Content uploaded by Gwo-Jen Hwang
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Gwo-Jen Hwang on Feb 23, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
Effects of digital game-based learning on students’ self-
efficacy, motivation, anxiety, and achievements
in learning mathematics
Chun-Ming Hung •Iwen Huang •Gwo-Jen Hwang
Received: 15 May 2014 / Revised: 25 June 2014 / Accepted: 1 July 2014 /
Published online: 19 July 2014
ÓBeijing Normal University 2014
Abstract In this study, a mathematical game-based learning environment is
developed on e-books for helping children reduce mathematical anxiety and
improve their self-efficacy, motivation, and achievements in learning mathematics.
To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach, an experiment was con-
ducted on an elementary school mathematics course. With quasi-experimental
research, a total of 69 pupils in three classes were selected as the research subjects.
One class was assigned to be experimental group A, another class was experimental
group B, and the third was the control group. Each group consisted of 23 students.
In the experimental process, the three groups took pre-tests, had experimental
instruction, and then took post-tests. The experimental results show that the game-
based e-book learning model effectively promoted the students’ learning achieve-
ment, self-efficacy, and motivation of mathematics. However, no significant dif-
ferences were found between the mathematical anxiety ratings of the three groups.
Keywords Mathematics anxiety Game-based learning Self-efficacy Learning
motivation Mathematics courses
C.-M. Hung I. Huang
Department of Information and Learning Technology, National University of Tainan, No. 33, Sec. 2,
Shulin St., T’ai–nan 70005, Taiwan
e-mail: hcm@live.htps.tn.edu.tw
I. Huang
e-mail: huangi@mail.nutn.edu.tw
G.-J. Hwang (&)
Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education, National Taiwan University of Science and
Technology, 43, Sec.4, Keelung Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
e-mail: gjhwang.academic@gmail.com
123
J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
DOI 10.1007/s40692-014-0008-8
Background and motivation
Reducing students’ mathematical anxiety, as well as promoting their mathematics
self-efficacy, learning motivation, and learning achievement has been recognized as
a challenging and important issue (Guilford 1980; Peters 2013; Tapia and Marsh
2004; Vukovic et al. 2013). Educators have tried to cope with this problem by
proposing effective teaching strategies or tools in traditional instructional settings.
Nevertheless, researchers have found that mathematics remains a forbidding course
for many students, so that those students do not try to find the answers when
encountering difficulties during the learning process, which seriously affects their
learning outcomes (Guilford 1980; Messick 1994).
The advancement and popularity of computers and multimedia technologies have
encouraged researchers to develop digital content and systems for mathematics
courses. For example, Morales (2005) provided mathematical lessons on a website
for engaging student in self-learning, and found that the time for remedial
instruction was significantly reduced. Damian and Duguid (2004) reported that the
application of multimedia and enjoyable tasks to mathematical concepts could assist
students in mathematical learning and help them apply the concepts to daily lives.
Nguyen et al. (2006) further indicated that web-based learning allowed students to
enhance their mathematical learning attitude and promote their learning motivation,
as the interactive and instantly responsive instructions could help students construct
knowledge (Steen et al. 2006; Moyer et al. 2008).
On the other hand, Hennessy et al. (2007) indicated that the interactive records of
information technology instructions could allow teachers to reflect and improve the
curriculum design, as well as cultivate student capabilities of independent thinking
and problem solving. Jewitt et al. (2007) regarded that the discussions between
teachers and students through technology allowed the curriculum to be closer to
students’ thinking and further promoted their learning quality. Apparently,
technology-supported learning and interactions could cultivate students’ construc-
tion of mathematical knowledge and enhance their learning motivation.
Many of previous studies have paid attention to the students’ motivation in
learning mathematics (Hwang et al. 2013; Sins et al. 2008). For example, Legault
and Green-Demers (2006) pointed out that lack of learning motivation is the critical
problem in the present educational environment. That is, it is important to promote
students’ learning motivation in order to improve their learning achievement of
mathematics. Vansteenkiste et al. (2006) further stated that the way of presenting
the learning materials could affect students’ learning motivation for mathematics.
Several researchers have also addressed similar issues. For example, Alavi et al.
(2002) indicated that information technology-enhanced learning could be a solution
for promoting students’ mathematics learning motivation; Cramer et al. (2008) also
indicated that using multimedia to present learning materials could be helpful to
children in learning mathematics. Kuo (2007) reported that digital games could
provide a learning environment that attracts students’ interest in learning
mathematics. Several recent studies have also reported that educational computer
games have the potential of promoting students’ learning motivation, which could
result in good learning achievement (Burguillo 2010; Liu and Chu 2010; Dickey
152 J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
123
2010; Houssart and Sams 2008; Huang 2010; Hwang et al. 2013; Sung and Hwang,
2013).
