No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Comparative Studies on E-Waste Disposal Practices in Developing Countries and Their Environmental Effects: An Example between Guiyu, China and Agbogbloshie, Ghana
Abstract
E-waste disposal continues to be one of the major environmental concerns across the globe. The method of disposal varies from one region to another. In developing countries, the primitive methods that are employed during the recycling activity pose severe risks to public health and the environment at large. The present study was carried out to ascertain the current practices in Guiyu and Agbogbloshie. The environmental effects of these activities were also evaluated. Prudent solutions were finally proposed. Data were extracted from peer-reviewed articles, books, and reports identified using Web of ScienceSM, PubMed, Google, and document reference lists. The study indicated that the quantities of e-waste that are dumped in the respective areas are rising at an escalating rate despite a ban on the importation of this waste type. The crude methods that are adopted in both areas include manual dismantling, open burning as well as indiscriminate dumping. These activities were observed to release huge chemical contaminants into the air, water and soil. This has dire impact on the environment. The study proposed that to help curb the menace, appropriate measures must be ensured. These include the integration of the informal recycling sector into the formal sector through capacity building of the informal recyclers. Effective recycling systems must also be adopted to minimize the effects on public health and the environment. Strict regulations must also be implemented since the ban is already in place in the areas under consideration. This study adds to the effort already in place to address the issue. Considering the acute paucity of data on the e-waste practices in the respective areas especially on the amount generated as well as the environmental effects, this topic may merit further studies.
... Ghana (Accra), Nigeria (Lagos), China (Guiyu in Shantou, Guangdong Province), India (Delhi) and Pakistan (Karachi) (Kuper and Hojsik, 2008;Robinson, 2009;Chi et al., 2011;Schluep et al., 2012). Informal recycling processes used can be different at EWRSs, but often include steps of manual dismantling, acid leaching, heating and wanton burning (Brigden et al., 2005(Brigden et al., , 2008Jian et al., 2014). ...
... At the Agbogbloshie EWRS near Accra, Ghana, the technical processes used seem to be more outmoded compared to Asian sites. Workers, often children and adolescents, working 10-12 h per day without any form of protective gear are exposed to frequent burns, cuts, and continuous inhalation of highly contaminated fumes (Brigden et al., 2008;Akormedi et al., 2013;Sthiannopkao and Wong, 2013;Jian et al., 2014). To our knowledge this is the first study on internal exposure to PCDD/Fs and PCB at an African EWRS and the first study on blood levels of PCDD/F of directly exposed EWRS workers worldwide. ...
... Gold is recovered from chips and other e-waste components using acid baths. Though not practised in Ghana, acid leaching to recover precious metals like gold is extensively used in China, India, Nigeria and Pakistan [60,61,55,62,14]. In Malaysia, cyanide is used for leaching gold [63] due to the simplicity, economic benefit, minimal dosage requirement and alkaline operating conditions [64]. ...
This paper reviews e-waste practices and aggregates the toxicity levels of organic compounds in different environmental media and human body fluids resulting from e-waste recycling activities in Ghana. Literature was searched from three academic databases (Science Direct, SpringerLink and PUBMED). Research articles published in English from 2010 to 2018 were selected in addition to reports of country studies. In all, 13 documents passed the inclusion criteria. E-waste recycling practices in Ghana were found to be mainly rudimentary. The major organic contaminants found in soils, air, sediments, food and body fluids of people exposed to e-waste recycling activities are PAHs, PCBs, Dioxin-like PCBs, PCDD/Fs, PBDD/Fs and PBDEs. The concentration of PCBs in the blood of e-waste workers and breast milk of nursing mothers at the recycling areas were respectively 0.082 µg/g (blood) and 3.64 ng/g lipid wt (breast milk). PAH was 3.94 µg/g creatinine in the urine of e-waste workers and 4,822 ng/g (median) in the soils at open burning areas. PCDD/F was 12.1 pg/g lipid base WHO2005-TEQ per year in the blood of e-waste workers and 988 pg TEQ/g in sediments of a shallow lagoon near the largest e-waste recycling site. Further studies are required to establish the levels of organic contaminants in air, water and foodstuffs at e-waste recycling sites and body burdens of children living or illegally working at e-waste recycling sites.
