3 groups; 1- explicit gender stereotype threat; 2- explicit gender stereotype threat + dual task; 3- control. The task consisted of a soccer-kicking task in which the participants had to score the most points by kicking the soccer ball towards the goals on the wall. This study included three phases; 1- pretest (10 trials); 2- practice phase (5 blocks of 10 trials); 3- retention test (10 trials). During the practice phase, the results indicated that participants in the control condition performed better (M =1.46, SD =.19) than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (M =1.25, SD =.16, p < .001), and, than participants in the gender stereotype threat + dual task paradigm condition (M =.92, SD =.19, p < .001). However, participants in the gender stereotypes + dual task paradigm condition performed worse than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (p < .001). In addition, the results of the retention test showed that participants in the control condition performed better (M = 1.51, SD =.34) than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (M =1.24, SD =.35, p = .001), and participants in the gender stereotype threat + dual task paradigm condition (M =1.15, SD =.49, p < .001). In conclusion, these results do not support the potential neutralizing effect of a cognitive dual task in a stereotype threat condition in children.
Background and Aims Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is one of the most common and serious injuries of the knee joint, which accounts for 80% of all knee ligament surgeries. Studies have shown that a significant percentage of this injury (70%) occurs in a non-contact form, usually during activities like deceleration, landing, or side cutting. Studies have shown that focus instructions could improve and promote performance. This study aimed to investigate the acute effect of focus instructions on biomechanical indexes associated with ACL injury prevention. Methods In this research, 24 young football players from the two clubs of the Tehran Premier League, Tehran City, Iran, were randomly divided into two groups: external focus attention (n=12) and internal focus attention (n=12). First, the dynamic postural stability index (DPSI), the peak of vertical, anteroposterior, and mediolateral GRF components, and the rate of loading during the jump-landing movement from a box with 30 cm height were calculated using a force plate with a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz. Then, the internal and external focus instructions were taught to the participants, and the two groups performed a posttest to examine the changes. Statistical methods of repeated measures analysis of variance and paired t test were used to evaluate the changes. Results The results showed significant changes in the vertical component and rate of loading variables in both groups of internal and external focus attention (P≤0.05). However, no significant difference was observed between the two groups in the DPSI, anteroposterior and mediolateral GRF. Conclusion The results of this study showed that acute instructions of both internal and external focus attention can improve landing mechanics and landing-related kinetic variables. It seems that the external focus instructions have increased the motor control of the limb, leading to a further reduction of vertical GRF and the load applied to the lower limb compared to the instructions of internal focus, thus reducing the risk of ACL injury.
Background
Unplanned sidestep cutting and forward single-leg jump-landing contribute to non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in netball. Neuromuscular training programs (NMTPs) have shown promising results in reducing injury risk in certain populations when compliance is high. Compliance is easier to achieve when NMTPs are effective yet require minimal time for completion.
Hypothesis
Once- and thrice-weekly intervention groups would be equally effective in reducing knee abduction and internal rotation moments during forward single-leg jump landing and unplanned sidestep cutting.
Study Design
Randomized controlled trial.
Level of Evidence
Level 3.
Methods
External peak knee abduction and peak knee internal rotation moments during unplanned sidestep cutting and forward single-leg jump-landing were assessed pre- and post-intervention for 17 elite-level female netballers assigned randomly to either a once-weekly or thrice-weekly group. Regular netball training continued throughout the intervention, which lasted 6 weeks (30 minutes/session). One-way analysis of covariance (α = 0.05) was utilized to compare post-intervention peak knee abduction and peak knee internal rotation moments between groups, controlling for pre-intervention knee moments during the forward single-leg jump-landing and unplanned sidestep cut. Paired t tests were used to examine within-group changes in knee moments pre- versus post-intervention.
Results
For unplanned sidestep cuts on the right leg, both groups differed significantly, with the once-weekly group displaying a decrease in peak knee internal rotation moments [ F(1,14) = 5.23; P = 0.04] whereas the thrice-weekly group did not. No other significant group interactions were found.
Conclusion
A condensed NMTP with targeted exercises, performed once-weekly as part of regular training, shows potential to reduce peak knee internal rotation moments that are injurious to the ACL during unplanned sidestep cutting in adult female netballers.
Clinical Relevance
A once-weekly targeted NMTP would pose minimal disruption to a high-performing athlete’s training schedule and likely increase compliance to ensure the success of the NMTP.
A holistic focus (HF) has been found to significantly
improve performance over an internal focus (IF), in a
Q3 similar way to an external focus (EF) (Becker et al., 2019).
