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An Experimental Evaluation of Guided Reading and Explicit Interventions for Primary-Grade Students At-Risk for Reading Difficulties
Abstract and Figures
Considerable research evidence supports the provision of explicit instruction for students at risk for reading difficulties; however, one of the most widely implemented approaches to early reading instruction is Guided Reading (GR; Fountas & Pinnel, 1996), which deemphasizes explicit instruction and practice of reading skills in favor of extended time reading text. This study evaluated the two approaches in the context of supplemental intervention for at-risk readers at the end of Grade 1. Students (n = 218) were randomly assigned to receive GR intervention, explicit intervention (EX), or typical school instruction (TSI). Both intervention groups performed significantly better than TSI on untimed word identification. Significant effects favored EX over TSI on phonemic decoding and one measure of comprehension. Outcomes for the intervention groups did not differ significantly from each other; however, an analysis of the added value of providing each intervention relative to expected growth with typical instruction indicated that EX is more likely to substantially accelerate student progress in phonemic decoding, text reading fluency, and reading comprehension than GR. Implications for selection of Tier 2 interventions within a response-to-intervention format are discussed.
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... Much small-group reading instruction in the United States purports to follow a Guided Reading (GR) model as part of a balanced approach to literacy instruction (Denton et al., 2014). The term guided reading dates back more than 60 years and was originally used to describe a more generic instructional technique for reading with children-differentiating it from reading to children or children reading on their own. ...
... Guided Reading is described as "an instructional context for supporting each reader's development of effective strategies for processing novel texts at increasingly challenging levels of difficulty" (Fountas & Pinnell, 2017, p. 25). It has been widely adopted in elementary classrooms across the United States and garnered much praise as an important best practice for early reading instruction (e.g., Davis et al., 2019;Denton et al., 2014;Fawson & Reutzel, 2000;Iaquinta, 2006). While it continues to be widely used, there is now a growing call to push away from this model, stating that the approach can "cause problems for children when they are learning to read" (Hanford, 2019, "Picture Power" para. ...
... Given its popularity, relatively little research has documented how GR is carried out in classrooms and how GR instruction relates to literacy development (Denton et al., 2014) in the primary grades, including kindergarten-the focus of this study. Whereas kindergarten was once a setting focused on nurturing social, emotional, and cognitive development (Miller & Smith, 2011), the emphasis has largely shifted to the instruction of academic content through teacher-guided activities (Bassok et al., 2016). ...
... Much small-group reading instruction in the United States purports to follow a Guided Reading (GR) model as part of a balanced approach to literacy instruction (Denton et al., 2014). The term guided reading dates back more than 60 years and was originally used to describe a more generic instructional technique for reading with children-differentiating it from reading to children or children reading on their own. ...
... Guided Reading is described as "an instructional context for supporting each reader's development of effective strategies for processing novel texts at increasingly challenging levels of difficulty" (Fountas & Pinnell, 2017, p. 25). It has been widely adopted in elementary classrooms across the United States and garnered much praise as an important best practice for early reading instruction (e.g., Davis et al., 2019;Denton et al., 2014;Fawson & Reutzel, 2000;Iaquinta, 2006). While it continues to be widely used, there is now a growing call to push away from this model, stating that the approach can "cause problems for children when they are learning to read" (Hanford, 2019, "Picture Power" para. ...
... Given its popularity, relatively little research has documented how GR is carried out in classrooms and how GR instruction relates to literacy development (Denton et al., 2014) in the primary grades, including kindergarten-the focus of this study. Whereas kindergarten was once a setting focused on nurturing social, emotional, and cognitive development (Miller & Smith, 2011), the emphasis has largely shifted to the instruction of academic content through teacher-guided activities (Bassok et al., 2016). ...