Although previous studies have revealed the effects of multimedia or digital
games on promoting students’ learning interests and motivations, the impacts of
multimedia or digital games on students’ self-efficacy of learning mathematics, as
well as their learning achievements were seldom investigated; moreover, it has not
been reported whether the students’ mathematical anxiety can be reduced with those
technology-enhanced learning approaches. Students’ self-efficacy and deducing
anxiety have been recognized as important factors to be considered in educational
settings (Li et al. 2011); in particular, in mathematics courses (Schunk 2007).
Researchers have pointed out that mathematics anxiety could be one of the key
factors that significantly affect students’ learning motivation and performance
(Clute 1984; Bagaka’s 2011). Moreover, students’ mathematics self-efficacy could
be improved via reducing their mathematics anxiety, which could be helpful to them
in improving their learning efficacy (Peters 2013), attitude, and interest (Louis and
Mistele 2012). Therefore, it is an important and challenging issue to propose new
learning strategies or tools to reduce students’ mathematics anxiety and promote
their self-efficacy.
In this study, a game-based learning approach is proposed by integrating
mathematics content into computer games on mobile devices. Moreover, an
experiment has been conducted on an elementary school mathematics course to
investigate the following research questions:
1. Can the game-based mathematics learning approach improve the students’ self-
efficacy in comparison with the conventional technology-enhanced learning
approach and traditional instruction?
2. Can the game-based mathematics learning approach promote the students’
learning motivation in comparison with the conventional technology-enhanced
learning approach and traditional instruction?
3. Can the game-based mathematics learning approach decrease the students’
mathematical anxiety in comparison with the conventional technology-
enhanced learning approach and traditional instruction?
4. Can the game-based mathematics learning approach improve the students’
learning achievement in comparison with the conventional technology-
enhanced learning approach and traditional instruction?
Literature review
Digital Game-based Learning (DGBL) refers to the development and use of
computer games for educational purposes (Prensky 2001). A DGBL activity
engages students in the process of problem solving or knowledge acquisition when
facing the challenges presented by the game (Huang et al. 2010b, 2013). It is
expected that, by adding instructional objectives and materials into digital games,
J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166 153
123
students’ learning motivation would be enhanced because of the challenging and
enjoyable nature of the games (Hwang et al. 2012). In recent years, various studies
related to DGBL have been reported, revealing the potential of this approach
(Hwang et al. 2012; Villalta et al. 2011). For example, the study of Wang and Chen
(2010) showed that, with the DGBL approach, students were highly involved in
programming activities, which have been recognized as being difficult and boring
tasks to most students. Dickey (2011) found that the DGBL approach could promote
students’ intrinsic motivation. In the meantime, Yien et al. (2011) also reported the
positive effect of computer games on students’ learning achievement in a nutrition
course. The study of Hung et al. (2012) further showed that, with proper design,
digital games could improve students’ spatial cognition ability. From the literature,
it is found that DGBL could be a good approach for improving students’ learning
motivation and achievement in mathematics.
On the other hand, several studies have reported the benefits of using e-books
with wireless communication facilities, while conducting technology-enhanced
learning approaches (de Jong and Bus 2002; Janssens and Martin 2009; Siegenthaler
et al. 2010; Min et al. 2011). For example, Gil-Rodrı
´guez and Planella-Riberause
(2008) indicated that e-books could promote interaction between peers. In addition,
both the studies of Stepath (2004) and Shamir and Shlafer (2011) indicated that the
use of e-books was beneficial to students’ learning outcomes. Based on a large-scale
survey, Lee (2012) reported that using e-books to access and execute application
programs significantly promoted individuals’ perceived usefulness and perceived
ease of use in technology-enhanced learning activities. Consequently, in this study,
e-books were chosen as the platform of executing the digital games.
Methods
In this study, a pre-test and post-test-designed quasi-experiment was conducted. The
independent variables were the different modes of learning, that is, the DGBL
approach on e-books, the technology-enhanced learning approach on e-books, and
traditional instruction. The dependent variables were learning achievement, self-
efficacy, mathematical motivation, and mathematical anxiety.
Participants
The participants were 68 fifth graders in three classes of an elementary school. One
class with 23 students (11 males and 12 females) was experimental group A, one
class with 23 students (12 males and 11 females) was experimental group B, and the
other class with 23 students (13 males and 10 females) was the control group. To
prevent the experimental results being affected by different instructors, the selected
classes were taught by the same instructor. The students in experimental group A
learned with the DGBL approach on e-books, the ones in experimental group B
learned with the technology-enhanced learning approach on e-books, while those in
the control group learned with the traditional instruction approach.