There is a need to understand the effectiveness of a HF
by investigating kinematic and kinetic outcome measures.
19 college-aged adults performed 12 vertical jumps under four
conditions in a counterbalanced design. The conditions were,
IF, EF, HF, and control, or no focus condition. All participants
performed the vertical jumps on a force plate with 16 reflective
markers placed on the lower extremities. Separate repeated
measures ANOVAs with Sidak post-hoc were used to analyze
jump height, flight height, peak force, takeoff velocity, and
knee and hip flexion. A significant main effect for jump height
was observed (p<0.001). HF and EF jumped significantly
higher than IF (p<0.001; p<0.001). EF also jumped significantly
higher than control (p<.05). No significant main effects
were observed for any kinematic or kinetic dependent variables.
The results of this experiment support previous research by
observing performance benefits of HF and EF over an IF
(Zhuravleva & Aiken, 2023). However, the benefits of HF and
EF cannot be attributed to the kinetic or kinematic changes.
Background
The acquisition of motor skills is a key element in many sports. A motor learning principle, which is frequently used to support skill acquisition is the application of different attentional foci. The effectiveness of different attentional foci on performance and the learning of motor skills has been investigated in various sports using randomised controlled trials. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of different attentional foci (such as external (EFA) and internal attentional foci (IFA), but also holistic and switching foci) on the performance and learning of a sport-specific motor task in healthy individuals.
Methods
This study was a systematic review with network meta-analysis. We followed the Prisma reporting guideline and the Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews. Cinahl, Embase, Medline and Cochrane Central were searched for eligible studies. Network meta-analyses were performed for the post-acquisition, retention and transfer test endpoints.
Results
Twelve studies were included in the review. At post-acquisition an EFA was the most effective intervention compared to the control intervention (SMD: 0.9855; 95% CI [0.4–1.57]; p : 0.001). At the retention and transfer test endpoints, a holistic focus of attention had the highest effectiveness compared to an IFA (SMD 0.75; 95% CI [−0.1 to 1.6]; p : 0.09) and (SMD 1.16; 95% CI [0.47–1.86]; p : 0.001).
Discussion
For all three endpoints, we analysed a greater effectiveness of an EFA and holistic focus compared to an IFA. Several promising different attentional focus interventions were identified. The largest effects were analysed for a holistic focus. However, only one study used this intervention and therefore there remains uncertainty about the effectiveness. With regard to the inconsistency observed, the analysis at post-acquisition should be interpreted with caution. Modified versions of the EFA were the imagined and the dynamic EFA. Both were only explored in single studies and should therefore be investigated in further follow-up studies that directly compare them.
Initial research evidence suggests that learners may benefit from focussing their attention upon the demonstrated movement of a distal point of an action, also known as end-point trajectory matching. In the present study, verbal instructions were used by rowing coaches to promote either an end-point focus (i.e., the oar blade) or an internal focus of attention (i.e., the rower's movements) amongst novice learners. The goal for the learners was to practice and improve the 'catch', which is the instant that the blade of the oar enters and locks onto the water. The learners were coached in 24 training sessions over a six-week period, they then rowed in retention and transfer tests seven weeks later. The End-point group showed improvements in technique (i.e., more effective and efficient oar placement in the water) at the end of the skill acquisition period and also in retention and transfer conditions. The Internal group did not show the same level of improvement by the end of the acquisition phase but did demonstrate some improvements by the retention and transfer tests. This study suggests that paying attention to the end-point is beneficial for novices learning complex, whole body movements (such as rowing) as well as for relatively simple, precision tasks.
We examined effects of attentional focus on swimming speed. Participants' task was to swim one length of a pool (16 m) using the front crawl stroke. In Experiment 1, intermediate swimmers were given attentional focus instructions related to the crawl arm stroke or the leg kick, respectively. Participants were instructed to focus on "pulling your hands back" or "pushing the instep down" (internal focus), or on "pushing the water back/down" (external focus), respectively. Swim times were significantly shorter with an external focus. In Experiment 2, a control condition was included. Times were significantly faster in the external focus compared with both the internal focus and control conditions. These findings have implications for enhancing performance in swimming.