... The electronic products generated in large quantities in industrialized countries soon outlive their usefulness and become obsolete or semispent materials in resource-poor countries and are discarded as e-waste. A substantial proportion of e-waste is inappropriately recycled through crude processes and finally discarded at informal e-waste dumps/recycling sites (EWRSs) in developing countries (Jian et al. 2014), such as China (e.g., Guiyu in Shantou, Guangdong Province, and Taizhou in Zhejiang Province), India (e.g., New Delhi), Pakistan (e.g., Karachi), Nigeria (e.g., Lagos), and Ghana (e.g., Agbogbloshie), without any form of control (Puckett et al. 2005;Brigden et al. 2008;Robinson 2009;Chi et al. 2011;Wei and Liu 2012;Sthiannopkao and Wong 2013;Wang et al. 2013;Iqbal et al. 2015). These processes include, among others, heating, acid leaching, and wanton burning, and are mostly conducted by children and adolescents without regard for human or environmental health implications (Gilbert et al. 2006;Schmidt 2006;Wong et al. 2007;Robinson 2009;Asante et al. 2012;Akormedi et al. 2013;Heacock et al. 2016). ...
Iron catalyst supported over magnesium oxide had been synthesized with different percentages of Fe, i.e., 0.5, 1, and 5% employing the method of impregnation. These fabricated catalysts were used to grow carbon nanotubes (CNTs) using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method in the CVD reactor. The 5% Fe/MgO catalyst showed the maximum growth of CNTs. The synthesized novel CNTs (5Fe-CNTs) were investigated for their adsorption capabilities for the removal of parts per million levels of hexavalent chromium from electroplating effluent. The 5Fe-CNTs were characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Zeta analyzer. The 5Fe-CNTs showed remarkable adsorption capacity of 63.3 mg g⁻¹ toward Cr(VI) in water. The effects of various operating conditions on the removal of Cr(VI) from wastewater have been evaluated. Kinetic and thermodynamic studies were performed, and it was observed that the experimental data is in best agreement with pseudo-second-order kinetics. Besides the synthesized CNTs exhibited good recyclability for adsorbing Cr(VI) as even after 3 adsorption cycles, the adsorption capacity was reduced by less than 10%.
Intercropping with Cicer arietinum L has been suggested to improve the Cd decontamination capacity of Festuca arundinacea. However, the mechanisms stimulating this effect have not been revealed. The current study was designed to evaluate the changes in the subcellular distribution and chemical forms of Cd in different leaf types of F. arundinacea intercropped with C. arietinum L under different schemes. The results indicated that more than half of the Cd was bound in the cell wall in plant organs under all planting schemes, showing that cell wall deposition is an important detoxication pathway for the metal. Relative to the monoculture scheme, coordinate and malposed intercropping schemes increased the Cd concentration deposited in the cytoplasm of below-ground tissues from 37.6% to 45.2% and 45.1%, respectively. Additionally, the proportion of inorganic and water-soluble Cd in the below-ground parts of F. arundinacea increased from 73.6% in the monoculture scheme to 80.6% and 84.7%, in the coordinate and malposed intercropping schemes, respectively. The results exhibited that intercropping schemes can activate the metal in below-ground tissues and move it to aerial parts. The present study revealed the promoting mechanism of intercropping schemes on the phytoremediation efficiency of F. arundinacea for Cd at a subcellular level.
This study investigated POPs contamination at a total of six sites: the world’s largest e-waste scrap yard in Agbogbloshie (Ghana); medical waste incinerators in Accra (Ghana), Kumasi (Ghana) and Yaoundé (Cameroon); and two open-burning waste dump sites in Yaoundé (Cameroon). The study measured POPs in eggs because free-range chickens are “active samplers” of materials on the ground. Eggs also represent an important human exposure pathway through consumption. To our knowledge, this is the first study to measure POPs in free-range chicken eggs from hens foraging at the Agbogbloshie e-waste scrap yard, as well as in Yaoundé.
The key findings of this study are:
High levels of POPs were found at all six sites
The sampling revealed very high levels of chlorinated dioxins, brominated dioxins, PCBs, PBDEs, and SCCPs in the eggs of chickens that had foraged in areas at the e-waste scrap yard, open burning dump sites and medical waste incinerators.