154 J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
123
Measuring tools
The pre-test aimed to evaluate the prior knowledge of the students before the
learning activity. It consisted of nine multiple choice, eleven fill-in-the-blank, and
five short-answer items with a perfect score of 100. The post-test was developed
based on the learning objective of the learning activity. It contained 37 items,
including five multiple choice, sixteen fill-in-the-blank, and fifteen short-answer
items, also with a perfect score of 100. Both tests were developed by two teachers
who had more than 10 years’ experience in teaching Mathematics.
The self-efficacy scale, learning motivation scale, and mathematical anxiety scale
originated from the measurement developed by Fennema and Sherman (1977). A
five-point rating scheme was employed, where 5 represented ‘‘extremely agree’’ and
1 represented ‘‘extremely disagree.’’ The Cronbach’s acoefficients for the three
sub-scales were .91, .84, and .90, presenting the internal consistency with favorable
reliability.
The game-based learning system
The framework was divided into the administrative end and the user end, as shown
in Fig 1. The former presented four functions, namely instruction management,
material management, synchronization management, and operation management.
Instruction management controlled the learning condition of the students; material
management was used to compile e-books for instruction; synchronization
management presented the students’ use of the e-book and the records of their
learning condition; while operation management aimed to manage students’
assignments. The administrative end could directly compile e-books and remind the
user end to install or update the e-books through the cloud learning system.
Student interface
Server
Download
educational
games
Execute
educational
games
Make
anno tation s Uplo ad
homework
Manage
instructional
materials
Manage
learning
sheets
Interact with
student s Assign
homework
Teacher interface
Fig. 1 Mathematics game-based learning environment with e-books
J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166 155
123
The user end utilized tablet computers with the Android operation system, which
provides four major functions, that is, downloading educational games (APP’s),
executing educational games, making annotations, and uploading homework. On the
other hand, teachers can provide instructional materials and learning sheets, interact
with students, and assign homework via the teacher interface.
The unit of ‘‘Line symmetry figures’’ in the elementary mathematics course was
designed for the game-based learning model. It included the ‘‘Awareness of line
symmetry figure-related buildings in life’’ (a game of selecting the two completely
equivalent figures from three), ‘‘Knowing axis of symmetry and counting axis of
symmetry’’ (games of a rhombus being folded for up–down or left–right
overlapping figures, and an isosceles triangle being folded for left–right overlapping
figures), ‘‘Knowing point of symmetry, side of symmetry, and angle of symmetry’’
(a game of line symmetry figures), ‘‘Drawing line symmetry figures’’ (a game of
drawing line symmetry figures with grids), and ‘‘Exercise’’ units. Figure 2shows
the learning scenarios of using e-books to play the mathematics games in the
classroom.
Figure 3shows the interface of the ‘‘Brick Breaker’’ game, which was designed
for the ‘‘Activities for knowing point of symmetry, side of symmetry, and angle of
symmetry’’ unit. When the students broke a specific brick, the learning system
showed a question related to the point of symmetry, side of symmetry, and angle of
symmetry of a graph. If the students correctly drew the symmetry lines, they would
be awarded additional points.
Fig. 2 Learning scenarios of using the mathematics game-based learning system in the classroom
156 J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
123
Experimental procedure
Figure 4shows the experimental procedure, which consists of three stages, that is,
the pre-test, the introduction to the tools and learning tasks, and the post-test and
post-questionnaires.
In the first stage, all of the students took the mathematical course pre-test, and
completed the self-efficacy scale, mathematical motivation scale, and mathematical
anxiety scale pre-questionnaire. The total time for this stage was 60 min.
The graphical
question
The symmetry lines
drawn by the student
Accumulated bonus
Available lives
Fig. 3 Interface of the ‘‘Brick Breaker’’ game
60 Min.
Experimental group A
(N=23)
Experimental group B
(N=23)
Control group
(N=23)
120 Min.
240 Min.
Post-test and scales of learning motivation and m athematical anxiety
Pre-test and scales of learning motivation and mathematical anxiety
Digital game-
based learni ng
Technology-
enhanced
learning
Traditional
instruction
Interviews
Fig. 4 Experiment procedure
J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166 157
123
Following the instruction, a 240-min learning activity was conducted. During the
learning activity, the students in experimental group A learned with the game-based
learning approach using e-books. The students in experimental group B learned with
the learning system on e-books. On the other hand, the students in the control group
learned with traditional teacher-directed instruction.
In the final stage, all of the students took the post-test, and completed the self-
efficacy scale, mathematical motivation scale, and mathematical anxiety scale post-
questionnaire. The total time for this stage was 120 min. Following that, some
students in the experimental groups were interviewed by the researchers.