This study investigated how 15 kindergarten teachers from one school district
implemented small-group Guided Reading (GR). Analysis of video recordings
indicates substantial differences in how GR was conducted, with none of the
teachers fully implementing GR as conceptualized by Fountas and Pinnell
(2012). Consistency across teachers was limited to reading a new book and using
a picture walk as part of the book introduction. Differences were observed in
how the books were read (choral, round robin, or independent reading) and in
instructional activities before and after reading the new book, with word solving
being the most prevalent focus of instruction. Findings suggest that while
districts may promote a GR approach, teachers may be doing very different
things. These findings are considered in light of current debates around early
reading instruction and the importance of evidence-based decision making with
regard to instructional improvements.
... Providing materials that are at, or just above an individual's reading level may be particularly important for developing and struggling readers as well as second language learners. Research has shown that students provided with leveled texts, which were mildly to moderately challenging, displayed improvements in reading strategies, phonetic decoding, word recognition, and fluency (Alowais, 2021;Denton et al., 2014). Studies show that increased text difficulty can negatively affect comprehension because cognitive resources are focused on decoding individual words rather than connecting ideas (Amendum, Conradi, & Hiebert, 2017). ...
... The primary aim of this exploratory study was to evaluate the use of Large Language Models (LLMs) and novel prompting techniques for the purpose of text simplification of educational content. Previous research has well-documented the importance of providing developing or struggling readers with content that is matched with their current level of reading skills (Alowais, 2021;Denton et al., 2014). When struggling readers are provided with texts well above their skill level, reading fluency, comprehension, and motivation are negatively impacted (Amendum et al., 2017). ...
Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) holds great promise as a tool to support personalized learning. Teachers need tools to efficiently and effectively enhance content readability of educational texts so that they are matched to individual students reading levels, while retaining key details. Large Language Models (LLMs) show potential to fill this need, but previous research notes multiple shortcomings in current approaches. In this study, we introduced a generalized approach and metrics for the systematic evaluation of the accuracy and consistency in which LLMs, prompting techniques, and a novel multi-agent architecture to simplify sixty informational reading passages, reducing each from the twelfth grade level down to the eighth, sixth, and fourth grade levels. We calculated the degree to which each LLM and prompting technique accurately achieved the targeted grade level for each passage, percentage change in word count, and consistency in maintaining keywords and key phrases (semantic similarity). One-sample t-tests and multiple regression models revealed significant differences in the best performing LLM and prompt technique for each of the four metrics. Both LLMs and prompting techniques demonstrated variable utility in grade level accuracy and consistency of keywords and key phrases when attempting to level content down to the fourth grade reading level. These results demonstrate the promise of the application of LLMs for efficient and precise automated text simplification, the shortcomings of current models and prompting methods in attaining an ideal balance across various evaluation criteria, and a generalizable method to evaluate future systems.
... The current study presents an analysis of data collected during a reading intervention study with a diverse sample of public elementary school students in the Southwestern US (see [12] for details). The study aims to test the hypotheses that different subtypes of anxiety will be differentially associated with children's reading performance (H1), and the links between anxiety symptoms and reading performance will be attenuated when accounting for attention (H2). ...
... The current study analyzed data from 251 s grade students (n = 124 female). Participants for this study were drawn from a randomized controlled trial examining reading interventions for children (see [12], for details). Students were recruited from two school districts in the Southwestern US. ...
Many studies link anxiety in children with reading difficulties, but some facets of anxiety have been found to be positively associated with reading achievement. Attentional Control Theory offers a potential explanation for these seemingly contradictory findings, positing that anxiety can both interfere in attentional processes and enhance effort and use of compensatory processing strategies. The current study examines the relationships between anxiety, attentional control, and reading performance (word reading/decoding and passage comprehension) in a racially−diverse sample of 251 s−grade students, 152 of whom had not met reading benchmarks using screening measures. Results showed that harm avoidance was positively associated with reading performance and physical symptoms of anxiety were negatively associated with reading performance. These links were attenuated when including attentional control in the model, suggesting mediation and lending support to Attentional Control Theory. Further research is needed to confirm causal mediation effects between anxiety, attentional control, and reading performance.
