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Lead isotope analyses on Late Republican sling bullets
Abstract and Figures
Forty-two lead objects (mainly sling bullets) from archaeological sites in Spain and Italy, dating into the late Roman Republican period, two ore samples from Portman (Cartagena region) and one further ore sample from a deposit on Ibiza were analysed for their lead isotope ratios by multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC ICP-MS). The objective of the present study was to answer questions, which cannot be solved by conventional archaeological methods alone but require further information on the materials composition. For this, MC ICP-MS as a modern and fast analytical method to obtain both chemical and isotopic information paired with very low material consumption is a helpful analytical tool to answer archaeological and technological considerations and questions like (a) on the origin of the raw metals used for the objects, (b) if individual production sites used more than one metal source and (c) if certain metal mining areas were preferred during particular periods in time. The results of this study, which were obtained by combining lead isotope analysis with common archaeological methods, clearly demonstrate that Late Republican sling bullets and some other lead objects of other usage from Menorca originate from ore minerals that were predominantly mined on the Iberian mainland. Mixing relationships also show that a number of them were manufactured from reprocessed material. This is also true for single Italian lead sling bullets. Additionally, some of the objects have lead isotope signatures interpreted as mixing relationships, which point towards a manufacturing from reprocessed material.
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... This means that a manufacturer of lead objects, which had among its specializations the production of fistulae aquariae (Bruun, 1991), can be located at or near Fuente Spitz. As for the isotopic evidence, AMALIA has identified the analytical concordance between several objects in the Fuente Spitz collection (pipes, sarcophagi, seals, plumb bobs) and various lead sling bullets from Ategua (Corduba) and Cerro de las Balas (Seville), dated around 46-45 BCE in the context of the civil war between Pompey and Caesar (Müller et al., 2015), as well as sling bullets employed in the 57 BCE siege of the oppidum of Thuin, Belgium (Paridaens et al., 2020). These sling bullets also match isotopically with some galena ores from mines near La Carolina-El Centenillo (Los Guindos, El Sinapismo) and Linares. ...
This article presents A Matching Algorithm for Lead Isotope Analyses (AMALIA) that yields analytical coincidences in lead isotope databases, allowing a fast selection of potential candidates for metal provenance. As a proof of concept, potential ore sources for 29 Roman lead artifacts from the archaeological site of Fuente Spitz (Jaén, Spain) are provided. Additionally, a reassessment of legacy, TIMS lead-isotope analyses is conducted by re-analysis of 26 galena samples from nearby mining districts by MC-ICP-MS. The study demonstrates the accuracy and reliability of AMALIA and stresses the need to assess the isotope ratio data obtained without lead isotopic tracers (spikes) by TIMS carefully on a case-to-case basis. At the archaeological level, our study shows that the foundries and smelting sites at Fuente Spitz and Cerro del Plomo processed galena ores from the mining districts of La Carolina and Linares to produce a variety of lead products and lead ingots that have been found at several places thorough Europe, thereby providing tangible evidence of the regional and long-distance commercial circuits that these foundries were supplying.
... (A) 206 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 207 Pb/ 204 Pb binary diagram of Ermioni VMS pyrite (data from [20,86-89]). (B) 207 Pb/ 206 Pb vs. 204 Pb/ 206 Pb binary diagram of Ermioni VMS pyrite (data from[75,89] and references therein). (C)4 He vs. R/R A binary diagram of Ermioni pyrites. ...
The study follows previous work on Ermioni VMS and addresses in detail the formation and evolution of two adjacent VMS systems, Karakasi and Roro. It is based on a stable and radiogenic isotopic composition of sulfides and ganguefrom stringer (Karakasi) and massive (Roro) VMS ore. The isotopic geochemistry of Pb and noble gases (Ar-He) of pyrite from both sites indicates the development of a deep and evolved heat and possibly metal source attributed to subduction of radiogenic material (Pindos oceanic crust). The differences in the stable (Fe, S) and radiogenic (Sr, Ar) isotopic compositions between the two sites depict variation in the geologic environment of VMS formation, and in particular the effect of seawater. The higher δ57Fe and δ34S values of Roro massive pyrite are attributed to direct interaction of hot, ascending metal-bearing hydrothermal fluids with cold seawater. Karakasi stringer oreis characterized by higher 87Sr/86Sr ratios and radiogenic Ar values (as 40Ar/36Ar), indicating interaction of ore-bearing, hydrothermal fluids with crustal material (hanging-wall turbidites). During the approximate 0.5 Ma period separating the two systems, the hydrothermal system migrated from east to west, and at the same time evolved from free discharge on the seafloor (Roro—easterly), resembling contemporary seafloor style and mound-shaped massive sulfides, to a sediment-confined, subseafloor system (Karakasi—westerly).
