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Early Female Marriage in the Developing World
Abstract
Many women in the developing world are subject to marriage at an early age. Most such women have little choice in the age at which they marry, or whom they marry. In this article, we examine patterns and trends of early marriage in the developing world. The incidence varies widely, from a high of 70 per cent in south Asia to a low of 30 per cent in South East Asia. Women who marry young tend to have less education and begin childrearing earlier, and have less decision-making power in the household. They are also more likely to experience domestic violence.
... Countries in West and Central Africa that experienced more rapid fertility decline include Côte d'Ivoire, Togo, Ghana and Senegal. Cape Verde experienced the largest decline in fertility and enjoys the lowest fertility rate in the region (2.8 births per woman) (Ngo 2011 Studies looking at these new trends have shown that delaying marriage has a positive outcome on women's social development: it allows women to complete their education, build labor force skills and develop professional interests that compete with childbearing within marriage by motivating women to limit family size and/or widen the spacing of their children (Palamuleni 2011;Jensen and Thornton 2003). The following sections provide some insights into some of the factors that may drive changes in marriage behavior. ...
... At the same time, once removed from agricultural environments in which families depend upon large numbers of children as a source of labor, urban residents may find it more economically strategic to marry later and have fewer children. Women who build labor force skills and develop career interests may, in turn, be motivated to limit family size and/or widen the spacing between their children (Palamuleni 2011;Jensen and Thornton 2003). Delaunay et al. (2006) note the extent to which urban centers stand in contrast to rural villages where maintaining high fertility is still perceived as a way to ensure assistance with agricultural labor and to create potential migrants who will send home remittances (Delaunay, Adjamagbo, and Lalou 2006). ...
This report examines the patterns of family formation in the West and Central Africa region, focusing on the timing of marriage and childbearing, with the goal of better understanding the drivers of child marriage and adolescent childbearing in the region. The data suggest that there are three distinct 'typologies' of family formation in the region that have significant implications for child marriage, adolescent childbearing and other reproductive and health outcomes.
... Nonetheless the child marriage constitutes perhaps the most universally and extensive prevalent form of exploitation and sexual abuse of girls 15 . The harmful and catastrophic consequences of the child marriages inter alia, include separation from friends and family, impaired participation in community activities, lack and imperfect freedom to interact with peers, decreased or limited opportunities for education 16 and more importantly the curtailment of their self-development. Child marriage can also lead or result in enslavement or bonded labor, physical and psychological violence, commercial sexual exploitation of the children 17 , because the children are unable to resist and stop the tort-feasors and to convince or insist for safe sex i.e. over the use of a condom. ...
... Earlier this domain has been neglected thoroughly by the international community 39 and Human right activists but with the invent of Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, a little bit attention was paid towards this neglected domain of child rights to protect the children. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 under its article 16(1) provides that all women and men (and persons belonging to third gender as well) of full age have the right to marry and to found family without any limitation and restriction based on race, religion or nationality. On the contrary, the Convention did not specify what that "full age" was. ...
Safeguarding the best interest of the child in global context: International law and the child marriage Abstract: Child marriage is a menace of the humanity that has been prevailing since prehistoric times and prevails today in the present modern days of progress and advancement in science, technology and even ethics. Further it seems that there are no chances that this nuisance be eradicated from the world in near future as it is estimated that by 2030 at least 150 million girl children will be married before celebrating their18th birthday. The modern nations have devised laws to combat this trouble and have prescribed multiple types of punishments who cause or get engaged in child marriages. Along with national legislation, the international Law, mostly under the umbrella of United Nations, has strictly forbidden the underage marriages but this does not look like that it will be put to an end in near future. This paper analysis some major human rights instruments at international level that have been agreed upon the nations of the world.
... One of the efforts to raise public awareness is to improve public knowledge with applications that incorporate animated videos. The Youth Health This application contains counseling for healthy adolescent reproductive readiness and the impact of early marriage in terms of health and socio-economics (17)(18)(19).This study aimed to determine effects of using the Youth Health application and flipchart on knowledge of adolescents about early marriage. ...
... A total score of less than 10 and more than 10 indicated poor and good knowledge, respectively. This knowledge questionnaire was adopted from a previous study (19), with a correlation coefficient of 0.239 and a reliability coefficient of 0.8190. The collected data were analyzed with SPSS (version 16) using the Mann-Whitney U test. ...
... Many women in developing countries of the world are subject to early marriage. It is believed that many women in such countries have little to no chance to choose themselves to whom they should marry and at what age they would marry by Jensen and Thornton (2003). Hayase and Liaw (1997) claim that women who marry at an early age have a longer period of exposure to pregnancy and consequently led to high fertility level. ...
... Hayase and Liaw (1997) claim that women who marry at an early age have a longer period of exposure to pregnancy and consequently led to high fertility level. Jensen and Thornton (2003) also reveals that early married women face many disadvantages in the field of education, status, autonomy and even including physical safety. They have less power on decision-making, and better experiences of domestic violence are reported from them. ...
Marriage is a life event which could change the qualitative status of an individual from single to married life. Studies on the duration of an individual's single status are of particular importance as it reflects the age pattern of marriage for a particular community or population. The median age at first marriage of India count to be 18.6 years for women and 24.5 years for men. This study aims the differentials and determinants of male and female singlehood durtation in North East States of India. Data from NFHS-4 are used to compute median duration of singlehood and its influential covariate are determined by using semi-parametric hazards model. Results show that the median duration of singlehood for NorthEast women and men are 21 years and 26 years respectively. Manipur women and men are recorded highest singlehood duration of 23 years and 27 years respectively. Findings shows that covariates such as place of residence, religion, ethnicity, wealth of the family and working status of women and men have significant effects on the duration of singlehood. As early marriages are expected to contribute more births it is important to increase the age at marriage of both men and women in order to reduce fertility.
... Since obtaining official and accurate data is typically difficult in developing countries, few studies have examined the root causes and drivers of early marriage. However, several studies have focused on its negative consequences and provided evidence of the harm caused by child marriage (Jensen & Thornton, 2003;Asadullah & Wahhaj, 2019), particularly for girls. ...
... Navel-string marriages involve a newborn girl being pledged by families, through a symbolic cutting of the umbilical cord, to marry a cousin or distant relative when she is born. Most married children had almost no say in deciding whether or whom to marry (Jensen & Thornton, 2003) and have been encouraged or generally forced by their families (Ahmady, 2023) without having the opportunity to talk with their suitor before marriage (Safavi & Minaei, 2015). ...