Experimental result
Self-efficacy
A pre-questionnaire was used to measure the self-efficacy of the students in learning
the target course before the experiment. Table 1shows the ANOVA result of the
pre-questionnaire ratings. It was found that the self-efficacy among the three groups
did not appear to be significantly different, with F=1.38 (p[.05), implying that
the three groups presented equivalent self-efficacy before participating in the
learning activity.
After the learning activity, ANCOVA was used to compare the post-question-
naire ratings of the students’ self-efficacy by excluding the impacts of the pre-
questionnaire ratings. Table 2shows the ANCOVA result. The adjusted means of
experimental group A, experimental group B, and the control group were 3.60, 3.67,
and 3.27, respectively. Moreover, it was found that the three groups had significant
differences on the self-efficacy ratings, with F=3.67 (p\.05). The pairwise
Table 1 ANOVA result of the self-efficacy pre-questionnaire ratings of the three groups
Group N Mean SD F
(EA) Experimental group A 23 3.53 .62 1.38
(EB) Experimental group B 23 3.19 .71
(C) Control group 23 3.30 .76
Table 2 ANCOVA result of the self-efficacy post-questionnaire ratings of the three groups
Group N Mean SD Adjusted mean F(2, 65) Pairwise
comparisons
(EA) Experimental group A 23 3.74 0.79 3.60 3.67* (EA) [(C)
(EB) Experimental group B 23 3.56 0.64 3.67 (EB) [(C)
(C) Control group 23 3.24 0.82 3.27
*p\.05
158 J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
123
comparisons further showed that both experimental groups A and B outperformed
the control group, implying that both DGBL and digital instructional materials on
e-books could significantly improve the students’ self-efficacy in comparison with
the traditional instruction model.
Learning motivation
Learning motivation has been identified as being an important dimension of
evaluating DGBL approaches (Dickey 2011), in particular, for the learning activities
in mathematics courses (Messick 1994). In this study, a pre-questionnaire was used
to measure the students’ motivation of learning mathematics before the experiment.
As shown in Table 3, the ANOVA result revealed no significant difference between
the learning motivation ratings of the three groups, with F=1.0 (p[.05), before
participating in the learning activity.
After the learning activity, ANCOVA was used to compare the students’
mathematical learning motivation by excluding the impacts of the pre-questionnaire
ratings. Table 4shows the ANCOVA result. The adjusted means of experimental
group A, experimental group B, and the control group were 3.78, 3.56, and 3.22,
respectively; moreover, the learning motivations of the three groups had significant
differences, with F=3.87 (p\.05). By applying pairwise comparisons, it was
found that experimental group A had significantly higher learning motivation than
the control group, while no significant difference was found between the two
experimental groups or between experimental group B and the control group,
implying that the game-based learning approach could better enhance the students’
motivation of learning mathematics than traditional instruction.
Table 3 ANOVA result of the learning motivation pre-questionnaire ratings of the three groups
Group N Mean SD F
(EA) Experimental group A 23 3.00 0.00 1.00
(EB) Experimental group B 23 3.00 0.00
(C) Control group 23 3.00 0.02
Table 4 ANCOVA result of the learning motivation post-questionnaire ratings of the three groups
Group N Mean SD Adjusted
mean
F(2, 65) Pairwise
comparisons
(EA) Experimental group A 23 3.78 0.72 3.78 3.87
*
(EA) [(C)
(EB) Experimental group B 23 3.56 0.56 3.56
(C) Control group 23 3.23 0.72 3.22
Total number of students 69 3.52 0.70
*p\.05
J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166 159
123
Mathematical anxiety
Mathematical anxiety has been a widely discussed issue for decades (Fennema and
Sherman 1977). It has been recognized by educators as an important and
challenging issue to decrease the mathematical anxiety of students (Cates and
Rhymer 2003). In this study, a pre-questionnaire was used to measure the
participants’ mathematical anxiety before the experiment. As shown in Table 5, the
ANOVA result showed no significant difference between the mathematical anxiety
ratings of the three groups, with F=2.80 (p[.05), before participating in the
learning activity.
After the learning activity, ANCOVA was used to compare the students’
mathematical anxiety by excluding the impacts of the pre-questionnaire ratings.
Table 6shows the ANCOVA result. The adjusted means of experimental group A,
experimental group B, and the control group were 3.32, 3.46, and 3.54, respectively.
The differences between the three groups were not significant, with F=1.14
(p[.05).
Learning achievement
A pre-test was conducted before the experiment to evaluate the basic mathematical
knowledge of the students. Table 7shows the pre-test scores of the three groups.