... Lead isotopes have already been used in different contexts to identify the metal sources of sling bullets (e.g., Vlad et al. 2011;Müller et al. 2015;Gomes et al. 2017;Forouzan et al. 2012;Cuchí-Oterino et al. 2021). They have proven to be a useful tool for identifying the raw metal sources of lead. ...
Lead isotope and portable energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry were applied to a small group of Hellenistic lead objects from Tell Iztabba (Beth Shean, Israel). The market weights and sling bullets from this short-lived Seleucid-founded site were analysed in order to understand their production process and the provenance of the raw materials. The sling bullets are of pure lead, and its lead isotopic signature suggests that the lead was produced from Lavrion ores. The weights are heterogeneous in composition and point to the use of mixed or reused scrap metal. Anatolian or Aegaean lead ores are the raw material sources for the weights. Whether the sling bullets belonged to the defenders of the site or to the attackers cannot be determined from the analysis, but their Greek provenance together with the fact that they were recovered at the site may suggest their use by its defenders.
... Lead obtained as the by-product of this process was used to produce small objects such as tools, sling bullets, weights, and figurines. However, lead reached the peak of its popularity during the period of the Roman Empire, when it was widely used for the manufacturing of eating vessels, shipping tools, decorations, coffins, water pipes, and many others (Carroll et al., 2021;Kuleff et al., 2006;Gomes et al., 2017;Montgomery et al., 2010;Moore et al., 2021;Müller et al., 2015). From the technological point of view, it owned its popularity mainly to the low melting temperature, plasticity, and castability. ...
During their exposure to the burial conditions, lead objects cover with a layer of corrosion products. Structures of different nature are being formed as a reaction to the surrounding environment. The character of these processes is broadly studied, as it deepens our understanding of the objects’ condition. The article provides an overview of the corrosion systems observed in lead artefacts and the methods used for their characterization. It highlights the importance of corrosion degradation studies in the discussion on the environmental and historical context of the heritage objects. A case study on the ancient lead artefacts from the National Museum in Warsaw, Poland collection is also presented.
... The only significant cluster reported in recent years has been the Catton group (Thomas 2017). 7 For an overview of the use of the technique in a project with similar aims, see Müller et al. 2014. 8 Müller 2018. ...
Roman lead sling bullets (glandes) have been found at Windridge Farm near St Albans in Hertfordshire since the 1970s. A previous study suggested these missiles could have originated from a plough-disturbed hoard of Roman lead objects. More recent discoveries of glandes from other sites throughout Europe have enhanced our understanding of depositional characteristics, morphology and lead sources for Roman sling bullets and this paper offers an alternative explanation for their loss. Their atypical form (for Britain), and the prospect of a continental origin of the lead ore for their manufacture, suggest an early date of deposition. We also argue that the number of bullets and the pattern of their dispersal are indicative of an episode of conflict. After review of attested early military engagements that could have taken place in the vicinity, we propose that the projectiles may relate to one of two events: Claudius's invasion under the auspices of Aulus Plautius in a.d . 43 or Caesar's second incursion of 54 b.c .
... The length is 25 km, its width 15 km. Exploitation of gold-and silver-bearing ores could be proven, whereby silver rather was a by-product of Arribas and Tosdal 1994;Stos-Gale et al. 1995;Trincherini et al. 2001;Müller et al. 2014;Baron et al. 2017; this study) (M. Bode) lead cupellation. ...
A shipwreck of the 3rd/2nd decade BC found near Comacchio (prov. Ferrara, Italy) in 1980 contained not only well-preserved technical equipment and commercial goods but also 102 Roman lead ingots. Since then, the origin of the ingots has been intensively discussed. Domergue et al. (2012) connected the epigraphic elements with lead isotope analyses and favored the southeastern Spanish lead ore mines being the source of the lead metal. An origin from the Balkan region (Illyricum) was favored by Dušanić (2008). Due to our investigations, both assumptions cannot be maintained. We present a new interpretation of the lead’s isotope signature which best match data of ore deposits from Chalkidiki, Thasos island, and Pangaion mountains in the northern Aegean region.