This study investigates the economic determinants of early marriage among girls under 19, using panel data from thirty Iranian provinces between 2007 and 2015. The panel fixed effects and generalized method of moments (GMM) estimations, which control for province fixed effects such as local cultural norms or geographical conditions, show that the level of income per capita (with a negative effect), inflation, and income inequality (both with a positive effect) are significant determinants of early marriage.
... Child marriage is not only a violation of child protection and human rights (Boyden et al., 2013;Nour, 2009), but it also compromises the future of our children and our country (UNICEF, 2011) and places them at high risk of violence, exploitation and abuse (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). This disproportionate trend of child marriage among girls is widely documented and recognized by international organizations such as UNICEF, UNFPA, ICRW, etc. (Deane, 2021;Koski & Clark, 2021). ...
... This disproportionate trend of child marriage among girls is widely documented and recognized by international organizations such as UNICEF, UNFPA, ICRW, etc. (Deane, 2021;Koski & Clark, 2021). Girls who marry young are often socially isolated and cutoff from family, friends and other support systems; they may be at risk of limited opportunities for education and employment, experience dangerous complications during pregnancy and childbirth, and experience domestic violence (Jensen & Thornton, 2003;Nour, 2009;Paul, 2018;Raj et al., 2014). Despite the international commitment and laws against it, this harmful widespread practice not only compromises a child's development, it also severely limits their health, well-being and brings along life-long subjugation and sufferings (Yaya et al., 2019). ...
A human rights violation, child marriage among women, is not an uncommon practice and has continued for centuries in India. Whatever its origin, the reason for its persistence is an issue that needs to be re-looked. Therefore, the present study analyzed the spatial variation of child marriage and also identified the key drivers of this practice in the high prevalence state of West Bengal, India, using the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) dataset. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to measure the strength and direction of the relationship between child marriage and socioeconomic indicators. Multiple regression analysis has been used to examine the key determinants of child marriage. The result reveals that Uttar Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri, South 24 Parganas and Puruliya districts have performed well, whereas performances of Purba Medinipur, Paschim Medinipur, Murshidabad and Birbhum districts are disappointing. The study also finds that there is a significant association between child marriage and respondents' educational level, place of residence and household wealth. Findings suggest that by increasing the higher educational and employment opportunities, economic support for poor families and increasing awareness about the adverse effects of child marriage are the effective steps to mitigate the issue.
... The availability of secondary school options significantly affects parental decisions regarding their children's continuation in primary education [31]. Further, in both Nepalese culture at large and among the Chepang community specifically, it is customary for women to leave school upon marriage or pregnancy to focus on managing their new household and caring for children [32]. ...
Introduction
Adolescent pregnancy is a global concern, with a higher occurrence among more disadvantaged groups. Within Nepal's highly marginalized Chepang community, adolescent pregnancies are notably more prevalent. This study aimed to understand the determinants of adolescent pregnancy among Chepang community in Raksirang Rural Municipality, Makwanpur District of Nepal using qualitative methods.
Methods
The study was conducted from September 2022 to April 2023. Twenty participants (10 in‐depth interviews and 10 key informant interviews) were recruited through judgmental sampling. An interview guide was used for interviewing the participants. All interviews were audio‐recorded, transcribed, translated, and analyzed using R‐based Qualitative Data Analysis package. Braun and Clarke's six‐step thematic analysis was used to perform analysis.
Results
Six key themes were identified as determinants of adolescent pregnancy among Chepang community: (i) inadequate access to and use of sexual and reproductive health services, (ii) gaps in programmatic implementation, (iii) elopement marriage as a form of escape, (iv) discontinuation of education, (v) limited knowledge and understanding of marriage, pregnancy, and childbirth, and (vi) early pregnancy as a sign of prosperity. Challenges such as difficult geographical terrain, limited access to adolescent‐friendly healthcare, gender inequality, child labor, weak enforcement of child marriage laws, and societal stigma exacerbated these determinants.
Conclusion
A multifaceted approach, including improved access to adolescent‐friendly healthcare, enforcement of child marriage laws, access to secondary education, efforts to raise awareness of sexual and reproductive health, and a shift in sociocultural norms, should be implemented to reduce adolescent pregnancy in the Chepang community.
... Namun, hubungan antara pendidikan dan usia menikah bukan hubungan yang langsung. Seperti dalam penelitian sebelumnya, pernikahan dini dapat memengaruhi akumulasi modal manusia seseorang melalui pengalaman pendidikan mereka (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). ...
Pernikahan dini anak perempuan adalah fenomena sosial yang dapat berpengaruh pada kerugian ekonomi, capaian pendidikan, kesempatan kerja, kesehatan, dan kekerasan rumah tangga. Penelitian ini memanfaatkan data program Bantuan Siswa Miskin (BSM) sebagai faktor eksogen yang memengaruhi capaian pendidikan anak di Indonesia. Estimasi menggunakan Fuzzy Regression Discontinuity dengan data Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) tahun 2014/2015. Hasil penelitian menemukan bahwa peningkatan lama pendidikan menurunkan kemungkinan pernikahan anak perempuan rata-rata 13 butir persentase. Capaian pendidikan memengaruhi kemungkinan pernikahan anak perempuan (knowledge effect) melalui saluran media dan peningkatan pengetahuan kesehatan reproduksi.
... These societal gender norms devalue the worth of girls and women and play a significant role in normalizing violence against them, reinforcing harmful patterns of behavior and attitudes that perpetuate inequality (Raj & Boehmer, 2013). Moreover, evidence shows that child marriage can serve as a gateway to other forms of gender-based violence, with long-lasting negative impacts on the child and future generations (El Arab & Sagbakken, 2019;Field & Ambrus, 2008;Jensen & Thornton, 2003). Child brides tend to experience physical abuse from their spouses and perceive their husbands as more authoritarian (Jesmin, 2015;Mikhail, 2002). ...
