Parrot Action Plan. Status Survey and Conservation 2000–2004
... There have been observations of falling prices in US aviculture (Clubb, 1992) and price changes in crimson-bellied parakeets (P. perlata) (Ortiz von-Halle et al., 2018) and cape parrots (CITES, 2002;Snyder et al., 2000). However, we found no systematic research analyzing trends in parrot prices in different countries and species that could be used to test model predictions. ...
... solstitialis) (Clubb, 1992;Voight & Voight, 1998), black-cheeked lovebirds (A. nigrigenis) (Dodman et al., 2000;Snyder et al., 2000), and crimson-bellied parakeets (Jordan, 1995(Jordan, , 1998Ortiz von-Halle et al., 2018). This is further supported by primary research on source in sun parakeets (Allen & Johnson, 1991;Wang et al., 2021) and assessment of early breeding records and expert opinion in black-cheeked lovebirds (Warburton, 2003). ...
... This is further supported by primary research on source in sun parakeets (Allen & Johnson, 1991;Wang et al., 2021) and assessment of early breeding records and expert opinion in black-cheeked lovebirds (Warburton, 2003). In contrast, anecdotal reports and expert opinion broadly suggest that macaws (Allen & Johnson, 1991;Clubb, 1992;Clubb & Clubb, 1991;Derrikson & Snyder, 1992), amazons (Clubb, 1992;Derrikson & Snyder, 1992;Thompson, 1995), cockatoos (Allen & Johnson, 1991;Budiani & Raharningrum, 2018;Furnell & Jain, 2019;Jordan, 2013;Vriends, 1997), and cape parrots (CITES, 2002;Snyder et al., 2000) are challenging to breed with concerns that breeding capacity may be unable to supply demand, although exceptions include the white cockatoo (C. alba) (Marelli et al., 2020;Shepherd et al., 2012;Vriends, 1997) and military macaw (A. ...
The volume and scale of commercial captive breeding of parrots have grown dramatically in recent decades. Although it has been proposed, and is often assumed, that captive breeding can reduce pressure on wild populations, there has been little scrutiny of the scale, viability, or impacts of captive breeding to prevent overexploitation among parrots, compared with similar approaches in other threatened taxa, such as pangolins or tigers. We reviewed the primary and gray literature to quantitatively and qualitatively evaluate evidence concerning 5 criteria, established a priori, for commercial captive breeding of parrots as an effective supply‐side intervention. We focused on a sample of 16 threatened parrot species that are heavily traded or for which unsustainable trade has been a factor in the decline of wild populations, representing a range of taxonomic groups, life histories, and native regions. We identified multiple major gaps in knowledge of the extent to which these criteria are met, including a lack of quantitative data on breeding productivity under current commercial breeding practices, the scale and scope of commercial breeding practices in growing parrot markets, particularly in the Middle East and Asia, and the lack of financial viability of captive breeding under effective regulation to prevent laundering or use of wild‐sourced specimens as breeding stock. The capacity for captive breeding to displace demand for wild‐sourced parrots varied between species, and complex interactions between trade in different species and contexts sometimes made consequences of commercial production difficult to predict. Decision makers and regulatory authorities should approach commercial captive breeding of parrots with caution and take into account knowledge gaps and cross‐linkages between trade in different species to avoid unanticipated consequences from stimulating and facilitating unsustainable trade in wild‐sourced parrots.
... Cases have been reported in most, if not all, Caribbean countries and territories, including Dominica (Douglas, 2011), Jamaica (Snyder et al., 2000), Saint Lucia (Daltry, 2009), Bonaire (BioNew7, 2013, and Trinidad and Tobago (Gibson, 2022). For example, in Trinidad and Tobago, the use of illegal pesticides indirectly harms birds and so has contributed to the neartotal extirpation of many culturally significant songbird species (Gibson, 2022). ...
... This crime threatens endangered species and ecosystem health and fuels organised crime when linked to illicit trade. Cases have been reported in most, if not all, Caribbean countries and territories, including Trinidad and Tobago (Hsu & Agoramoorthy, 1996), Guyana (Grimes et al., 2008), Saint Lucia (Snyder et al., 2000), Dominica (Durand & Baptiste, 2008) and Belize (Foster et al., 2016). In Trinidad and Tobago, hunting pressure has significantly reduced red howler and capuchin monkey populations (Hsu & Agoramoorthy, 1996). ...
... In Trinidad and Tobago, hunting pressure has significantly reduced red howler and capuchin monkey populations (Hsu & Agoramoorthy, 1996). While in St. Lucia, illegal hunting of the Saint Lucian parrot threatens its survival (Snyder et al., 2000). ...
The Caribbean, a region celebrated for its rich biodiversity and vibrant ecosystems, faces an escalating threat from wildlife crime. This paper seeks to illuminate the complexities and implications of such illicit activities, ranging from illegal fishing to trafficking and poaching, that jeopardise the region’s ecological balance. As the Caribbean's unique biodiversity not only holds global ecological significance but also underpins the socio-economic fabric of its communities, primarily through sectors like tourism, the stakes are exceptionally high. Within this context, the role of the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) becomes paramount. This briefing paper delves into the challenges, underscores the importance of a collaborative approach among member states, and offers recommendations to fortify the Caribbean's stance against wildlife crime.