Porter, JM, Wu, WFW, Crossley, RM, Knopp, SW, and Campbell, OC. Adopting an external focus of attention improves sprinting performance in low-skilled sprinters. J Strength Cond Res 29(4): 947-953, 2015-For more than 10 years, researchers have investigated how the focusing of conscious attention influences motor skill execution. This line of investigation has consistently demonstrated that directing attention externally rather than internally improves motor skill learning and performance. The purpose of this study was to test the prediction that participants completing a 20-m sprint would run significantly faster when using an external focus of attention rather than an internal or no-focus of attention. Participants were college-aged volunteers (N = 84; 42 women, 42 men; mean age = 20.32, SD = 1.73 years) with no prior sprint training. This study used a counterbalanced within-participant design. Each participant completed 3 days of testing, with each day utilizing a different focus of attention (i.e. internal, external, or control). Running times were collected automatically using infrared timing gates. Data were analyzed using a 1-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of the ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for condition, F (1, 83) = 6565.3, p ≤ 0.001. Follow-up analysis indicated that the trials completed in the external focus condition (mean = 3.75 seconds, SD = 0.43) were significantly faster than trials completed in the internal (mean = 3.87 seconds, SD = 0.64) and control conditions (mean = 3.87 seconds, SD = 0.45). The analysis also indicated that the control and internal conditions were not significantly different. The results of this study extend the findings of previous research and demonstrate sprinting performance can be improved by using an external focus of attention.
The attentional focus of an individual can influence performance and physiological outcomes during strength training exercises. However, prior research has largely investigated this issue with male participants performing a biceps curl exercise and has not investigated the full range of attentional focus strategies. In the present experiment, 24 females did a sit-up exercise while adopting an associative or dissociative strategy of attending to cues that were external or internal to result in four conditions: external association, internal association, external dissociation, and internal dissociation. The external association condition produced the lowest electromyographic activity of the abdominal muscles, the lowest heart rate, and the greatest range of movement. The internal dissociation condition produced the lowest level of exercise satisfaction. The results suggest that a focus on the effects of muscle action is the most economical and least strenuous way to exercise with sit-ups and similar forms of exercise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
Wulf and colleagues (e.g., Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999) have demonstrated that the adoption of an external focus of attention is preferable for the learning of complex motor tasks. The present investigation extends the attention focus literature in two ways: (a) it compared the effectiveness of three different foci (internal, proximal external, and distal external) in a sample of skilled performers in a naturalistic environment, and (b) it examined the use of attentional foci under conditions of anxiety. Thirty-three skilled male golfers were assigned to one of three attentional focus groups and completed five blocks of ten pitch shots, three in neutral conditions and two in anxiety conditions. Results from two separate mixed model analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that regardless of anxiety condition, those assigned to a distal external focus of attention performed most accurately (p < 0.05), whereas assignment to an internal focus of attention was associated with the least accurate performance (p < 0.05). Findings offer support for the constrained action hypothesis and point to the importance of skilled performers adopting a distal external focus, especially in competition.
Attentional processes governing skilled motor behavior were examined in two studies. In Experiment 1, fi eld hockey players performed a dribbling task under single-task, dual-task, and skill-focused conditions under both low and high pressure situations. In Experiment 2, skilled soccer players performed a dribbling task under single-task, skill-focused, and process-goal conditions, again under low and high pressure situations. Results replicated recent fi ndings regarding the detrimental effect of skill-focused attention and the facilitative effect of dual-task conditions on skilled performance. In addition, focusing on movement related process goals was found to adversely affect performance. Support for the predictive validity of the Reinvestment Scale was also found, with high reinvesters displaying greater susceptibility to skill failure under pressure. Results were consistent with explicit monitoring theories of choking and are further discussed in light of the conceptual distinction between explicit monitoring and reinvestment of conscious control.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate if children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) would show enhanced motor skill learning with instructions to adopt an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement effect) rather than an internal focus (i.e., on the movements themselves). The task involved throwing tennis balls with the dominant arm at a circular target that was placed on the floor at a distance of 3 m. Twenty children with ADHD, ranging in age from 8 to 11 years, were randomly assigned to either an external or internal focus group. Participants performed 180 practice trials with focus instructions and reminders before each block of 30 trials. Learning was assessed 48 hrs after practice. The external focus group demonstrated more effective learning than the internal focus group. This finding has implications for applied settings that involve sports or physical activity with children who have ADHD.