Research on child marriage has predominantly focused on girls, leaving boys' experiences largely understudied. This study aims to address this gap by exploring the experiences of child brides and grooms, emphasizing the distinct disadvantages each gender faces. Specifically, it investigates the following research questions: (i) What health and reproductive outcomes are associated with child brides and grooms? (ii) How does child marriage influence discriminatory attitude and stigma among boys and girls? (iii) How does child marriage impact the subjective well-being of both genders? Logistic regression analyses were performed using data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), a nationally representative survey conducted in Vietnam. The findings revealed significant associations between child marriage and early parenthood for both boys and girls. Child brides were more likely to express negative attitudes toward domestic violence and hold discriminatory views about HIV-positive individuals. Meanwhile, child grooms exhibited a higher likelihood of feeling ashamed of living with HIV-positive individuals. Gender differences also emerged in subjective well-being outcomes. Boys who married early were less likely to perceive their lives improved than those who married later, whereas early-married girls were more likely to have a positive view of their lives. The findings hold significant implications for shaping initiatives to prevent and mitigate child marriage, not only in Vietnam but also throughout the Southeast Asia region.
... Early marriage is associated with lower educational attainment for women. Jensen and Thornton (2003) found that marrying later is linked to higher education for women. Girls who marry before 15 average less than a year of schooling, while those married between 16 and 20 gain over two years, and those married after 21 receive three to four years. ...
The article examines urban-rural literacy disparities across fifteen Indian states between 1981 and 2011, focusing on key factors that contribute to reducing educational inequality. Using Sopher's index, it analyzes spatial and temporal shifts in literacy disparities over time. Despite an overall decline, the index shows that states like Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Karnataka still faced significant disparities in 2011. The study applies the Least Square Dummy Variable (LSDV) technique to identify determinants influencing these disparities. It finds that lower rural fertility rates, a higher percentage of women marrying after age 21, increased female educational attainment (as mothers' education), and higher male labour force participation (as fathers' income) play significant roles in narrowing the urban-rural literacy gap.
... Young adult women who married at or after the age of 18 were more likely to utilize professional delivery care services than those who married before 18. One plausible explanation for the higher utilization of maternal healthcare services among young adult women who married at age �18 could be attributed to their enhanced agency in decision-making regarding healthcare utilization; these decisions are generally controlled by husbands and in-laws in the South Asian context [42,43]. Limited decision-making ability in the household was identified in previous studies as a major barrier for the utilization of maternal health care services among young married women [39,44,45]. ...
The relationship between women’s education and the utilization of adequate maternal healthcare services has been well documented. However, the literature on how the continuation of women’s post-marital education affects the utilization of maternal healthcare services is limited. Therefore, this study investigates such relationships. This study aims to examine the association between the continuation of education after marriage and the utilization of antenatal care (ANC) (≥ 4 ANC, a four-contact model; and ≥ 8 ANC, an eight-contact model) and delivery assistance received from skilled professionals among currently married young adult women in Bangladesh. This was a cross-sectional study of 1,731 young adult women aged 15–29 years from the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey, 2017–18. We adopted a multivariable logistic regression analysis to examine the relationships of interest. Results show that 60.9% of women received four or more professional ANCs, 15.5% received eight or more professional ANCs, and 69.9% received professional delivery care. Compared to young adult women who did not continue their education after marriage, women who continued were more likely to utilize ≥4 professional ANC (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.47; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.11–1.94), ≥8 professional ANC (AOR = 1.22; 95% CI = 1.01–1.74), and professional delivery care services (AOR = 1.78; 95% CI = 1.29–2.44). In addition, age at marriage, exposure to television, and the wealth index were also found to be associated with the utilization of professional maternal healthcare services. This finding implies that implementing policies and programs that encourage girls to continue their education after marriage could potentially increase the utilization of professional ANC and delivery care services in Bangladesh.
... Some early-wedded young men take a veering off conduct, and they pick the wrong method to keep up financial soundness and mental fulfillment. According to (Jensen & Thornton, 2003), negative outcomes identified with early marriage and dropout may influence the individual settling on the choice, as well as influence her kids and others in the public arena. For instance, high separation rates low wages, and additionally bigger family sizes, increment the quantity of youngsters living in neediness and getting state help. ...
One of the many social structures created to regulate and control human life is marriage. It is the accepted social model in which a family is formed by at least two individuals. However, a marriage that does not follow the traditional path or that disregards fundamental human rights standards raises fundamental social difficulties with complex consequences. The present examination explores different causes and results of early marriage in Pakistani society. The aim to acquire or maintain power and control over a personal conflict is characterized by harsh conduct, such as aggressive behavior at home. Aggressive behavior reception and psychological pattern square measure practices utilized by one individual in a relationship to manage the opposite place or other relatives. This research study was conducted in Layyah, Punjab, Pakistan. For data collection, a specific range of people were targeted to get the best results, and then SPSS was used to analyze the data. Mostly, young brides were not in favor of early marriage. They said that in early marriage, they have to face many social, economic, psychological, and physical problems. They said they were not ready to hold this kind of responsibility at a young age.
... Several studies have indicated that poverty is the main driving force of child marriage in developing countries (Otoo-Oyortey & Pobi, 2003;Paul, 2019). Poverty limits household' economic choices, and allows families to transfer the economic burden of daughters to the husband's family through marriage (Jensen & Thornton, 2003;Hotchkiss et al., 2016;Singh & Vennam, 2016). This is further exacerbated through the dowry to be paid by the bride's family, either in the form of money or property, as the quantity of the dowry increases with the increasing age of the bride (Singh & Vennam, 2016). ...
Child marriage remains a pervasive human rights violation in many parts of the world, including India. Despite prohibitions against it, the practice remains widespread. Cultural practices and beliefs, which significantly impact the acceptance and practice of child marriage, vary widely across different geographic areas. Additionally, geographic clusters of high rates of child marriage remain unidentified for specific regions, particularly the Empowered Action Group (EAG) states. This study conducts a district-level analysis of girl child marriage rates and their spatial association with poverty across the EAG states in India. This study utilized district-level data on child marriage prevalence among women aged 20–24 in EAG states from the fifth round of National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5; 2019-21) district factsheets, and poverty rates from the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Progress Review 2023 by NITI Aayog. Leveraging data from the NFHS-5 district actsheets and the MPI Progress Review, we employed advanced Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA) technique. Significant spatial clusters and outliers revealed a heterogeneous distribution of child marriage rates across districts. The analysis highlights strong spatial dependencies, indicating that areas with high child marriage rates are often geographically proximate. Furthermore, the analysis uncovers a compelling correlation between elevated child marriage rates and high poverty levels, emphasizing the socio-economic intricacies of this issue. These insights suggest that effective policy interventions must address both spatial and economic dimensions to combat child marriage effectively, thus formulating strategies for the empowerment and protection of young girls in EAG states.