Table 5 ANOVA result of the mathematical anxiety pre-questionnaire ratings of the three groups
Group N Mean SD F
(EA) Experimental group A 23 3.44 .83 2.80
(EB) Experimental group B 23 3.76 .72
(C) Control group 23 3.24 .67
Table 6 ANCOVA result of the mathematical anxiety post-questionnaire ratings of the three groups
Group N Mean SD Adjusted mean F(2, 65)
(EA) Experimental group A 23 3.29 0.70 3.32 1.14
(EB) Experimental group B 23 3.65 0.74 3.46
(C) Control group 23 3.37 0.73 3.54
Table 7 ANOVA result on the pre-test scores of the three groups
Group N Mean SD F
(EA) Experimental group A 23 75.48 16.07 .50
(EB) Experimental group B 23 79.35 15.55
(C) Control group 23 79.48 14.48
160 J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
123
The ANOVA result shows that the pre-test scores of the three groups did not appear
to have significant differences, with F=.50 (p[.05), showing that the three
groups presented equivalently basic mathematical knowledge before the
experiment.
After the experiment, the students’ pre-test scores were regarded as the
covariance of ANCOVA to exclude the effects of the pre-test on the students’
learning achievement. Table 8shows the ANCOVA result. The adjusted means of
experimental group A, experimental group B, and the control group were 92.88,
87.41, and 86.80, respectively. The variance F=4.71 (p\.05) indicated the
existence of significant differences between the post-test scores of the three groups.
From pairwise comparisons, it was found that experimental group A outperformed
experimental group B and the control group, while there was no significant
difference between experimental group B and the control group.
This result demonstrates that the mathematical game-based learning model could
better promote pupils’ mathematical learning outcomes than the mobile game
learning model and the traditional instruction model.
Interviews with the experimental groups after implementing the mobile game-
based learning model
The students in experimental group A were interviewed after the experiment. The
interview questions were related to the effectiveness of the digital game-based
mathematics learning with e-books and their willingness of learn with such an
approach. From the feedback of the students, it was found that ‘‘interesting’’ and
‘‘effective’’ were the notable features of learning mathematics with the digital
games on the e-books.
In terms of ‘‘interesting,’’ 15 students mentioned that the game-based learning
model was interesting and helpful for learning mathematics without pressure. For
example, A3, A4, and A20 stated that, ‘‘It is more interesting than traditional
instruction. I can operate it and learn better.’’ A4, A8, and A11 stated, ‘‘It is more
convenient and interesting than traditional instruction. I can learn more new
knowledge.’’ A15, A20, and A21 commented, ‘‘It is interesting, not boring, without
pressure, and it’s more fun.’’ A14 mentioned, ‘‘I feel relaxed to learn in this way, as
I am not interested in raising my hand to ask questions in traditional instruction,’’
Table 8 ANCOVA result of the post-test scores of the three groups
Group N Mean SD Adjusted
mean
F(2,65) Pairwise
comparisons
(EA) Experimental group A 23 92.09 9.66 92.88 4.71* (EA) [(EB)
(EB) Experimental group B 23 87.78 8.60 87.41 (EA) [(C)
(C) Control group 23 87.22 7.47 86.80
Total number of students 69 89.03 8.77
*p\.05
J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166 161
123
while A2, A9, A10, and A22 indicated that ‘‘The games are interesting. I almost
forgot that I was learning mathematics.’’
In terms of ‘‘effective,’’ 12 students mentioned that the DGBL with e-books
enabled them to learn in a more effective and efficient way. For example, A23 said
that ‘‘Presenting the learning content in the digital games on e-books makes
mathematics knowledge easy to understand. Those games are helpful to me in
learning mathematics.’’ A1, A19, and A23 indicated that ‘‘It is great to learn
mathematics in this way. We can play mathematical games and make notes about
what we do not understand. It is helpful to do that.’’ A2 and A22 mentioned, ‘‘After
learning with the digital games on e-books, mathematics becomes easier and
understandable for me. I can solve more difficult questions now.’’ A22 mentioned
that ‘‘I prefer lessons with the cloud e-book, as it can help me quickly understand
mathematics.’’ A7, A9, A12, and A15 indicated that ‘‘It is easy to learn and my
mathematics knowledge has improved.’’ A17 and A19 further indicated that ‘‘The
e-books are handy and convenient for learning.’’
Furthermore, several students revealed their future desire to use the DGBL
approach in mathematics and other courses. For example, A2, A4, A5, A9, A10,
A19, and A26 mentioned that ‘‘It is fun and I wish to continuously learn
mathematics in this way so as to increase my mathematical knowledge.’’ A3, A6,
A16, and A17 stated that ‘‘It is effective and interesting. I think it can be used for
learning science and social studies.’’ A18 commented that ‘‘It can be used for
learning English.’’ A08 mentioned that ‘‘Since it is convenient, I wish it could be
applied to every subject.’’