... This aligns with findings from Denton et al. (2014) who studied 218 primary-grade students at-risk for reading difficulties. In this study, students were divided into three instructional groups: guided reading, explicit instruction and typical school instruction groups. ...
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) often struggle with comprehension, particularly with making inferences. This study aimed to introduce reading strategies using pictorial cues during guided storybook reading sessions for preschoolers to enhance their reading comprehension. The study assessed the children’s reading comprehension by evaluating their responses to both literal and inferential questions based on short passages. Fifteen children with ASD, aged five to six years, participated in 10 guided storybook reading sessions at an early intervention program centre. The results indicated that the children found it significantly more challenging to answer literal questions compared to inferential ones before they attended the guided storybook reading sessions. However, their ability to answer both types of questions improved significantly after that. These findings suggest that guided storybook reading, combined with specific reading strategies such as pictorial cues, is a promising approach for children with ASD and deserves further research.
... Similarly, Mwaura (2018) documented gains in reading achievement following guided reading interventions; however, these improvements did not reach statistical significance. In contrast, Denton et al. (2014) compared guided reading with explicit instructional methods and found that the latter produced greater improvements in phonemic decoding, oral reading fluency, and reading comprehension among at-risk primary-grade students. These conflicting results suggest that while guided reading may be effective in certain contexts, its impact could be enhanced when used in conjunction with more structured, explicit instructional approaches-in particular for students who experience difficulty with foundational reading skills. ...
Guided reading instruction has been and remains a topic of interest among English teachers and language instructors due to the increased exposure to various schools of thought on teaching reading. Reading is a complex interaction process between the reader and the text that involves decoding and comprehension skills. Understanding guided reading instruction helps ease teachers' and learners' teaching and learning processes. The purpose of this study was to determine if guided reading positively affects elementary students' reading accuracy and comprehension. Data was collected through the use of Fountas and Pinnell running records and anecdotal records of 40 elementary students and interviews with teachers. The running records provided quantitative data on students’ reading accuracy and reading comprehension. Anecdotal records and teacher interview provided qualitative data based on the students' reading behaviours. The findings revealed that most students progress in their reading levels and improved in their accuracy and comprehension scores after the implementation of guided reading while the analysis revealed no significant difference in the relationship between guided reading instruction and Grade 1 reading comprehension. Comprehension skills need to be reinforced in the reading instruction constantly to strengthen elementary students’ reading comprehension. The implications of this study are that teachers should take advantage of this small group-based reading instruction to meet the needs of every reader in their classroom. This awareness could help teachers make more informed decisions and ultimately help aroused more attention in this area for improvement in reading.
... Theoretical accounts of reading comprehension note the importance of strategic reading and processing capacity for the construction of a mental model of a text (McNamara & Magliano, 2009). Adolescent readers with better reading comprehension are more likely to report use of strategies that support inference making (Denton, Wolters, et al., 2015), and explicit instruction in strategy use, including those that support inference generation, results in reading comprehension gains for adolescent readers (Castells et al., 2022;Denton et al., 2014). However a direct relation between strategy use and inference making is found in some (Cromley & Azevedo, 2007), but not all (Ahmed et al., 2016) studies. ...
Background
We examined the influence of text and reader characteristics on sixth graders' inference generation.
Methods
Eleven‐ to 12‐year‐old US monolingual English speakers ( N = 71) and Spanish‐English bilinguals ( N = 81) read narrative and informational expository texts requiring an inference and answered an inference‐tapping question after each text. We examined the influence of language status, word reading ability, knowledge (background knowledge and vocabulary), and reading strategy awareness and use on question accuracy, question‐answering times and sentence reading times.
Results
Linear mixed effects models predicting response accuracy indicated an advantage for narrative texts, in general, and for participants with higher knowledge. When examining variation across the whole sample, rather than contrasting language groups, faster question‐answering and sentence processing times were associated with higher knowledge.