... It could be related to conventional beliefs and practices, in which girls are frequently found as leverage to protect the family from financial strain through child marriage (Natanael et al., 2013). Currently, research on child marriage primarily focuses on girls and the consequences they face as a result of this practice, as marriage at a young age for girls has many consequences for females, especially starting with physical conditions related to health, fertility, status, and power in the family (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). ...
The issue of ending child marriage attracts global attention, especially in developing countries. However, the link between married children and economic growth remains in question. The purpose of this article is to utilize regional macroeconomic indicators to quantify the association between child marriages and the Indonesian economy. The analysis shows a negative relationship between marriage at a young age and the economy using panel regression and simultaneous equations model. The results also demonstrate that marriage at an early age might decrease economic growth, as it has an undesirable effect on health and education. Therefore, this paper delivers a suggestion related to the policy strategies, primarily educational policies and health, that support the Indonesian Government in ending child marriage.
... While if we look out the career in case of women's she is looking out for the short duration jobs due to sacrificing in the many of the cases such as marriage, further adjustments, pregnancy, etc. One report generated by author Jensen and Thornton (Jensen & Thornton, 2010) we look out various issues female have to face in the different age of marriage. Fig. 1 shows three kinds of parameters such as year of education, the age of first birth and husband-wife age gap in which female suffer. ...
At a working place, women are categorized on the basis of their presumptions working capabilities. Generally, these capabilities are mind-settled by patriarchal ideology, which may be also followed by women too. Generally, women are expected to work in the 'feminine fields' like tuition classes, spoken English classes, cooking classes etc. In the manufacturing industry especially automobile industry requires 'manpower' which works with abilities to do high hardcore work. On the organizational level, they think women are unfit over there. Vice versa on the other hand women candidates also think they are also unable to do such kind of jobs. Therefore many of the fields like mechanical engineering, automobile industry, various ITIs certifications like a mechanic, fitters etc. Women are here in less number. As per the new trend which is followed by governmental agencies too automobile industries also accepted women workers. But it is seen that they are less in this filled with a different designation which is showcased designation. Such as receptionist, telephone operator, computer operator, marketing assistant etc. these kinds of posts having the comparatively low designation, low salary, and low return benefits. Researcher finds out the data by the secondary sources that what position of women in the manufacturing industries is. The researcher also goes with the primary data collected through the women who now work in the automobile industry.
... Moreover, due to limited education and a lack of training for child marriage survivors in Malang Regency, these women often lack the necessary skills to enter the job market, leading them to accept low-paying jobs with reduced economic mobility. Jensen & Thornton (14) stated that women who enter into marriage at a young age typically possess lower levels of education, commence childrearing responsibilities at an earlier stage, and exhibit reduced influence when it comes to making decisions within the household. Furthermore, they face an increased likelihood of encountering instances of domestic violence. ...
This qualitative research study explored the impact of early marriages on women in Malang Regency and examined strategies for preventing such marriages by empowering women. Utilizing data collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGD), the research investigated the complex web of social, economic, and generational consequences resulting from child marriages in rural areas. The study highlights the significant role played by Women’s Leadership Houses (RKP) in the Singosari and Karangploso regions, where community mobilization is employed to foster gender equality and empower women. RKP’s community engagement approach allows members to dissect the underlying factors driving early marriages and adolescent interactions within their communities. The research uncovered a diverse range of issues associated with early unions, each uniquely shaped by the local environment. RKP’s methodology places a strong emphasis on problem identification and potential recognition, encompassing human and natural resources while challenging prevailing social norms that perpetuate early marriages. In conclusion, this study underscores the importance of empowering women and promoting gender equality as key strategies in preventing early marriages. Through qualitative research methods and community engagement via FGDs, we can aspire to create a future where early marriages become a historical relic and women attain the agency and opportunities they rightfully deserve. Keywords: Early Marriage; Women Empowerment; Community Mobi-lization; Gender Equality
... Many areas, for instance, which see high age disparities in marriage also have greater inequities in health care accessibility, wealth, and social norms. [57][58][59] Figure 8, in particular, demonstrates a strong correlation between a country's wealth and its MMR, suggesting the importance of health care resources in reducing maternal mortality. In addition, the arguments proposed by the mate choice theory may not be relevant to current and/or developed societies where females marry at later ages and polygyny are uncommon. ...
Background
Consistent across cultures and throughout time is the male preference for younger females. Given its prevalence, the mate choice theory proposes that age–disparate relationships may have contributed to the evolution of maternal mortality and menopause.
Objectives
The objective is to document evidence for age disparity in marriage from past and present populations and evaluate their relevance to maternal mortality and menopause.
Design
Cross-sectional data were collected from various regions and time points, ranging from the Roman era to the current decade.
Methods
To analyze both the age disparity in marriage and age at marriage, data were collected from Ancestry.ca for Quebec, Massachusetts, India, South Africa, and England and Wales. Additional data were taken from the United Nations as a more recent and comprehensive source. To analyze the relationships between age disparity in marriage and different social factors, data on gross domestic product, maternal mortality rates, fertility, primary school enrollment, child marriage rates, and percentage of women in the total labor force were collected from the World Health Organization, World Bank, and United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund.
Results
The results showed that males were significantly older than females at first marriage in all populations and time frames sampled, supporting the assumption underlying the mate choice theory. Maternal mortality rates were strongly associated with age–disparate relationships, increasing by 275 per 100,000 live births for each additional year in the age disparity.
Conclusion
The results from this study provide support for the assumption underlying the mate choice theory of maternal mortality and menopause.
... Besides, a girl, worldwide, is more likely to become pregnant under circumstances of social exclusion, poverty, marginalization and gender inequality, where she is unable to fully enjoy or exercise her basic human rights, access to health care, schooling, information, services and economic opportunities. Jensen and Thornton (2003) maintained that many women in the developing world were subject to marriage at an early age. These disenfranchised women often lacked any say in the choice of their marriage partners. ...