Discussion and conclusions
In this study, a DGBL environment for mathematics courses was developed. The
students can access the digital mathematical games via e-books with wireless
communications. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach, a learning
activity of an elementary school mathematics course was conducted to compare the
learning achievements, learning motivations, self-efficacy, and mathematical
anxiety of the students who learned with the DGBL approach, conventional
e-learning approach, and traditional instruction.
From the experimental results, it was found that both the DGBL group and the
e-learning group revealed significantly higher self-efficacy of learning mathematics
than the traditional instruction group. As self-efficacy refers to one’s belief or
expectation in successfully completing some tasks or achieving some specific
objectives (Bandura 1988), it is inferred that provision of practice and instant
feedback using computer and information technologies (e.g., e-books, wireless
networks, and multimedia) is able to encourage students to learn mathematics better.
Although the students in the e-learning group did not show significantly higher
learning motivation and achievement than the traditional instruction group at the
time, their self-efficacy reveals the potential of making progress in learning
mathematics in the future.
162 J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
123
On the other hand, it was found that the DGBL group outperformed the other two
groups in terms of learning achievements, while the learning achievements of the
e-learning group and the traditional instruction group did not have a significant
difference. This finding is not obvious, since some previous studies have reported
unfavorable results or negative effects of DGBL on students’ learning performance
(Charsky and Ressler 2011; Pierfy 1977; Randel et al. 1992). In the meantime, it is
interesting to find that the students in the game-based learning group showed
significantly higher learning motivation than those in the traditional instruction
group, while the learning motivations of the e-learning group and the traditional
instruction group were not significantly different. From these experimental results
and the students’ interview feedback, it is inferred that learning with digital games
on e-books is able to attract the attention of students and engage them in
mathematical practices, which could be the reason why the students had
significantly better mathematical achievements than others.
In terms of mathematical anxiety, there were no significant differences between
the three groups. Moreover, from the pre-questionnaire and the post-questionnaire
ratings, it was found that the mathematical anxiety ratings of both the DGBL group
and the e-learning group decreased after the learning activity, while that of the
traditional instruction group increased. This implies that computer and information
technologies and gaming strategies have good potential for decreasing the
mathematical anxiety of students. That is, it is worth developing and utilizing
digital mathematics games in the future.
In the future, some improvements can be made to the present gaming model.
First, the current digital games are designed for individuals, although the students
can communicate with their peers and the teacher. It would be more interesting and
effective if the mathematics games were designed for the students to complete
gaming missions, as well as learn mathematics collaboratively or competitively
(Villalta et al. 2011; Hwang et al. 2012). Second, most mathematical games,
including the ones used in this study, do not situate students in authentic learning
scenarios that engage them in solving real-world problems with mathematical
knowledge. To overcome these drawbacks, we are planning to conduct a project to
develop mathematics games that engage students in solving real-world problems
collaboratively via mobile devices with wireless communications. Moreover, we
also plan to generalize the games by providing an interface that allows researchers
and instructors to modify the learning content in the games to meet the needs of
different courses.
Acknowledgments This study is supported in part by the National Science Council of the Republic of
China under contract numbers NSC 99-2511-S-011-011-MY3 and NSC 101-2511-S-011 -005 -MY3.
References
Alavi, M., George, M. M., & Yoo, Y. (2002). A comparative study of distributed learning environments
on learning outcomes. Information Systems Research, 13(4), 404–415.
Bagaka’s, J. G. (2011). The role of teacher characteristics and practices on upper secondary school
students’ mathematics self-efficacy in Nyanza province of Kenya: A multilevel analysis.
International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 9(4), 817–842.
J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166 163
123
Bandura, A. (1988). Organizational application of social cognitive theory. Australian Journal of
Management, 13(2), 275–302.
Burguillo, J. C. (2010). Using game theory and competition-based learning to stimulate student
motivation and performance. Computers & Education, 55(2), 566–575.
Cates, G. L., & Rhymer, K. N. (2003). Examining the relationship between mathematics anxiety and
mathematics performance: an instructional hierarchy perspective. Journal of Behavioral Education,
12(1), 23–34.
Charsky, D., & Ressler, W. (2011). ‘‘Games are made for fun’’: Lessons on the effects of concept maps in
the classroom use of computer games. Computers & Education, 56(3), 604–615.
Clute, P. S. (1984). Mathematics anxiety, instructional method, and achievement in a survey course in
college mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 15(1), 50–58.
Cramer, K., Wyberg, T., & Leavitt, S. (2008). The role of representations in fraction addition and
subtraction. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 13(8), 490–496.