provide a perspective on the roles of mental control and hedonism in human behavior / the essence of the argument is that mental representations develop as a means of coordinating the conduct of time-consuming actions, and that the attainment of effective coordination—the calibration of mind and action—comes to complement and sometimes supplant simple hedonism as the driving force in thought and behavior
what is the source of plans, goals, motives, and the like that provide the basis for the . . . conscious control of action / how do such representations come to control behavior / are mental representations typically stable over time, providing consistent bases for action, or are they instead malleable, showing dramatic change in response to events and social forces / when does mental control become ineffective or otherwise maladaptive / what is the relationship between mental control and emotion (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ABSTRACT The unconscious mind is still viewed by many psychological scientists as the shadow of a “real” conscious mind, though there now exists substantial evidence that the unconscious is not identifiably less flexible, complex, controlling, deliberative, or action-oriented than is its counterpart. This “conscious-centric” bias is due in part to the operational definition within cognitive psychology that equates unconscious with subliminal. We review the evidence challenging this restricted view of the unconscious emerging from contemporary social cognition research, which has traditionally defined the unconscious in terms of its unintentional nature; this research has demonstrated the existence of several independent unconscious behavioral guidance systems: perceptual, evaluative, and motivational. From this perspective, it is concluded that in both phylogeny and ontogeny, actions of an unconscious mind precede the arrival of a conscious mind—that action precedes reflection.
A growing body of research has demonstrated that the type of information emphasized in the verbal instructions given to individuals can significantly influence subsequent move-ment production as a function of the direction of attentional focus. Specifically, Wulf and colleagues (for reviews, see Wulf, 2007; Wulf & Prinz, 2001) have consistently shown that instructions or feedback which direct performers' and learners' attention toward their own bodily movements (an internal focus of attention) results in poorer movement execution and learning when compared to instructions which emphasize directing atten-tion toward the intended effects of the movements (an external focus of attention). Such findings have been demonstrated with sports skills (e.g., golf: Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999; soccer: Wulf, McConnel, Gärtner, & Schwarz, 2002), core movements skills (e.g., Novices threw darts during two sessions (one week apart) using either internal or external attentional focusing instructions. During session one, participants used internal instructions for half the throws and external instructions for the other half of the throws, whereas session two required the use of only one strategy for all throws. Accuracy during session one was not affected by attentional strategy, although a significant interaction indicated that accuracy is influenced when changing from one strategy to the other. After session one, significantly more participants reported a preference for the external instructions. During session two, the external strategy group was significantly more accurate than the internal group. Of those using the external strategy, participants indicating an internal strategy preference after prac-tice were significantly less accurate than those who indicated a preference for the external strategy. Participants rated their preferred strategy as requiring less effort than the alternative.
I t is well documented that directing attention externally enhances motor skill learning and performance under controlled experimental conditions. What is not well understood is how verbal instructions (VI) and feedback provided by coaches in authentic environments influences athletes' focus of attention. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the type of VI and feedback provided by experienced coaches during practice, and how this information influenced elite athletes' focus of attention during competition. Participants were athletes competing at the USA Track and Field Outdoor National Championships. Participants completed a survey inquiring about the VI and feedback provided during practice and what they focused on while competing. The data revealed that 84.6% of the participants reported that coaches provided instructions during practice that promoted an internal focus of attention. Participants also reported they utilize internal focus cues 69% of the time during competition. These results suggest that this sample of coaches provided instructions that focused athletes' attention internally. This practice strategy is inconsistent with motor learning research, which shows learning and performance are enhanced when using an external focus of attention during motor skill execution. Recommendations are made to improve coaching education curriculums, bridging the gap between science and application.
Discusses issues in the cognitive representation and control of action from the perspective of action identification theory. This theory holds that any action can be identified in many ways, ranging from low-level identities that specify how the action is performed to high-level identities that signify why or with what effect the action is performed. The level of identification most likely to be adopted by an actor is dictated by processes reflecting a trade-off between concerns for comprehensive action understanding and effective action maintenance. This suggests that the actor is always sensitive to contextual cues to higher levels of identification but moves to lower levels of identification if the action proves difficult to maintain with higher level identities in mind. These processes are documented empirically, as is their coordinated interplay in promoting a level of prepotent identification that matches the upper limits of the actor's capacity to perform the action. Implications are developed for action stability, the psychology of performance impairment, personal vs situational causation, and the behavioral bases of self-understanding. (87 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
SUMMARY Targeted human movements show considerable variability in the kinematics and in the result of the movement. Even when the conditions under which they are performed remain constant and the movement is highly trained, repeated attempts show deviations in kinematic and dynamographic parameters. This characteristic of human movement becomes critical when the task requires a high degree of consistency in movement outcome. In two experiments on this kind of task the variability of the result of the movement and of selected parameters of the performed movement itself were recorded. It can be shown by the example of throwing darts that, above all, good throwers succeed in reducing the variability in movement outcome to a greater extent than would seem to be possible considering the variability occurring during the course of the movement. U sing a virtual dart throwing task in a second experiment it is shown that this phenomenon is a consequence of a convergence of the position-time curves of the throwing movement towards the so called "equifinal" path of movement.