Conclusions
Adolescent readers are better able to generate inferences from narrative than informational expository texts, and knowledge has a critical influence on both the process and product of inference generation and may explain reading comprehension performance differences between monolingual and bilingual students.
... • Este diseño experimental tendría las siguientes características: analítico de intervención, con una distribución aleatoria de los participantes entre los grupos experimental y control, longitudinal y prospectivo, con criterios de inclusión y/o exclusión. Denton et al. (2014). An Experimental Evaluation of Guided Reading and Explicit Interventions for Primary-Grade Students At-Risk for Reading Difficulties. ...
La elección del diseño de investigación tras plantear nuestra pregunta de investigación es una de las claves para aumentar la probabilidad de éxito. Se han propuesto numerosas clasificaciones para los diferentes diseños de investigación. Aunque, a grandes rasgos, los diseños se pueden clasificar en aquellos que siguen un diseño cuantitativo, cualitativo o mixto, en esta píldora de investigación nos centraremos en una clasificación sencilla y práctica de los diseños de investigación cuantitativos. Esta clasificación los agrupa en descriptivos (cuando el objetivo del estudio es describir las características de una población y no hay una elaboración previa de hipótesis de investigación) y analíticos (cuando el objetivo del estudio es intentar explicar la relación, generalmente causal, entre los diferentes factores analizados). Los estudios analíticos se pueden agrupar según el grado de control que el investigador tiene sobre la asignación de la exposición entre los participantes, en estudios de intervención (estudios experimentales y cuasiexperimentales) y observacionales (estudios de cohortes, casos y controles, y transversales). Además de su amplia utilización en ámbitos diferentes del conocimiento, esta clasificación facilita la identificación y utilización de las listas de comprobación que se han elaborado para mejorar la calidad y transparencia en las publicaciones científicas.
The purpose of this meta-analysis is to synthesise the research evidence on the use of decodable texts in the teaching of word reading and pseudoword decoding to determine their effectiveness in facilitating the development of reading skills in children without reading disabilities. A total of 821 articles were identified in the initial search. The search resulted in 16 articles that met the inclusion criteria and were included in the meta-analyses. The results of the risk of bias assessment revealed that the majority of the studies had a moderate to serious bias. The average standardised mean difference for word reading was small g = 0.20 and moderate g = 0.30 for pseudoword decoding. This finding highlights how using decodable texts can facilitate word reading and decoding to some degree, but they need to be used in combination with other reading instructional materials.
This experimental/comparison study of secondary-level, small-group instruction included 318 first- and second-grade students (170 ELL and 148 English-only) from six elementary schools. All schools served high numbers of ELL students with varying school SES in urban and suburban communities. Experimental schools implemented a three-tier model of intervention. In addition to primary-tier reading instruction, the second-tier, small-group experimental interventions included use of (a) evidence-based direct instruction reading curricula that explicitly targeted skills such as phonological/phonemic awareness, letter-sound recognition, alphabetic decoding, fluency building and comprehension skills; and (b) small groups of 3 to 6 students. Students at comparison schools were not exposed to a three-tier reading program but received (a) an ESL intervention using balanced literacy instruction with a focus on word study, group and individual story reading, and writing activities; and (b) small groups of 6 to 15 students. The ESL/balanced literacy intervention was generally in addition to primary reading instruction. Results indicated generally higher gains for ELL students enrolled in direct instruction interventions. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
A synthesis of the extant research on extensive early reading interventions for students with reading difficulties and disabilities is provided. Findings from 18 studies published between 1995 and 2005 revealed positive outcomes for students participating in extensive interventions. Results indicated higher effects for studies providing intervention to students in the smallest group sizes as well as providing intervention early (grades K-1). No differences in overall outcomes were revealed between studies implementing highly standardized interventions or interventions with less standardized implementation. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
Purpose:
Agreement across methods for identifying students as inadequate responders or as learning disabled is often poor. We report (1) an empirical examination of final status (post-intervention benchmarks) and dual-discrepancy growth methods based on growth during the intervention and final status for assessing response to intervention; and (2) a statistical simulation of psychometric issues that may explain low agreement.