The objective of this paper is to discuss the prospect of using lead isotope analysis (LIA) in archaeology concerning questions beyond the mere provenance studies of metals. The research represented examines if and to what extent the results of LIA can be used for dating artefacts, attributing, verifying or falsifying their origins respectively, their assigned find sites and to support or rebut archaeological-historical hypotheses. Due to the circumstances of their use and their properties – lead being the only material component, occasionally showing typological-chronological relevant characteristics and/or bearing inscriptions – lead sling bullets happen to be a most promising artefact group for this endeavour.
The copper ingots from the underwater site off Rochelongue, near Cap d’Agde, on the coast of West Languedoc, offer an exciting means to investigate coastal mobility and cultural interaction between southern France and the broader western Mediterranean basin in the Early Iron Age. This paper presents the results of elemental and lead isotope analyses of a selection of copper ingots from the Rochelongue site, along with several ingots from the Iberian Peninsula, and for the first time demonstrates that their composition is consistent with Iberian and Alpine metalliferous mineral sources, and possibly some Mediterranean sources as well. The Rochelongue site also speaks to the likely role of indigenous societies of Languedoc in the movement of metals between Atlantic, Continental and Mediterranean circuits. The Rochelongue ingot metal thus provides a window into expansive networks of trade contacts that must be evaluated alongside typological and cultural data.
RESUMEN.— El presente artículo aporta evidencia experimental, obtenida a través de la aplicación del método isotópico, sobre la posible procedencia pirenaica de algunos artefactos plúmbeos de época romana depositados en el Museo de Huesca, provenientes de excavaciones en La Filada, Labitolosa y la ciudad de Huesca. Con ello se confirmarían las afirmaciones de autores clásicos como Catón y Livio sobre el origen pirenaico de la plata oscense, y cobra entidad la hipótesis de un aprovechamiento local del plomo como
subproducto del beneficio de la plata en forma de cañerías y otros artefactos romanos. // ABSTRACT.— This work presents experimental evidence, obtained through the application of the isotopic analysis method, that lead artifacts from Roman times deposited in the Museum of Huesca, retrieved from excavations conducted in La Filada, Labitolosa and the city of Huesca, could come from the Pyrenees area. This data supports the claims of classic authors such as Cato and Livio on the Pyrenean origin of silver from Huesca, and the hypothesis of a local use of lead as a by-product of silver extraction for pipes and other Roman artifacts takes on special significance.
The paper presents lead and copper isotope analyses of 51 copper ore samples from the Sierra Morena, South of Spain. They are from ancient mines of the Iberian Peninsula collected by Claude Domergue during various field campaigns in the central Sierra Morena from 1965 to 1975. Most samples consist of copper oxide minerals such as malachite, azurite and chrysocolla and stem from the surficial sections of the ore deposits. The aim of the study was to supplement the existing reference data bank on lead isotopic compositions of ancient copper mines from the Iberian Peninsula. This is particularly important for the Sierra Morena for which data exist mostly for lead-zinc but not for copper ores. The lead isotope ratios range from 18.165 to 19.712 (206Pb/204Pb), 0.797 to 0.859 (207Pb/206Pb) and 1.955 to 2.108 (208Pb/206Pb). Two separate fields can be distinguished with a major field intermediate between the ore deposits from SW and SE Spain and a second at higher 208Pb/206Pb values. Copper isotopes were analysed additionally to provide further constraints for provenance studies. The copper isotope ratios δ65Cu of the copper oxide samples are mostly positive and higher on average than those of sulphide minerals. They are a potential tool to distinguish between either sulphide ore or oxide ore deposit derived artefacts.
A highly enriched 202Pb +205Pb double-spike
(202Pb/204Pb = 41000) has been prepared and used
to make measurements of lead isotopic composition with internal
correction for fractionation. The ratio of
205Pb/202Pb = 0.227388 in the double spike was
calibrated against the certificate abundances of 208Pb and
206Pb in NBS standard SRM-982.
The effectiveness of the double spike in improving the precision of lead
isotopic analysis was tested by a series of measurements of
double-spiked SRM 981. These demonstrate substantial improvements in
precision with standard deviations ranging from 70 to 150 ppm.
Measurements were made in static mode using a Finnigan MAT-261 mass
spectrometer, recently fitted with 9 new faraday cups, which allows
simultaneous monitoring of all lead peaks plus the reference masses (203
and 201) for isobaric interference from thallium and BaPO2.