Damian, C., & Duguid, J. (2004). Searching for wow! picturebooks. ENC Focus: A Magazine for
Classroom Innovators, 12, 13.
de Jong, M. T., & Bus, A. G. (2002). Quality of book-reading matters for emergent readers: An
experiment with the same book in a regular or electronic format. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 94, 145–155.
Dickey, M. D. (2010). Murder on Grimm Isle: the impact of game narrative design in an educational
game-based learning environment. British Journal of Educational Technology,. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
8535.2009.01032.x.
Dickey, M. D. (2011). Murder on Grimm Isle: The impact of game narrative design in an educational
game-based learning environment. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42(3), 456–469.
Fennema, E., & Sherman, J. (1977). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial
visualization, and affective factors. American Educational Research Journal, 14(1), 51–71.
Gil-Rodrı
´guez, E. P., & Planella-Ribera, J. (2008). Educational uses of the e-book: An experience in a
virtual university context. HCI and Usability for Education and Work, 5298, 55–62.
Guilford, J. P. (1980). Cognitive style: What are they? Educational and Psychological Measurement, 40,
715–735.
Hennessy, S., Deaney, R., Ruthven, K., & Winterbottom, M. (2007). Pedagogical strategies for using the
interactive whiteboard to foster learner participation in school science. Learning Media and
Technology, 32(3), 283–301.
Houssart, J., & Sams, C. (2008). Developing mathematical reasoning through games of strategy played
against the computer. International Journal for Technology in Mathematics Education, 15(2),
59–71.
Huang, W. H. (2010). Evaluating learners’ motivational and cognitive processing in an online game-
based learning environment. Computers in Human Behavior,. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.07.021.
Huang, W. H., Huang, W. Y., & Tschopp, J. (2010). Sustaining iterative game playing processes in
DGBL: The relationship between motivational processing and outcome processing. Computers &
Education, 55(2), 789–797.
Hung, P. H., Hwang, G. J., Lee, Y. H., & Su, I. H. (2012). A cognitive component analysis approach for
developing game-based spatial learning tools. Computers & Education, 59(2), 762–773.
Hwang, G. J., Sung, H. Y., Hung, C. M., & Huang, I. (2012a). Development of a personalized educational
computer game based on students’ learning styles. Educational Technology Research and
Development, 60(4), 623–638.
Hwang, G. J., Wu, P. H., & Chen, C. C. (2012b). An online game approach for improving students’
learning performance in web-based problem-solving activities. Computers & Education, 59(4),
1246–1256.
Hwang, G. J., Sung, H. Y., Hung, C. M., & Huang, I. (2013a). A learning style perspective to investigate
the necessity of developing adaptive learning systems. Educational Technology & Society, 16(2),
188–197.
Hwang, G. J., Sung, H. Y., Hung, C. M., Yang, L. H., & Huang, I. (2013b). A knowledge engineering
approach to developing educational computer games for improving students’ differentiating
knowledge. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(2), 183–196.
Hwang, G. J., Yang, L. H., & Wang, S. Y. (2013c). A concept map-embedded educational computer game
for improving students’ learning performance in natural science courses. Computers & Education,
69(1), 121–130.
164 J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
123
Janssens, G., & Martin, H. (2009). The feasibility of e-ink readers in distance learning: A field study.
International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 3(3), 38–46.
Jewitt, C., Moss, G., & Cardini, A. (2007). Pace, interactivity and multimodality in teachers’ design of
texts for interactive whiteboards in the secondary school classroom. Learning Media and
Technology, 32(3), 303–317.
Kuo, M. J. (2007). How does an online game based learning environment promote students’ intrinsic
motivation for learning natural science and how does it affect their learning outcomes?.InThe first
IEEE international workshop on digital game and intelligent toy enhanced learning, Jhongli,
Taiwan, March 26–28.
Lee, S. (2012). An integrated adoption model for e-books in a mobile environment: Evidence from South
Korea. Telematics and Informatics,. doi:10.1016/j.tele.2012.01.006.
Legault, L., & Green-Demers, I. (2006). Why do high school students lack motivation in the classroom?
Toward an understanding of academic amotivation and the role of social support. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 98, 567–582.
Li, C. J., Lin, P. C., & Hsiu, H. L. (2011). The relationships among adult attachment, social self-efficacy,
distress self-disclosure, loneliness and depression of college students with romance. Bulletin of
Educational Psychology, 43(1), 155–174.
Liu, T. Y., & Chu, Y. L. (2010). Using ubiquitous games in an English listening and speaking course:
Impact on learning outcomes and motivation. Computers & Education, 55(2), 630–643.
Louis, R. A., & Mistele, J. M. (2012). The differences in scores and self-efficacy by student gender in
mathematics and science. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(5),
1163–1190.