Some of the highest levels of POPs ever measured in eggs were found in samples collected at the Agbogbloshie e-waste scrap yard in Ghana Eggs sampled at the Agbogbloshie scrap yard in Ghana contained the highest level of brominated dioxins ever measured in eggs and one of the highest ever measured levels of the flame retardant chemical, HBCD. These eggs also contained the second highest level of chlorinated dioxins ever measured in poultry eggs. An adult eating just one egg from a free-range chicken foraging in Agbogbloshie area would exceed the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) tolerable daily intake (TDI) for chlorinated dioxins by 220-fold. Indicator PCBs in these eggs were four-fold higher than the EU standard and dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs were 171-fold higher than the standard. These eggs also contained very high levels of SCCPs and PBDEs and relatively high levels of other POPs such as PeCB and HCB.
Eggs sampled near medical waste incinerators exceeded EU dioxin standards
Eggs near the medical waste incinerator in Accra, Ghana exceeded the EU dioxin limit by 13-fold and eggs sampled near the facility in Yaoundé exceeded the limit by more than two-fold. PCBs did not exceed limits, but significant levels were also found. High levels of HBCD were also found in eggs from the vicinity of the Yaoundé waste incinerator and one of the dumpsites.
Stockholm and Basel Convention provisions need strengthening
Hazardous waste limits in the Stockholm Convention should prevent the export of POPs waste, including e-waste. Currently the existing and proposed limits for POPs found in e-waste and generated by its ‘recycling’ in Africa and other developing regions is far too weak and allows the trade to continue. This includes limits for chlorinated dioxins/furans, flame retardant chemicals such as PBDEs and HBCD, and short chain chlorinated paraffins. These stricter limits (defined as Low POP Content in the Stockholm Convention) should be 50 mg/kg for PBDEs, 100 mg/kg for HBCD and SCCPs and 1 μg TEQ/kg for PCDD/Fs at a maximum. The Stockholm Convention could be further strengthened by listing brominated dioxins. The current provisional e-waste guidelines under the Basel Convention contain a loophole that allows for e-waste export under the guise of ‘export for repair’. This industry-promoted loophole makes the guidelines contradictory to the Convention because electronic products at end-of-life are hazardous waste. This loophole should be closed to preserve the integrity of the treaty.
Greater attention is needed to fully implement sustainable healthcare waste management
The data obtained from egg samples near medical waste incinerators in this study reinforce concerns over the inadequate healthcare waste management including the use of small incinerators. None of the medical waste incinerators in this study could be considered to employ Best Available Techniques / Best Environmental Practices due to their design, operation, lack of pollution control and lack of waste management for the waste incineration residues. Changing the hospital waste stream by moving away from PVC products, source reduction, segregation, recycling, training, and use of autoclaves and other non-combustion methods should be prioritized. A hospital facility designed for healing should not pollute the food chain or cause adverse impacts on human health and the environment.
Background. It is estimated that 20–50 million tons of electric and electronic waste (e-waste) is generated per year of which 75–80% is shipped to countries in Asia and Africa for recycling and disposal. In these countries recycling of e-waste is performed with limited and often no environmental or worker health precautions. Activities at these sites often pose harmful threats in the form of soil pollution leading to contaminated water and food as well as air contaminants affecting the health of the workers and children at these sites.
Objectives. In an effort to better understand the multitude of chemical releases at these sites, an assessment was conducted at a large e-waste recycling and disposal site located in the vicinity of Agbogbloshie Market in Accra, Ghana.
Methods. Environmental (ambient) air samples and worker breathing zone samples were taken for selected metals. In addition, surface soil samples were collected throughout the site and analyzed for lead (Pb).
Results. Personal air samples collected from workers and the environment revealed elevated levels for aluminum, copper, iron, lead and zinc. Of the 100 soil samples taken, more than half were above the US Environmental Protection Agency standard for lead in soil.
Conclusions. The Agbogbloshie e-waste recycling/disposal site in Accra, Ghana revealed an area with extensive lead contamination in both ambient air and topsoil. Given the urban nature of this site e as well as the large adjacent food distribution market, the potential for human health impact is substantial both to workers and local residents.
China has set a goal of establishing a Circular Economy policy for recycling resources in the near future. To further efforts to build a circular society, we analyzed the current status of E-waste recycling and related social issues, including the case of Guiyu town. Some policy suggestions on establishing recycling systems are recommended.