New mutually consistent calibrations of the lead isotopic composition of
the NBS lead standards SRM 981 and SRM 982 have been calculated from the
double spiked measurements. In general, the new results agree closely
with the certificate values, but a small difference in 208Pb
abundance in SRM 981, previously observed by others and ourselves, has
been confirmed.
The isotopic composition of lead in archaeological objects can be used to trace the origin of this lead. In this paper we give the lead isotopic composition of 10 Roman lead pipes and ingots, found on the European continent. In spite of the limited number of samples and the restricted area, significant differences in the isotopic composition are found exceeding by far the experimental limits of error. Thus, it is shown that the isotopic composition of lead is indeed a sensitive tracer for the origin of historical lead objects. Our results are compared with the isotopic compositions of European lead ores. For some examples the possibilities and the limitations of the method are discussed.
The paper deals with a collection of 49 glandes which belong to a private collector. These slingshots are supposed to have been found around the so-called “Cerro de las Balas” (province Seville), where the battle of Munda took presumably place in 45 BC. Forty-six of them have inscriptions, CNMAG; LXIII; A; DD, which are respectively interpreted as Cn(aeus) Mag(nus), L(egio) XIII, A (?) and, tentatively, d(ecreto) d(ecurionum).Se presenta el catálogo de 49 glandes pertenecientes a un coleccionista privado. Los proyectiles proceden supuestamente del entorno del “Cerro de las Balas” (provincia de Sevilla), junto al cual se supone que tuvo lugar la batalla de Munda en el año 45 a.C. Del total de las piezas, 46 presentan inscripciones, CNMAG; LXIII; A; DD, que son interpretadas respectivamente como Cn(aeus) Mag(nus), L(egio) XIII, A (?) e, hipotéticamente, d(ecreto) d(ecurionum).
One hundred and twenty-five new lead isotopic analyses on galena, mainly from the Los Pedroches – Alcudia Valley area of southern Iberia, are presented. These data allow us to define four compositional groups in the 207Pb/206Pb versus 208Pb/206Pb and 207Pb/206Pb versus 206Pb/204Pb diagrams. Group I compositions are intermediate between those previously reported for southeastern and southwestern Iberian ore mineral locations. The compositions of Group II, the largest group, overlap with ore data from southwestern Spain. Groups III and IV have compositions that have never before been identified in this region and are comparable to those from the Sardinian Cu ores, which might explain the previously assumed exotic origin for local Bronze Age artefacts.
A few years ago, sites were discovered in Oberhalbstein (Graubünden, Switzerland), in the vicinity of the Crap Ses Gorge and on the Septimer Pass, that can be connected to the Alpine campaign of the year 15 BC. Moulded lead sling bullets bearing stamps of the 3rd, 10th and 12 th Legions make it likely that these units took part in the campaign. Excavations in 2007 and 2008 have documented a tented camp of approximately 1.3 hectare that was occupied during the summer months from about 16/15 BC into the second decade AD and served to control the pass. It can be expected that clashes between the Roman military and local resistance fighters took place near the Crap Ses Gorge. © 2013 by Romisch-Germanische Kommission des Dcutschen Archaologischen Instituts Frankfurt a. M.
Die Bleiisotopenanalyse ist heute von großer Bedeutung für die Herkunftsbestimmung der Metalle in archäologischen Objekten.
Die Bleiisotopenverhältnisse von Erzen dienen dabei als Fingerabdruck einer Lagerstätte, und durch einen Vergleich der Bleiisotopendaten
von Objekten und Erzen können die Metalle ihren Lagerstätten zugeordnet werden. Diese Möglichkeit liefert den archäologischen
Wissenschaften neue Denkanstöße: Woher die Rohstoffe stammten, ob unterschiedliche Produkte absichtlich oder zufällig mit
Rohstoffen unterschiedlicher Herkunft hergestellt wurden, welche Handelsbeziehungen es gab, welche Produktionsstätten bedeutend
waren und welche nur geringfügig ausgebeutet wurden, wie sich Handelsbeziehungen im Verlauf einer Zeitspanne änderten (eventuell
unter politischen Veränderungen), wann eine Rohstoffquelle versiegte und wo nach alternativen Rohstoffquellen gesucht wurde?
This paper presents a study carried out on the origins of two groups of lead sling projectiles accidentally recovered in the Dobrudja territory, attributed to the Macedonian and Roman armies, respectively. The analytical methods used were Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) for trace element analyses and Multi Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) for isotope ratio determination. Comparing the results with data drawn from literature on the main known mines in the Balkan–Greek area, the identifi cation of the ore source has been possible.