This research assessed the determinants, consequences and preventive measures of early and forced child marriage (ECM). This mixed method surveyed 167 households taking 15 % sample from the clusters of three wards of Badhaiyatal Rural Municipality in Bardiya and Dullu Municipality in Dailekh of Western Nepal. Besides household survey, six Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), 16 Key Informant's Interviews (KIIs), and 12 In-depth-Interviews (IDIs) were also conducted. There was the prevalence of ECM in 94% of the total sampled households. Majority (64%) of the marriages had taken place at the age of 15-19 years. Besides, about 23% of the marriage had occurred at 10-14 years. Average age at marriage was 16.5 years. Lack of awareness, self-elopement, misuse of social media, and parents' perception of daughters as burden were some contributing factors of ECM. Unsafe sexual behavior, unwanted pregnancy and its risk to unsafe abortion, maternal and child mortality, deprivation of education and self-dependence and violence were some effects of ECM. Recommendations to address ECM and curb its negative effects are presented.
... However, studies using spatial analysis did not consider the influence of maternal age, a strong predictor and significant covariate influencing differences in IMR between countries (Ram et al., 2021;Gouda et al., 2015). Becoming a mother at a very young age is often related to child marriage which has negative impacts, including infant mortality (Jensen & Thornton, 2003;Solanke, 2015;Neal et al., 2018). Child marriage is an important cause of infant mortality due to early exposure to the risk of pregnancy (Solanke, 2015;. ...
Spatial analysis approach is capable of identifying spatial clustering of Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) across districts/cities in Indonesia. This information is essential for policymakers when developing appropriate health interventions at districts/cities level. At delivery, maternal age is one of the strongest predictors of infant mortality, which is closely related to child marriage. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the relationship between child marriage and IMR in Indonesia, which was controlled by the influence of maternal, household, and health factors. The results showed that there were spatial dependency on IMR in Indonesia. Analysis Regression Spatial Durbin Model showed that child marriage had a positive and significant relationship with IMR. Furthermore, it was discovered that IMR was influenced by several explanatory variables in districts and neighboring cities. To reduce mortality rate, there was a need to increase health services by developing neighboring areas and building access to areas with good health facilities. Educational initiatives are also important, emphasizing the importance of delaying the age of marriage and enforcing the minimum age limits. This approach empowered every child to marriage carefully and had good reproductive health knowledge that could decrease IMR in Indonesia.
... [35] A number of studies have shown that depression is caused by factors such as pregnancy problems and domestic violence. [18,45,46] Numerous studies have emphasized that girls who are married early have higher chances of facing violence in terms of getting physically or mentally abused by their husbands and in-laws. [35,45] Raj and colleagues report that girls who are married in childhood are at higher risk for depression and suicidality especially due to increased exposure to gender-based violence. ...
Background
Depression is a major public health concern among Indian adolescents. Pre- and post-natal depression can often alter fetal development and have negative consequences on the physical and mental health of the mother. This paper aims to draw attention to the prevalence of depression and its correlates among currently married, ever-pregnant adolescents from two Indian States, i.e. Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Methods
This study utilizes data from a subsample ( n = 3116) of the prospective cohort study Understanding the Lives of Adolescents and Young Adults (UDAYA) among 10 to 19 year-old adolescents. Bivariate analysis was performed to assess the prevalence of depression by sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics. To further access the predictors associated with depression a logistic regression model was applied.
Results
Around one-tenth (9%) of pregnant adolescents had depression. Regression analysis indicated that substance use, religion, autonomy, considering attempting suicide, premarital relationship, violence, dowry, adverse pregnancy outcome, menstrual problem, and parental pressure for the child immediately after marriage were significantly associated with depression.
Conclusions
This study confirms the pre-existing annotation that teen pregnancy is linked with depression. Findings indicate that Adolescent mothers experiencing violence, and a history of adverse pregnancy outcomes are at increased risk of developing depression. These study findings call for an urgent need to address depression among adolescent mothers.
... Among those 15 studies, six studies had reported that the female mean/median age at marriage was below 18 years. The outcomes of early marriage are considered harmful for early pregnancy or early child bearing and adverse consequences for female's overall wellbeing (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). There are many reasons connected to female's age at marriage, though the most predominant factor is education. ...
Background: Female age at marriage is one of the major indicators of population dynamics associated with age at which marriable couples are united and simultaneously acts of giving new childbirth with new family roles. Occurrence of marriage before the body being physically fit and mentally matured results in many adverse consequences. However, less attentions have been given to the variability of female age at marriage which can be influenced by different factors. Objective: This review paper is an attempt to explore significant factors associated with female age at marriage, and to mark those factors as explained by model-based statistical effect size. Materials and Methods: Following the PRISMA- Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis guideline, three databases EMBASE, PubMed and Scopus were used to identify relevant articles combining key search terms using Boolean operations. From these databases, a total of 605 eligible articles originally published in English language till the date of 20 November, 2023 were identified. Applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria only 17 papers which had used statistical models were ascertained for final review. Results: The effect size which was found significant at 0.05 level of significance explored that female’s education, place of residence, religion, caste/ethnicity, birth cohort, current age, female’s work status, type of occupation, wealth index, husband’s education are the major determinants, which are observed to be significantly associated with female age at marriage. Conclusion: Female age at marriage is found to be varied from place to place, region to region and country to country. As the level of education increased, the possibility of acquiring early age at marriage has been reduced significantly. The demographic, socio-economic, gender and community factors played significant roles at the timing of females age at marriages. Moreover, female age at marriage has a considerable impact on fertility measures and population structure. Hence, policy relating to improving female age at marriage and its associated effective enforcement of law are required to meet the SDGs targets.
... Lower-income women are more likely to start childbearing earlier, have more children, and experience more difficulties during childbirth [23]. Meanwhile, women who started getting pregnant too early without any career development may discover themselves unemployed in the future [24]. Women who became pregnant in their adolescent period (aged 15-19 years) may lead to the termination of schooling, unemployment, poor maternal and child health outcomes, an increase in the number of children per woman, gender inequity, and destitution of young mothers and their families, as well as the community at large [25][26][27][28][29][30]. ...
Background
The birth of the first child is an important turning point in a woman’s life as it is the starting point of the demanding responsibilities of motherhood and childcare. This study aimed to explore the waiting time and the significant indicators of time to the first birth of aged 15–49 years of ever-married women in Bangladesh.
Methods
The study considered the most recent country-representative data collected from Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) in 2017/18. The log-rank test was used to assess the statistical significance of the observed difference between waiting time to first birth and various socio-economic and demographic factors. The Cox proportional hazard model is applied to identify the influential factors for waiting time to first birth.