A performer’s focus of attention has been shown to influence motor performance and learning in a variety
of motor skills. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of an external and internal focus of attention on discus throwing. Participants (N=20; mean age: 22 years, SD: 1.58) were recruited from an undergraduate male student population that had limited experience with the task. Using a within-participants design, all participants completed five maximum effort trials under each attentional focus condition (external and internal). The results of a repeated-measures ANCOVA revealed that participants had a significantly more effective performance in external focus of attention condition compared with the internal attentional focus. These findings are in line with the previous studies showing enhanced motor performance as a result of using external versus internal focus of attention. Therefore, it is suggested that coaches and practitioners give instructions that promote an external focus of attention.
The influence of internal (movement focus) and external (outcome focus) attentional-focusing instructions on muscular endurance were investigated using three exercise protocols with experienced exercisers. Twenty-three participants completed a maximal repetition, assisted bench-press test on a Smith's machine. An external focus of attention resulted in significant (p < .05) improvements in performance compared to the internal focus of attention, but not the control condition. Seventeen participants completed repetitions to failure at 75% 1-RM on free bench-press and squat exercises. In both tasks, externally focused instructions resulted in significantly greater repetitions to failure than control and internal focus conditions (p < .05). These results support previous research showing beneficial effects of externally focused instructions on movement efficiency.
Novice darts throwers completed a dart‐throwing task using either control (no additional instruction), external, or internal attentional focusing instructions. Ratings of the experience of using the instructions were collected post‐task (e.g., instructional difficulty). Participants using the external and control instructions performed significantly more accurately than those using the internal focus instructions but did not differ themselves. The control instructions were rated as significantly easier and less mentally demanding to use than the external instructions. The external and internal conditions did not differ in ratings of mental demands, but the external instructions were rated as more successful than the internal instructions. These results support previous research advocating the use of instructions that emphasize external goal‐related information and that novices can benefit immediately from such instruction.
Background:
The present study examined whether the learning benefits of an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement effect) relative to an internal focus (i.e. on the movement), found previously in non-disabled children and adults would also be found in children with intellectual disabilities (IDs).
Methods:
Participants (n = 24; average age: 12.2 years) with mild intellectual deficiency (IQ = 51-69) practiced throwing beanbags at a target. In the external focus group, participants were instructed to direct their attention to the movement of the beanbag, while in the internal focus group, participants were asked to direct their attention to the movement of their hand. The practice phase consisted of 40 trials, and attentional focus reminders were given after every third trial. Learning was assessed 1 day later by retention and transfer (greater target distance) tests, each consisting of 10 trials. No focus reminders were given on that day.
Results:
The external focus group demonstrated more effective learning than the internal focus group, as evidenced by more accurate tosses on the transfer test.
Conclusions:
The present findings show that instructions that induce an external focus of attention can enhance motor learning in children with IDs.
Research suggests an external focus of attention positively affects motor learning more than an internal focus; however, little research has considered this relationship in motor control situations. The present study examined the role of varying focus of attention conditions on dart throwing performance. Experts (n = 6) and novices (n = 6) performed 84 throws under two internal and one external conditions and in the presence and absence of knowledge of results (KR). Results indicated clear differences between experts and novices on both performance and motor control outcomes. Further, there was some evidence that movement execution was slowed in experts but not in novices, although results were somewhat inconclusive. Our analyses suggest that varying focus of attention affects temporal parameters of movement execution in experts but not spatial parameters. Interestingly, both experts and novices generally perceived all instruction conditions to be hindrances to performance, with the exception of the external focus with KR condition. Further work is necessary to determine the extent to which these results apply to other open and closed skills.