Messick, S. (1994). The matter of style: Manifestation of personality in cognition, learning, and teaching.
Educational Psychologist, 29(3), 121–136.
Min, S. H., Kim, H. Y., Kwon, Y. J., & Sohn, S. Y. (2011). Conjoint analysis for improving the e-book
reader in the Korean market. Expert Systems with Applications, 38(10), 12923–12929.
Morales, C. R. (2005). Using on-line digital video to augment the teaching of frequency/spatial filtering
operations. Computers in Education Journal, 15, 45–52.
Moyer, P. S., Salkind, G., & Bolyard, J. J. (2008). Virtual manipulatives used by K-8 teachers for
mathematics instruction: Considering mathematical, cognitive, and pedagogical fidelity. Contem-
porary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 8(3), 202–218.
Nguyen, D. M., Hsieh, Y. J., & Allen, G. D. (2006). The impact of web-based assessment and practice on
students’ mathematics learning attitudes. The Journal of Computer in Mathematics and Science
Teaching, 25(3), 251–279.
Peters, M. L. (2013). Examining the relationships among classroom climate, self-efficacy, and
achievement in undergraduate mathematics: A multi-level analysis. International Journal of
Science and Mathematics Education, 11(2), 459–480.
Pierfy, D. A. (1977). Comparative simulation game research: Stumbling blocks and steppingstones.
Simulation & Games, 8(2), 255–268.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw Hill.
Randel, J. M., Morris, B. A., Wetzel, C. D., & Whitehall, B. V. (1992). The effectiveness of games for
educational purposes: A review of recent research. Simulation & Gaming, 23(3), 261–276.
Schunk, D. H. (2007). Learning theories: An educational perceptive (5th ed.). NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Shamir, A., & Shlafer, I. (2011). E-books effectiveness in promoting phonological awareness and concept
about print: A comparison between children at risk for learning disabilities and typically developing
kindergarteners. Computers & Education, 57(3), 1989–1997.
Siegenthaler, E., Wurtz, P., & Groner, R. (2010). Improving the usability of e-book readers. Journal of
Usability Studies, 6, 25–38.
Sins, P. H. M., van Joolingen, W. R., Savelsbergh, E. R., & van Hout-Wolters, B. (2008). Motivation and
performance within a collaborative computer-based modeling task: Relations between students’
achievement goal orientation, self-efficacy, cognitive processing, and achievement. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 33, 58–77.
Steen, K., Brooks, D., & Lyon, T. (2006). The impact of virtual manipulatives on first grade geometry
instruction and learning. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 25(4),
373–391.
Stepath, C. M. (2004). Coral reef education and Australian High School Students. (ERIC Documemt
Reproduction Service No. ED 491455).
J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166 165
123
Sung, H. Y., & Hwang, G. J. (2013). A collaborative game-based learning approach to improving
students’ learning performance in science courses. Computers & Education, 63(1), 43–51.
Tapia, M., & Marsh, G. E, I. I. (2004). An instrument to measure mathematics attitudes. Academic
Exceange Quarterly, 8(2), 16–21.
Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-
determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational Psychol-
ogist, 41(1), 19–31.
Villalta, M., Gajardo, I., Nussbaum, M., Andreu, J. J., Echeverrı
´a, A., & Plass, J. (2011). Design
guidelines for classroom multiplayer presential games (CMPG). Computers & Education, 57,
2039–2053.
Vukovic, R. K., Kieffer, M. J., Bailey, S. P., & Harari, R. R. (2013). Mathematics anxiety in young
children: Concurrent and longitudinal associations with mathematical performance. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 38(1), 1–10.
Wang, L. C., & Chen, M. P. (2010). The effects of game strategy and preference-matching on flow
experience and programming performance in game-based learning. Innovations in Education and
Teaching International, 47(1), 39–52.
Yien, J. M., Hung, C. M., Hwang, G. J., & Lin, Y. C. (2011). A game-based learning approach to
improving students’ learning achievements in a nutrition course. Turkish Online Journal of
Educational Technology, 10(2), 1–10.
Chun-Ming Hung is a PhD student in the Department of Information and Learning Technology, National
University of Tainan, Taiwan. His research interests include digital game-based learning, mobile learning
and digital storytelling.
Iwen Huang is an associate professor in the Department of Information and Learning Technology,
National University of Tainan, Taiwan. Her research interests include web-based learning, mobile
learning and digital storytelling.
Gwo-Jen Hwang is a Chair Professor in the Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education,
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. His research interests include mobile
and ubiquitous learning, digital game-based learning, artificial intelligence in education, and web-based
learning.
166 J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2–3):151–166
123