Methods:
After a Tier 2 intervention, final status benchmark criteria were used to identify 104 inadequate and 85 adequate responders to intervention, with comparisons of agreement and coverage for these methods and a dual-discrepancy method. Factors affecting agreement were investigated using computer simulation to manipulate reliability, the intercorrelation between measures, cut points, normative samples, and sample size.
Results:
Identification of inadequate responders based on individual measures showed that single measures tended not to identify many members of the pool of 104 inadequate responders. Poor to fair levels of agreement for identifying inadequate responders were apparent between pairs of measures In the simulation, comparisons across two simulated measures generated indices of agreement (kappa) that were generally low because of multiple psychometric issues inherent in any test.
Conclusions:
Expecting excellent agreement between two correlated tests with even small amounts of unreliability may not be realistic. Assessing outcomes based on multiple measures, such as level of CBM performance and short norm-referenced assessments of fluency may improve the reliability of diagnostic decisions.
The authors examine the growth and impact of guided reading, small group teaching for differentiated instruction in reading that was stimulated by their early publications. Many changes in literacy education have been observed as a result—almost as if educators had a “romance” with guided reading and leveled books. While changes have been positive, the “reality” is that there is much more work to be done to bring guided reading to its full potential for helping children become effective and joyful users of literacy. The authors call for a deeper understanding of the reading process and of the text characteristics of leveled books. They discuss misconceptions regarding fluency and describe the strategic use of assessment and the role of facilitative talk. Regarding guided reading instruction, we are at the end of the beginning and need to forge new understandings for the future.
This study investigated how measures of decoding, fluency, and comprehension in middle school students overlap with one another, whether the pattern of overlap differs between struggling and typical readers, and the relative frequency of different types of reading difficulties. The 1,748 sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students were oversampled for struggling readers (n = 1,025) on the basis of the state reading comprehension proficiency measure. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses showed partial invariance among struggling and typical readers (with differential loadings for fluency and for comprehension), and strict invariance for decoding and a combined fluency/comprehension factor. Among these struggling readers, most (85 %) also had weaknesses on nationally standardized measures, particularly in comprehension; however, most of these also had difficulties in decoding or fluency. These results show that the number of students with a specific comprehension problem is lower than recent consensus reports estimate and that the relation of different reading components varies according to struggling versus proficient readers.
This study investigates the development of reading in young Chinese learners of English in Hong Kong by comparing the effects of a guided reading intervention to an alternative treatment based on reading from e-books and a no-treatment control group. The key features of the guided reading intervention included: instruction on reading strategies and opportunities for interaction for negotiation of meaning with peers. The e-book reading focused on reading stories from CD-ROMs with embedded instructional features including opportunities to hear the stories and engage in routine word and text games but without any interaction with peers or any guidance from a teacher. Two hundred and five children, aged 9–10 years, from six primary schools in Hong Kong were stratified for gender and reading proficiency in English and randomly assigned to one of the three groups: the guided reading group, the e-book reading group and the no-treatment control group. The treatments were delivered as additional reading sessions on top of normal classroom instruction. Pre- and post-intervention tests revealed that children in the guided reading group significantly improved their reading comprehension and reading accuracy scores compared to the no-treatment control group. The children in the e-book reading group did not improve significantly compared to the no-treatment group in reading comprehension although there was significant improvement in reading accuracy. However, there was no significant difference between the children in the guided reading group and the e-book reading group ineither reading comprehension or reading accuracy scores. The pedagogical implications of the findings are discussed in the context of teaching English in primary schools in Hong Kong.