This manuscript presents two experiments designed to explore the effects of attention on perceived exertion and time to failure in a fatiguing athletic task. There were two major motivating factors for these experiments. First, there are few studies evaluating attentional focus effects in endurance tasks and, second, there is a lack of integration between studies of attentional focus as external/internal (e.g., Wulf, 2007a) compared to associative/dissociative (e.g., Stevinson and Biddle, 1998). In Experiment 1, we used a fatiguing wall-sit posture (essentially a complex, isometric task) to compare two different types of external attention with an internal focus on the position of the legs. An external focus (regardless of type) increased the time taken to failure and reduced perceived exertion. In Experiment 2, we manipulated subjects’ expectancy of fatigue to test the interaction of attention and expectancy (both top-down factors) in this highly fatiguing task. Previous theories of attention during endurance tasks have suggested that as fatigue/pain increase, bottom-up factors begin to dominate subjects’ attention. While this may be true, Experiment 2 showed that even in a highly fatiguing task, attentional strategies, and expectancies affected the time to failure and perceived exertion.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning explores how a person's focus of attention affects motor performance and, in particular, the learning of motor skills. It synthesizes the knowledge coming from recent research examining the effects of attentional focus on motor performance and learning, and it provides practical implications for both instructional and rehabilitative settings.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning challenges traditional views that the method of learning a motor skill involves focusing attention on each part of the skill and internalizing proper execution. Instead, author Gabriele Wulf argues that the learning of new motor skills suffers when attentional focus is on the coordination of movements. When attention is directed to the desired movement effect, however, performance levels rise. Not only is a higher level of performance often achieved faster with an external rather than an internal attention focus, but the skill is retained better. The advantages of external focus apply to a variety of skills and skill levels and may be used while instructing athletes, children, and those with physical impairments as well as in any setting in which effective and efficient training of motor skills is a concern.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning not only presents the latest research on attentional focus, but it also offers practical solutions for bypassing or at least shortening the first “conscious” stage of learning. Instructors may then use these suggestions to provide their students or patients with a faster and more effective way to develop and perform motor skills.to develop and perform motor skills.
This text turns research into application by
- detailing how a person's attentional focus changes with age and type of task and in later stages of learning, allowing readers to apply the information to a variety of ages and settings;
- providing specific instructional examples and challenges in “Practical Applications” sections that may be used in everyday teaching scenarios; and
- including comparison tables and offering suggestions for differentiating instructions regarding internal and external foci of attention.
To help teachers understand how the wording of their instruction can facilitate the learning process, Attention and Motor Skill Learning shares insights from athletes, musicians, and speech therapists on their thinking as they perform or teach selected skills in each chapter's “Attentional Insights” section. The “Future Directions” sections at the end of each chapter highlight potential research studies that challenge readers to use and further develop the methods and practices in the book. Other useful features include case studies and chapter-opening scenarios that present motor-learning problems and demonstrate the role of attentional focus in solving them.
The present study examined whether the previously observed benefits of an external focus of attention (i.e., focusing on the movement effect), relative to an internal focus (i.e., focusing on one's body movements) and control conditions, would generalize to tasks requiring maximum force production, such as jumping. In two experiments, participants performed a vertical jump-and-reach task. A Vertec™ measurement device was used to determine jump-and-reach height. Participants performed under three conditions in a within-participant design: External focus (i.e., focus on the rungs of the Vertec that were to be touched), internal focus (i.e., focus on the finger, with which the rungs were to be touched), and control conditions (i.e., focus on jumping as high as possible). Experiment 1 showed that participants' jump-and-reach height was greatest with an external focus. Those results were replicated in Experiment 2. In addition, it was observed that the vertical displacement of the center of mass was greater under the external focus condition, compared to the other two conditions. This suggests that participants jumped higher by producing greater forces when they adopted an external focus. These findings indicate that the previously shown benefits of an external attentional focus generalize to tasks requiring maximal force production.
The study examined effects of attentional focus on swim speed in expert swimmers. In previous studies, an external focus directed at the movement effect has been shown to enhance automaticity, relative to an internal focus directed at the body movements (or no particular focus). The swimmers in the present study were given focus instructions related to the arm stroke in crawl swimming. All participants swam 3 lengths of a 25-yard pool, once under each of 3 conditions. In the external focus condition, they were instructed to focus on "pushing the water back", in the internal focus conditions they were asked to focus on "pulling your hands back", and in the control condition they were not given instructions. Swim times were similar in the control and external focus conditions, but they were significantly slower with an internal focus. Furthermore, questionnaire results revealed that most swimmers focused on the overall outcome (e.g., speed) in the control condition, whereas others indicated that they focused on specific body parts. Post-hoc analyses demonstrated that those in the latter group had slower swim times in the control condition than those with a focus on the outcome. Overall, the results provide converging evidence that a body-related, internal focus hampers performance. Moreover, when movements are already controlled automatically at a high skill level (and the focus is on the outcome), external focus instructions may be superfluous.
This chapter focuses on the effect of external attention resources on effortless movements of individuals and concerned importance in enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of such movements. It examines the findings of studies related to investigations on the effects of different attentional resources on the effectiveness and efficiency of movements. Evidence from the studies reveals that a greater focus on the effects of movements enhances the performance of effortless movement compared with more focus on the movement itself. Some other studies investigating the role of external attention in a variety of sports also reveal that more focus on external sources of movements enhances the results of such efforts.