Informal recycling is a new and expanding low cost recycling practice in managing Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE or e-waste). It occurs in many developing countries, including China, where current gaps in environmental management, high demand for second-hand electronic appliances and the norm of selling e-waste to individual collectors encourage the growth of a strong informal recycling sector. This paper gathers information on informal e-waste management, takes a look at its particular manifestations in China and identifies some of the main difficulties of the current Chinese approach. Informal e-waste recycling is not only associated with serious environmental and health impacts, but also the supply deficiency of formal recyclers and the safety problems of remanufactured electronic products. Experiences already show that simply prohibiting or competing with the informal collectors and informal recyclers is not an effective solution. New formal e-waste recycling systems should take existing informal sectors into account, and more policies need to be made to improve recycling rates, working conditions and the efficiency of involved informal players. A key issue for China's e-waste management is how to set up incentives for informal recyclers so as to reduce improper recycling activities and to divert more e-waste flow into the formal recycling sector.
Air samples of total suspended particles (TSP, particles less than 30-60 microm), and particles with aerodynamic diameter smaller than 2.5 microm (PM(2.5)) were collected simultaneously at Guiyu (an electronic waste recycling site), three urban sites in Hong Kong and two urban sites in Guangzhou, South China from 16 August to 17 September 2004. Twenty-two PBDE congeners (BDE-3, -7, -15, -17, -28, -49, -71, -47, -66, -77, -100, -119, -99, -85, -126, -154, -153, -138, -156, -184, -183, -191) in TSP and PM(2.5) were measured. The results showed that the overall average concentrations of TSP and PM(2.5) collected at Guiyu were 124 and 62.1 microg m(-3), respectively. The monthly concentrations of the sum of 22 BDE congeners contained in TSP and PM(2.5) at Guiyu were 21.5 and 16.6 ng m(-3), with 74.5 and 84.3%, contributed by nine congeners (BDE-28, -47, -66, -100, -99, -154, -153, -183 and -191 respectively). This pattern was similar to Tsuen Wan site of Hong Kong. Two urban sites of Guangzhou had the same congener pattern, but were different from Yuen Long and Hok Tsui sites of Hong Kong. The results also showed that the amount of mono to penta brominated congeners, which are more toxic, accounted for 79.4-95.6% of Sigma(22)PBDEs from all sites. All congeners tested in Guiyu were up to 58-691 times higher than the other urban sites and more than 100 times higher than other studies reported elsewhere. The higher concentration in the air was due to heating or opening burning of electronic waste since PBDEs are formed when plastics containing brominated flame retardants are heated.
Electronic waste (e-waste) recycling has remained primitive in Guiyu, China, and thus may contribute to the elevation of blood lead levels (BLLs) in children living in the local environment.
We compared the BLLs in children living in the e-waste recycling town of Guiyu with those living in the neighboring town of Chendian.
We observed the processing of e-waste recycling in Guiyu and studied BLLs in a cluster sample of 226 children < 6 years of age who lived in Guiyu and Chendian. BLLs were determined with atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Hemoglobin (Hgb) and physical indexes (height and weight, head and chest circumferences) were also measured.
BLLs in 165 children of Guiyu ranged from 4.40 to 32.67 microg/dL with a mean of 15.3 microg/dL, whereas BLLs in 61 children of Chendian were from 4.09 to 23.10 microg/dL with a mean of 9.94 microg/dL. Statistical analyses showed that children living in Guiyu had significantly higher BLLs compared with those living in Chendian (p < 0.01). Of children in Guiyu, 81.8% (135 of 165) had BLLs > 10 microg/dL, compared with 37.7% of children (23 of 61) in Chendian (p < 0.01). In addition, we observed a significant increasing trend in BLLs with increasing age in Guiyu (p < 0.01). It appeared that there was correlation between the BLLs in children and numbers of e-waste workshops. However, no significant difference in Hgb level or physical indexes was found between the two towns.
The primitive e-waste recycling activities may contribute to the elevated BLLs in children living in Guiyu.
Water and several wild aquatic species including Chinese mysterysnail, prawn, fish, and water snake were collected from a reservoir surrounded by several e-waste recycling workshops in South China. The samples were examined to investigate the levels and bioaccumulation extent of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) released from electronic waste (e-waste) which was processed by crude recycling method. Elevated levels of PBDEs [52.7 to 1702 ng/g wet weight (ww)] and PCBs (20.2-25958 ng/g ww) were found in the collected biota species compared to that in the reference samples (13.0-20.5 ng/g ww for PBDEs and 75.4-82.8 ng/g ww for PCBs). log BAF (bioaccumulation factor) ranged from 2.9 to 5.3 for PBDEs and from 1.2 to 8.4 for PCBs, depending on congeners and species. The relationship between log BAFs and log K(OW) (octanol-water partition coefficient) can be adequately described by species-specific parabolic models wherein log BAFs generally increased at log K(OW)<7 then decreased with further increasing log K(OW) both for PBDEs and PCBs. The exceptions were for Chinese mysterysnail and prawn, in which the log BAFs showed a positive linear correlation with log K(OW) for PBDEs. Some PBDE and PCB congeners showed BAF values declining from the general trend predicted by K(OW), largely attributing to metabolism of these congeners in species sampled.