Results
About 55% of the respondents’ age at their first birth was less than 18 years. More than 21% of them were 20 years and above at their first birth. Findings revealed a higher mean age at first birth in urban areas than in rural areas. Also, in Dhaka and Sylhet region, women have a higher age at first than in other regions of Bangladesh. Results show that the place of residence, region, age at first marriage, age at first sex, respondent’s education, employment status, contraceptive use, and mass media exposure were found to be statistically significant determinants of the age of respondents at the time of first birth. Findings also show that a woman from rural areas was likely to be 5% smaller in age at the time of first birth than their counterpart (aHR 1.05; 95% CI 1.01–1.10). The age at first birth of a woman in Chattogram was 24% shorter, while in Rangpur and Barishal, that age was increased by 14% and 8%, respectively. A woman with no education, primary, and secondary education had 28%, 38%, and 29%, respectively, shorter age at first birth than that of the higher educated women. Mass media unexposed women were shorter aged at first birth by 27% (aHR 1.27; 95% CI 1.10–1.47) compared to the women who were mass media exposed.
Conclusion
It is necessary to increase the age of mothers at first birth which may help to reduce the prevalence of child marriage in Bangladesh. The study findings will be helpful to the policymakers in identifying the gap and designing the programmes targeting the early timing of first birth to reduce child mortality as well as poor maternal outcomes which will be beneficial for achieving the Sustainable Development Goal-3 in Bangladesh.
... A low dowry can downgrade a girl's standing in her husband's family, while living with in-laws already diminishes girls' control over resources. The systems of early marriage and dowry are interlinked, with studies finding that early marriage increases the already high risk of violence against women (Fan & Koski, 2022;Jensen & Thornton, 2003;Raj, Saggurti, Lawrence, Balaiah, & Silverman, 2010;Santhya et al., 2010;Speizer & Pearson, 2011;Yount, Krause, & Miedema, 2017). Roychowdhury and Dhamija (2021) find a younger age of marriage is linked to a heightened risk of physical violence, although not sexual or emotional violence. ...
... The existing literature on early marriage highlights its negative consequences on physical and socio-economic outcomes for girls. The general consensus in the literature is that child marriages are associated with lower household bargaining power, increase in physical abuse and domestic violence, and reduced schooling (Field & Ambrus, 2008;Jensen & Thornton, 2003). ...
Araştırmada her biri çoklu rol sahibi (anne, eş ve çalışan) erken ve 25 yaş ve üstü evlenen kadınların sosyo-demografik özellikleri ve psikolojik sağlıkları ele alınmıştır. Bu bağlamda Türkiye’de iş hayatındaki evli ve çocuklu 375 kadın üzerinde araştırma yürütülmüştür. Örneklem dahilindeki kadınların 180’i 19 ve altındaki yaşlarda, 195’i ise 25 yaş ve üzerinde evlenmiştir. Hukuki olarak evlilik yaş sınırı 18 kabul edilmekle birlikte çalışmada 19 yaş ve altı ile 25 yaş ve üstü kriterlerinin seçilmesinin sebebi çoklu rol sahibi kadınların evlilik kararlarının gerçekleştiği yaş ile eğitim dönemleriyle de bir senkronizasyon yakalama çabası yatmaktadır. 19 yaş ve altı gruplaması
eğitim düzeyi itibari ile maksimum lise mezuniyeti sonrasında gerçekleşen evlilikler dikkate alınmaya çalışırken; 25 yaş ve üzeri gruplamasında ise maksimum yükseköğretim mezuniyeti sonrasında gerçekleşebilecek evlilikler dikkate alınmıştır.1 Araştırmada her iki grupta yer alan kadınlar eğitim düzeyleri, kocalarının eğitim düzeyi, meslekleri, gelirleri ve psikolojik sağlıkları açısından değerlendirilmiştir. Elde
edilen bulgulara göre gruplar arası istatistiki olarak anlamlı karşılaştırmalar yapmak mümkündür; bu anlamda erken yaşta evlenen kadınların çoğunlukla lise ve altı düzeylerinde eğitim seviyelerine sahip olduğu (lise sonrası mezuniyet %2.2), ağırlıklı olarak statüsüz işlerde istihdam edildiği ve düşük düzey gelir elde ettiği söylenebilirken; 25 yaş ve üstü evlenen kadınların daha yüksek eğitim seviyelerine ulaştığı, farklı meslek kollarına yöneldiği ve daha yüksek gelir elde ettikleri sonuçlarına ulaşılmıştır. Psikolojik sağlık bakımından ise gruplar istatistiki olarak anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmamıştır. Diğer bir ifade ile farklı dönemlerde gerçekleşen evlilikler ile psikolojik sağlık düzeyleri arasında bir ilişki bulunamamıştır.
Background
Maternal conditions are among the top five leading causes of disability-adjusted life years and deaths among girls aged 15–19 years, as they are at a greater risk of complications when pregnant. However, most maternal deaths can be averted with timely care, and institutional delivery is an established strategy for reducing maternal mortality and morbidity. This study estimated the prevalence and examined the determinants of institutional delivery among teenage mothers (15–19 years) across Indian states and analyzed the factors influencing institutional delivery.
Materials and Methods
We conducted analytical cross-sectional study using data from the fifth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) (2019–2021). A sample of 4882 teenage mothers aged 15–19 years who had given birth before the survey were included in the study. Sample weights were applied to ensure representation. Binary logistic regression established significant association between institutional delivery and predictor variables.
Results
An increasing trend in institutional delivery of teenage mothers from 84.7% in the fourth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) to 90.6% in NFHS-5 was observed. However, regional differences across states persist in the country. A multitude of socio-demographic, cultural economic, and health system factors were found significant. Teen mothers in the age group of 15–17 years (AOR = 2.18, 95% CI = 1.47–3.24), belonging to male-headed household (AOR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.03–1.69), had at least primary education (AOR = 1.68, 95% CI = 1.22–2.32), and those who received a minimum one antenatal care (ANC) (AOR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.13–2.06) had higher odds of institutional delivery. In contrast, mothers who are Muslim (AOR = 0.61, 95% CI = 0.46–0.81), scheduled tribes (AOR = 0.55, 95%CI = 0.38–0.80), scheduled caste (AOR = 0.71, 95% CI = 0.51–0.99), and from northeastern (AOR = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.23–0.74) and central India (AOR = 0.56, 95% CI = 0.32–0.95) had lower odds of institutional delivery.