We examined the effects of attentional focus instructions on the learning of movement form and carry distance
in low-skilled golfers. The X-factor describes the rotation of the shoulders relative to the pelvis, and its
increase during the downswing (so-called X-factor stretch) is associated with the carry distance of the ball.
X-factor stretch and carry distance have been shown to be associated with an early weight shift toward the
front leg during the downswing. In our study, one group (internal focus, IF) was instructed to focus on shifting
their weight to their left foot while hitting the ball, whereas another group (external focus, EF) was instructed
to focus on pushing against the left side of the ground. A control (C) group was not given attentional focus
instructions. Participants performed 100 practice trials. Learning was assessed after a 3-day interval in a retention
test without focus instructions. The EF group demonstrated a greater carry distance, X-factor stretch, and
higher maximum angular velocities of the pelvis, shoulder, and wrist than both the IF and C groups, which
showed very similar performances. These findings demonstrate that both movement outcome and form can
be enhanced in complex skill learning by providing the learner with an appropriate external focus instruction.
Moreover, they show that a single external focus cue can be sufficient to elicit an effective whole-body
coordination pattern.
In two separate experiments, this study examined changes in motor pattern and performance accuracy when low-level throwers focused on internal variables, external variables, and/or velocity of throw. In Experiment 1 the task goal was to improve the throwing pattern. In Experiment 2 the task goal was to throw as accurately as possible at a target. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that increasing velocity was most effective for changing the throwing pattern, with external focus more effective than internal focus. The results of Experiment 2 indicated that external focus was the most accurate condition and increasing velocity was most effective for changing the throwing pattern.
To test the extent to which learners performing a simple keyboard passage would be affected by directing their focus of attention to different aspects of their movements, 16 music majors performed a brief keyboard passage under each of four focus conditions arranged in a counterbalanced design—a total of 64 experimental sessions. As they performed the test passage, participants were directed to focus their attention on either their fingers, the piano keys, the piano hammers, or the sound produced. Complete MIDI data for all responses were digitally recorded by software written specifically for this experiment. Consistent with findings obtained in tests of other physical skills, the results show that performance was most accurate and generalizable when participants focused on the effects their movements produced rather than on the movements themselves, and that the more distal the focus of attention, the more accurate the motor control.
The present study assessed the influence of different attentional focusing instructions upon muscular activity during biceps curl movements. Twenty-nine participants carried out 10 biceps curl repetitions on an isokinetic dynamometer at 60oás-1 using control, internal (focusing upon arm movements) and external (focusing upon movement of the bar) attentional focusing strategies whilst Electromyography (EMG) activity of the biceps brachii was recorded. Significantly higher levels of EMG activity were observed in the internal and control conditions when compared to when an external strategy was used. When data was normalised against the control condition, the internal strategy resulted in significantly higher levels of EMG activity when compared to the external strategy. Attentional focusing strategies and instructions influence the observed muscular activity, which has direct implications for both skill execution and physical training settings. Coaches, trainers, and physiotherapists should be aware of the effects that different instructional emphases can have at a muscular level.
The present study examined the influences of instructions that directed the learner’s attention to either an internal focus or external focus on the performance and learning of a dynamic balance task. The instructions given were related to either the participant’s own body movements (internal focus) or to the effects their movements had on the apparatus (external focus) (Wulf et. al, 1998). The purpose of this study was to investigate balance performance and learning in 9-12 year old children using internal and external focus of attention strategies. Participants were 9-12 year olds (N= 88) from intact physical education classes at a K-12 public school in Tallahassee, Florida. The hypotheses tested were instructions referring to an external focus of attention would be more effective in promoting balance performance and learning than internal focus instructions for 9-10 year olds and 11-12 year olds. Participants were randomly assigned into an external focus group, internal focus group and control group for 9-10 year olds and 11-12 year olds. A Biodex Dynamic Balance System was used to measure select dependent variables (overall stability, anterior/posterior stability, medial/lateral stability, mean deflection, anterior/posterior deflection and medial/lateral deflection) for six instructional set trials. A questionnaire was given to participants following the testing trials to examine whether or not participants were focusing on the instructional set cues. The instructional set cues were as follows: stand as still as possible while “keeping your feet still” (internal focus), stand as still as possible while “keeping the platform still” (external focus), stand as still as possible (control group). Two days following the testing trials, each group completed three retention trials with no focus of attention instructions provided. Participants who were given an external focus cue and said they used it based on the results of the questionnaire were significantly better in balance performance and learning than those who were given an internal focus cue and said they used it. All participants who said they used an external focus cue regardless of what focus group they were randomly assigned were better in balance performance and learning than participants who said they used an internal cue.