Electronic waste, or e-waste, is an emerging problem as well as a business opportunity of increasing significance, given the volumes of e-waste being generated and the content of both toxic and valuable materials in them. The fraction including iron, copper, aluminium, gold and other metals in e-waste is over 60%, while pollutants comprise 2.70%. Given the high toxicity of these pollutants especially when burned or recycled in uncontrolled environments, the Basel Convention has identified e-waste as hazardous, and developed a framework for controls on transboundary movement of such waste. The Basel Ban, an amendment to the Basel Convention that has not yet come into force, would go one step further by prohibiting the export of e-waste from developed to industrializing countries.
This paper reviews the concentrations of persistent organic pollutants such as flame retardants (PBDEs), dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy metals/metalloid concentrations of different environmental media at Guiyu, a traditional rice-growing village located in southeastern Guangdong Province (PR China), which has turned into an intensive electronic-waste (e-waste) recycling site. Incomplete combustion of e-waste in open air and dumping of processed materials are the major sources of various toxic chemicals. By comparing with existing data available in other areas and also guidelines adopted in different countries, it is obvious that the environment is highly contaminated by these toxic chemicals derived from the recycling processes. For example, the monthly concentration of the sum of 22 PBDE congeners contained in PM2.5 (16.8 ng m−3) of air samples at Guiyu was 100 times higher than published data. In order to safeguard the environment and human health, detailed investigations are urgently needed, especially on tracking the exposure pathways of different toxic chemicals which may affect the workers and local residents especially mothers, infants and children.
To assess the impact of exposure to informal e-waste recycling on birth outcomes. We compared record-based birth outcomes (n=24,493) and levels of cord blood lead (CBPb) (n=531) in Guiyu and a control area in Xiamen. Guiyu births showed significantly higher rates of adverse birth outcomes including stillbirth (4.72% vs. 1.03%), low birth weight (6.12% vs. 4.12%), term low birth weight (3.40% vs. 1.57%), and lower Apgar scores (9.6 vs. 9.9) and mean birth weight (3168 g vs. 3258 g) than did births from the control site, all P<0.01. Regression analysis showed Guiyu had about four times higher risk of stillbirth compared with Xiamen. The median level of CBPb was much higher in neonates of Guiyu than those in the control group (10.78 μg/dL vs. 2.25 μg/dL). Prenatal exposure to informal e-waste recycling related to high rate of adverse birth outcomes, lower Apgar scores and unsafe lead level in cord blood.
This review paper summarizes the existing knowledge on the chemical hazards associated with recycling and other end-of-life treatment options of waste electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste). The hazards arise from the presence of heavy metals (e.g., mercury, cadmium, lead, etc.), flame retardants (e.g., pentabromophenol, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA), etc.) and other potentially harmful substances in e-waste. If improperly managed, the substances may pose significant human and environmental health risks. The review describes the potentially hazardous content of e-waste, examines the existing e-waste management practices and presents scientific data on human exposure to chemicals, workplace and environmental pollution associated with the three major e-waste management options, i.e., recycling, incineration and landfilling. The existing e-waste management practices and associated hazards are reviewed separately for developed and developing countries. Finally, based on this review, the paper identifies gaps in the existing knowledge and makes some recommendations for future research.