Conclusions
The findings call for strengthening the continuum of maternal healthcare approach to improve institutional delivery specifically in low-performing states with poor maternal health service utilization among less-educated, rural, deprived, young women, and their parents, as they are less likely to choose ANC, institutional delivery, and post-natal care.
This article examines the impact of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake on age at marriage and other marital matching outcomes. Using the 2004–2005 wave of the India Human Development Survey and employing a difference-in-differences strategy, we document that the earthquake reduced the age at marriage for both men and women and decreased the likelihood of women marrying into wealthier households. Additionally, we find no changes in matching by educational status or in the likelihood of intra-caste and within-village marriages. The age-at-marriage results are driven by districts that were severely affected by the earthquake in terms of deaths and destruction. We provide suggestive evidence that the negative economic shock induced by the earthquake pushed parents to marry off their daughters early to save on dowry expenditures. Overall, our results highlight how the institution of marriage can induce long-lasting demographic changes after a natural disaster.
Early marriage, a marriage conducted before the age of 18, is now widely recognized to be deeply rooted in socio-cultural, economic and religious fabrics of society in which it prevails. This paper examines the knowledge, attitude and practice of the traditional and religious leaders towards girl child marriage in Sokoto State, Nigeria. The study relied heavily on the open-ended tradition of participatory and qualitative research tools, using specifically in-depth interviews (IDI). Interviews were conducted with a total of 48 respondents made up of 18 religious leaders and 30 traditional leaders. The study finds that there appears to be a marked difference between the attitude of rural and urban religious and traditional leaders towards early marriage. The urban religious leaders appear to have a more favorable attitude towards girl-child education which translates into delayed marriage until age 18. Enrolment and retention of girl child in formal school is the most neutral and non-controversial route to rising age at marriage.
Traditional and religious leaders play a key role in addressing many vital social problems including girl child marriage. A girl child marriage is a marriage conducted before the age of 18. This study identifies traditional and religious leader’s knowledge of medical and health consequences of early marriage in Sokoto state, Nigeria. The study is purely qualitative and employed In Depth Interview (IDI) to interrogate traditional and religious leader’s knowledge on medical and health implication of girl child marriage. Interviews were conducted with a total of 48 respondents made up of 18 religious leaders and 30 traditional leaders. The study found out that early marriage has both medical and health consequences to girl child. The study recommend that there is a need to develop methods to protect girls at risk of child marriage and to address the concerns of girls and women who are already married by ensuring the fulfillment of their right to a full education and providing that with life skills based training to ensure that they can earn a livelihood.
This chapter examines and compares how family socio-cultural values exert effect on early marriage across ethnic groups, focusing on Bangladesh. In doing so, 585 pairs of couples (295 for Muslim and 290 for Santal) were randomly selected from Bangladesh. Data were collected, applying questionnaire method in family setting. Then the collected data were analyzed, using X2 test and binary logistic regression (BLR) technique. The frequency distribution showed that most of the Santal couples compared to the Muslim were married before the minimum legal age in Bangladesh. Results of BLR analysis suggested that early age at first marriage was significantly (p<0.01 & p<0.05) associated with family socio-cultural values studied. It is argued that ethnicity, family pattern, residence pattern, illiteracy and ascriptive occupational status were the risk factors to persist early marriage among the Santal couples than the Muslim ones in rural Bangladesh.
There is widespread concern about whether opening up changes cultural customs. However, empirical evidence remains limited. In this paper, we provide new evidence on this issue by examining the impact of trade liberalization on marriage payment customs in China. We first provide a conceptual framework based on a labor market perspective to illustrate how trade liberalization has driven changes in marriage payment customs. Then, using China's World Trade Organization accession as a quasi‐natural experiment, this paper uses the difference‐in‐differences strategy and China's large‐scale household survey data to conduct an empirical study. Our results suggest that trade liberalization has reduced marriage payments in China, especially the bride price but not the dowry. Evidence from industry and census surveys suggests that the declining earning ability of marriageable men and the increasing relative economic status of women have driven down the bride price from the supply and demand sides, respectively. We also find that the impact of trade liberalization has been concentrated on southern and rural households. In addition to the decline in the bride price, the bad practice of child marriage in China has also been alleviated as a result.
We study the impact of a scholarship-based intervention aimed to reduce child marriage by fostering secondary education among adolescent girls in Niger. Using a large-scale randomized controlled trial, we find that after three years of implementation, the intervention led to large and positive effects. It halved both dropout and marriage rates and increased girls' and their parents' aspirations. Importantly, there is no displacement effect detrimental to the education and marriage status of nontreatment girls. Our results show that financial aid for education has the potential to transform adolescent girls' lives. (JEL I21, I28, J13, J16, O15)
This paper aims to explain the dynamics of child marriage and its impact on the Suku Anak Dalam community. This research uses observation, interview, and documentation methods, in which researchers directly go to the field to observe and interview perpetrators of early marriages and tribal chiefs. The results of the study show that the Suku Anak Dalam community has its own rules and traditions regarding the appropriate age limit for marriage and does not include provisions in the law that have been positive. This tradition is a way of measuring the maturity of the bride and groom. According to the Suku Anak Dalam, men can get married if they can earn a living through skill tests in hunting animals or are suitable for farming. At the same time, women are considered adults if they have menstruated. Child marriage is generally a tradition passed down from generation to generation and is an unwritten legal system in society. This practice is a form of neglect regarding women's rights in domestic life, which impacts divorce, physical health, malnutrition, and marriage administration. Several factors, including tradition, arranged marriages/endogamous marriages, economics, promiscuity, and gender inequality, cause this child marriage. Abstrak: Tulisan ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan dinamika pernikahan anak dan dampaknya bagi masyarakat Suku Anak Dalam. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian 262 lapangan dengan menggunakan metode observasi, wawancara dan dokumentasi, yaitu peneliti secara langsung turun ke lapangan untuk mengobservasi dan menginterview pelaku pernikahan anak dan kepala suku. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat Suku Anak Dalam memiliki aturan dan tradisi tersendiri dalam menentukan usia layak untuk menikah dan mengesampingkan ketentuan dalam undang-undang yang telah dipositifkan. Tradisi tersebut adalah cara mengukur kedewasaan calon pengantin. Menurut Suku Anak Dalam laki-laki sudah boleh menikah jika sudah mampu memberi nafkah melalui uji ketangkasan berburu binatang dan bercocok tanam, sementara perempuan dianggap sudah dewasa jika sudah mendapatkan menstruasi. Pernikahan anak pada umumnya merupakan tradisi turun temurun dan menjadi sistem hukum tidak tertulis di masyarakat. Praktik tersebut merupakan salah satu bentuk pengabaian terkait hak-hak perempuan dalam kehidupan rumah tangga yang berdampak pada perceraian, kesehatan fisik, gizi buruk dan administrasi pernikahan. Pernikahan anak ini disebabkan beberapa faktor diantaranya tradisi, perjodohan/pernikahan endogami, ekonomi, pergaulan bebas dan ketidaksetaraan gender.