This experiment followed up on previous studies showing learning benefits of instructions directing the performers' attention to the effects of their movements (external focus) relative to instructions directing attention to the movements themselves (internal focus). The main purpose was to determine whether similar advantages could be achieved by preventing learners from focusing on their movements through the use of an attention-demanding secondary task. Participants practiced balancing on a stabilometer. External and internal focus group participants were instructed to focus on markers attached to the balance platform or on their feet, respectively. A third group was required to shadow a story presented to them while balancing. In addition, a control group without attentional focus instructions or a secondary task was included. The external focus group showed more effective balance learning than the other groups. The results provide evidence for the learning benefits of external focus instructions. In addition, they show that similar advantages cannot be achieved by simply preventing learners from focusing on the task to be learned.
This chapter is concerned with some of the issues involved in understanding how perception contributes to the control of actions. Roughly speaking, the term of action refers to any meaningful segment of an organisms intercourse with its environment. Two important features of this preliminary definition can be brought out more clearly when “actions” are contrasted with “responses” and “movements”. Unlike response-centered approaches to psychology, which consider the organisms activity more or less determined by the actual stimulus information, the action approach emphasizes intentional control as being simultaneous with (or even prior to) informational control of activity, assuming that intentional processes fix the rules for the selection and use of stimulus information (Heuer Prinz, 1987; Neumann Prinz, 1987). Unlike movement-centered approaches, which describe the organisms activity in terms of the dynamics of muscular contraction patterns and the kinematics of the resulting body movements, the action approach stresses the environmental consequences that go along with these bodily events, contending that meaningful interactions with the environment, rather than movements per se, should be considered the effective functional units of activity (Fowler Turvey, 1982; Neisser, 1985).
The present study examined the effectiveness of distal versus proximal external foci of attention as a function of performers' preferences for a certain focus. We used a dart throwing task, and participants were instructed to direct their attention either to the target (distal focus) or the flight of the dart (proximal focus). Participants were asked to select their preferred focus after one trial under each focus condition without knowledge of results. Subsequently, all participants performed two 24-trial blocks, one under each condition, with focus order (preferred first vs. non-preferred) counterbalanced. Significantly more participants preferred the distal compared to the proximal focus. Also, dart throwing accuracy was generally enhanced when participants adopted a distal focus, regardless of focus order or preference. The present findings provide further evidence that the “distance” effect in attentional focus is a general phenomenon that does not depend on individual preferences.
Background
Recent research has shown that internal (body-related) attention-focus instructions disrupt motor learning and performance, whereas paying attention to the environmental effects of movements (external focus) leads to better performance than an internal focus [see, for reviews, Wulf, G. (2007). Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 10 years of research. E-Journal Bewegung und Training, 1, 4–14.; Wulf, G., & Prinz, W. (2001). Directing attention to movement effects enhances learning: a review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 648–660.]. However, Beilock's studies [Beilock, S. L., Bertenthal, B. I., McCoy, A. M., & Carr, T. H. (2004). Haste does not always make waste: expertise, direction of attention, and speed versus accuracy in performing sensorimotor skills. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 373–379.] suggest that an internal focus is detrimental in experts but not in novices. Because detrimental effects of consciously attending to movements have generally been measured by performance scores such as accuracy scores or reaction times, it remains unclear how internal and external attentional-focus instructions influence movement kinematics when learning a new skill. To fill this gap, the present study investigated attentional-focus effects on a biomechanical level.
This study reports an empirical investigation into Bernstein's (1967) ideas that in the early stages of the acquisition of a movement skill the coordination problem is reduced by an initial freezing out of degrees of freedom, followed later in the learning process by the release of these degrees of freedom and their incorporation into a dynamic, controllable system. “Freezing” degrees of freedom was made operational both as a rigid fixation of individual degrees of freedom and as the formation of rigid couplings between multiple degrees of freedom. Five subjects practiced slalom-like ski movements on a ski apparatus for 7 consecutive days. Results showed that at the early phases of learning, the joint angles of the lower limbs and torso displayed little movement, as expressed by their standard deviations and ranges of angular motion, whereas joint couplings were high, as shown by the relatively high cross correlations between joint angles. Over practice, angular movement significantly increased in all joint angles of the lower limbs and torso, although the cross correlations decreased. Support for the processes of freezing and releasing degrees of freedom was thus given at both levels of operationalization. In addition, a consistent change from laterally symmetric to laterally asymmetric cross-correlation patterns were observed as a function of practice. Overall, the findings provide empirical support for Bernstein's ideas regarding the mastery of redundant degrees of freedom in the acquisition of coordination.