Environmental pollution arising from electronic waste (e-waste) disposal and recycling has received considerable attention in recent years. Treatment, at low temperatures, of e-wastes that contain polyvinylchloride and related polymers can release polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). Although several studies have reported trace metals and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) released from e-waste recycling operations, environmental contamination and human exposure to PCDD/Fs from e-waste recycling operations are less well understood. In this study, electronic shredder waste and dust from e-waste facilities, and leaves and surface soil collected in the vicinity of a large scale e-waste recycling facility in Taizhou, Eastern China, were analyzed for total PCDD/ Fs including 2,3,7,8-substituted congeners. We also determined PCDD/Fs in surface agricultural soils from several provinces in China for comparison with soils from e-waste facilities. Concentrations of total PCDD/Fs were high in all of the matrices analyzed and ranged from 30.9 to 11400 pg/g for shredder waste, 3460 to 9820 pg/g dry weight for leaves, 2560 to 148000 pg/g dry weight for workshop-floor dust, and 854 to 10200 pg/g dry weight for soils. We also analyzed surface soils from a chemical industrial complex (a coke-oven plant, a coal-fired power plant, and a chlor-alkali plant) in Shanghai. Concentrations of total PCDD/Fs in surface soil (44.5-531 pg/g dry wt) from the chemical industrial complex were lower than the concentrations found in soils from e-waste recycling plants, but higher than the concentrations found in agricultural soils. Agricultural soils from six cities in China contained low levels (3.44-33.8 pg/g dry wt) of total PCDD/Fs. Profiles of dioxin toxic equivalents (TEQs) of 2,3,7,8-PCDD/Fs in soils from e-waste facilities in Taizhou differed from the profiles found in agricultural soils. The estimated daily intakes of TEQs of PCDD/ Fs via soil/dust ingestion and dermal exposure (2.3 and 0.363 pg TEQ/kg bw/day for children and adults, respectively) were 2 orders of magnitude higher in people at e-waste recycling facilities than in people at the chemical industrial site (0.021 and 0.0053 pg TEQ/kg bw/day for children and adults, respectively), implying greater health risk for humans from dioxin exposures at e-waste recycling facilities. The calculated TEQ exposures for e-waste workers from dust and soil ingestion alone were 2-3 orders of magnitude greater than the exposures from soils in reference locations.
The present study analyzed road soils collected near the dismantling workshops of an e-waste recycling region in South China to determine the PBDE profiles. Farmland soils at a distance of about 2 km from the dismantling workshops were also collected to evaluate the potential dispersion and deposition of PBDEs in the surrounding environment. Total PBDE concentrations ranged from 191 to 9156 ng/g dry weight in road soils and from 2.9 to 207 ng/g dry weight in farmland soils, respectively. Three PBDE source profiles were observed from the road soils by principal component analysis, and were compared with the congener patterns in different technical products. Elevated abundances of octa- and nona-congeners were found in the "deca-" derived PBDEs as compared with the deca-BDE products. The results in this study suggest that debromination of BDE 209 may have occurred during the use of electric and electronic equipment and/or another technical formulation (Bromkal 79-8DE) was also likely the source of octa- and nona-congeners in e-wastes. Comparison of the PBDE patterns in road and farmland soils implied that the PBDEs in farmland soils have been subject to complex environmental processes.
The research presented in this paper shows that Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) issues associated with home appliances, such as TV sets, refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, and personal computers, are linked in the WEEE flow and recycling systems and are important to matters of public policy and regulation. In this paper, the sources and generation of WEEE in China are identified, and WEEE volumes are calculated. The results show that recycling capacity must increase if the rising quantity of domestic WEEE is to be handled properly. Simultaneously, suitable WEEE treatment will generate large volumes of secondary resources. Environmental problems caused by the existing recycling processes have been investigated in a case study. Problems mainly stem from open burning of plastic-metal parts and from precious metals leaching techniques that utilize acids. The existing WEEE flow at the national level was investigated and described. It became obvious that a considerable amount of obsolete items are stored in homes and offices and have not yet entered the recycling system. The reuse of used appliances has become a high priority for WEEE collectors and dealers because reuse generates higher economic profits than simple material recovery. The results of a cost analysis of WEEE flow shows that management and collection costs significantly influence current WEEE management. Heated discussions are ongoing in political and administrative bodies as to whether extended producer responsibilities policies are promoting WEEE recycling and management. This paper also discusses future challenges and strategies for WEEE management in China.
Exporting harm: the high-tech trashing of Asia (The Basel Action Network (BAN) and Silion Valley Toxics Coalition (SVTC) with Toxics Link India
- J Puckett
- L Byster
- S Westervelt
- R Gutierrez
- S Davis
- A Hussain
- M Dutta
Recycling of electronic wastes in China and India: workplace and environmental contamination
- K Brigden
- I Labunska
- D Santillo
- M Allsopp
Out of control: WEEE trade flows from the EU to developing countries
- S Nordbrand