Çocuk yaşta evlilik olarak tanımlanan birliktelikler çocuk ihmal ve istismarının bir formu ve aynı zamanda toplumsal hayatı etkileyen önemli sorunlar biridir. Yazılı basın aracılığıyla kitlelere ulaşabilen haberlerde kullanılan sözcükler toplumsal algı üzerinde etki bırakmaktadır. Çalışmanın amacı yazılı basında yer alan çocuk yaşta evlilik haberlerinin veriliş şeklini incelemek ve bu konuda öneriler sunmaktır. Araştırma kapsamında Türkiye’de ulusal düzeyde yayın yapan, tirajı yüksek gazeteler seçilmiştir. Milliyet, Sabah, Sözcü, Vatan, Yeni Şafak, Hürriyet, Yeni Akit gazetelerinin internet sitelerinde bulunan çocuk yaşta evlilik haberleri incelenmiştir. Araştırma kapsamında elde edilen veriler içerik analizi yöntemiyle çözümlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak; çocuk yaşta evlilik algısının haberlerde ele alınış şeklinin toplumsal cinsiyet algısından etkilendiği ve haberlerde çocuk haklarının ihlal edildiği görülmüştür. Çocuk yaşta evlilik haberleriyle bir çocuk istismarı olduğuna yönelik toplumsal algının geliştirilmesinde farkındalık yaratmak ve verilen haberlerde hak temelli yaklaşıma özen gösterilmesi konularında sosyal hizmet müdahalelerine gereksinim vardır.
Although many community members realize the adverse legal and health effects of child marriage, they continue to engage in it. This qualitative study examines the factors that keep community members locked in the tradition of child marriage and thereby illuminates how traditions perpetuate child marriage and make it difficult to control. Thematic analysis and categorization of data (from 21 female child marriage victims, seven key local informants, and four focus group discussions) into five major themes reveal that parents covertly undertake child marriage because they view it as a rite of passage, safety measure, and a way to gain acceptance from their respective groups. Vital registration, law revision, and strengthening of local associations are recommended to stop child marriages.
Early marriage restrains women's agency and bargaining strength in postmarital households, impairing their ability to make meaningful contributions to household decision making. This paper employs a comprehensive measure of women's empowerment in the domestic and productive spheres, and isolates the causal effect of age at marriage, instrumented by age at menarche, on their bargaining strength, using nationally representative data from Bangladesh. Results suggest that delayed marriages result in significantly higher empowerment scores and probability of being empowered for women, because of higher likelihood in achieving adequacy in their autonomy in agricultural production, control over income, ownership of assets and rights in those assets, and ability to speak in public. Favorable impacts of delayed marriage are also found on women's freedom of mobility, fertility choices, and their ability to decide on household expenses and investments, with the impacts likely coming via improvements in education and labor market outcomes when women married later.
Erken yaşta evlilik dünyanın birçok ülkesinde karşımıza çıkan çocukların ve ergenlerin yaşamlarını, güvenliklerini, sağlıklarını ve geleceklerini tehdit eden küresel bir sorundur. Ataerkil ve geleneksel bir toplum yapısına sahip olan Türkiye’de uzun yıllardır devam eden bu gelenek, çocukluk çağından başlayarak kız çocuklarının ailelerinin zoruyla evlendirilmesine ve yeterli olgunluğa erişmeden anne olmalarına sebep olmaktadır. Erken yaşta evliliklerin devam etmesinde etkili olan başlıca sebeplerden biri toplumsal sorun olarak görülmeyip aksine, ailelerin yaşadığı ekonomik problemlere çözüm ve toplumsal bir gelenek olarak görülmesidir. Ebeveynlerin tutumu, yaşanan ekonomik sıkıntılar, eğitim kurumlarına erişim ve erken evliliği önlemeye yönelik programların kısıtlılığı gibi etmenler sorunun çözümünü zorlaştırmaktadır. Bu yazının amacı olgu analiz çalışması ile erken yaşta evliliğin sebeplerini ve kadınlar üzerinde olan etkilerini ortaya koymaktır. Makalemizde ele aldığımız örnek olgu çalışması ile erken yaşta evliliğin uzun ve kısa vadeli yıkıcı etkilerini gözlemlemek mümkündür. Ayrıca bu etkiler ömür boyu da sürebilmektedir. Erken yaşta evliliğin evlenmeye zorlanan çocukları, özellikle de kız çocuklarının temel hak ve özgürlüklerinden olan eğitim hakkını kısıtlayan fizyolojik ve psikolojik gelişimini olumsuz yönde etkileyerek şiddet ve istismar açısından yüksek risk altına sokmaktadır. Erken yaşta evliliğin sonlandırılması için toplumun tüm kesimleri ve yetkili kuruluşlar işbirliği içinde çalışması, başta ebeveynler olmak üzere toplumsal farkındalık arttırılmalı ve ataerkil yapıyla mücadeleye devam edilmelidir.
The paper examines the effect of a primary education program in Benin on women’s marital outcomes. The study leverages a sharp increase in the construction of schools in the 1990s to assess the causal impact of an increase in primary-school supply on primary-school attendance, employment, marital outcomes, and experience and tolerance of intimate partner violence (IPV). Using quasi-experimental geographical and historical variations in the number of schools built, the results indicate that in rural areas the school building program increased the probability of attending primary school and increased the age at marriage and at first child. It decreased the probability that women find domestic violence justified and that they experience emotional IPV. The effects are driven by women’s own increase in education rather than their husbands’.
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