... Any long-term conservation strategy for endangered parrots should focus on maintaining viable wild populations in their original ranges (Snyder et al. 2000) by locating and protecting ''source populations or main breeding habitats'' (Shaffer 1981, Groom et al. 2005. Nesting areas are critical for recruitment and provide the basis for actions including poaching control, habitat restoration, logging bans, and population monitoring. ...
... Under these conditions, transect-based distance models are often not feasible as the rigor required to obtain meaningful detection functions is not possible (Marsden et al. 2000, Marsden andPilgrim 2003). However the same topography that makes transects untenable offers the opportunity to observe and count the numbers of nesting pairs moving into forest stands (Bibby et al. 2000, Snyder et al. 2000, Berkunsky et al. 2014. ...
... In flying parrot surveys it is unclear the distance from which parrots come, limiting the use of conventional sampling methods (Bibby et al. 2000, Snyder et al. 2000, Lee and Marsden 2012. In addition, flock sizes may vary as flocks move across the landscape and birds join and leave. ...
ABSTRACT—The Yellow-headed Parrot (Amazona oratrix) is considered globally endangered due to intense poaching pressure and extensive tropical forest loss. We examined the relationships among nesting pair density, survey area, tropical forest type, and forest conservation conditions to estimate the potential population size in central-western Mexico. The surveyed areas constitute a representative sample of forest types, property ownership, and land use in the region. We estimated the overall surveyed area and the nesting pairs in general and by each forest type. Data were analyzed in multiple
and single linear regression models.We used a high-resolution vegetation model to measure the extent of each forest type and land use in the area with suitable climatic conditions for nesting. We recorded 111 nesting events in 77 distinct nest trees
during the 2002–2013 study period in an area of 185.3 km2. Overall nesting density was 0.59 6 0.28 pairs per km2. Individual areas surveyed showed a broad variation in nest densities (0.14–1.5 per km2). Primary tropical semi-deciduous forest held 64% of the nesting pairs and the highest nesting density (1.98 6 0.82 per km2). Tropical dry deciduous forest contained 11% of nesting pairs and 0.20 6 0.19 pairs per km2. Single linear regression models by forest type performed better and are more practical for abundance calculations than multiple regression models. We estimate the size of the nesting population in the region at 701 pairs (95% CI: 526–876), which corresponds to about 1,399–2,330 parrots, using the mature/ immature ratio used by the IUCN. The results suggest that central-western Mexico may hold about 27% of the species’
global population.
... During the last decade, several ecological niche models were generated for the species in Mexico (Ríos-Muñ oz and Navarro-Sigü enza 2009, Marín-Togo et al. 2012, Rivera-Ortíz et al. 2013, Monterrubio-Rico et al. 2016. These studies suggested that habitat loss within the historical distribution was from 29% to 43%, likely due to poaching and forest loss (Snyder et al. 2000). This range contraction was assumed to be the most solid evidence of the species' decline (Snyder et al. 2000, BirdLife International 2014. ...
... These studies suggested that habitat loss within the historical distribution was from 29% to 43%, likely due to poaching and forest loss (Snyder et al. 2000). This range contraction was assumed to be the most solid evidence of the species' decline (Snyder et al. 2000, BirdLife International 2014. ...
... As a result, we were unable to use the Distance survey method, which is best suited to more common species, regularly distributed in the landscape, in relatively flat areas (Marsden andPilgrim 2003, Berkunsky et al. 2014). Instead, we conducted our surveys using fixed elevated observation points (Howell 1999, Bibby et al. 2000, Snyder et al. 2000, Marsden and Pilgrim 2003. ...
The preservation of Military Macaw Ara militaris in Mexico required the implementation of a nationwide assessment evaluating its vulnerability using IUCN criteria. With the combined effort of several institutions, the abundance, location, dispersion, habitat availability, and climatic conditions of areas occupied by the species were determined. Although the species’ extent of occurrence is extensive (263,919 km2) only 29% of this constitutes area of occupancy. Published estimates indicate a series of isolated populations containing from four macaws to 215. Macaws occurred in 35 populations in four regions of 16 states containing an estimated 1,563–3,263 macaws; lower than required for long-term viability. Within regions, neighbouring populations were separated by an average of 68 km. The extent of occurrence is heterogeneous, and macaws inhabit areas that differ in elevation, precipitation, temperature, and forest cover. Higher local abundances occur in landscapes where annual precipitation is ≥1,100 mm, and primary forest availability ≥1,800 km2. Although the existence of undetected macaw groups in Mexico is possible, these are likely to contain only small numbers of individuals, as most detected areas with macaws contain less than 40 individuals, and larger concentrations are more likely to be noticed due to their conspicuous behaviour. The species is threatened primarily by its low overall abundance, fragmented distribution, and forest loss around populations with the highest abundance. With the information generated, it is possible to design and implement specific management and conservation strategies at different geographic scales for the recovery and maintenance of the species in Mexico. It is necessary to strengthen collaborative programmes among conservation organizations, government agencies, and local communities in each region of the country to organize and finance community-based actions such as monitoring, habitat restoration, protection from poaching and the creation of a network of conservation corridors and macaw reserves focused on conservation.
... This species was previously deemed to be of Least Concern, although a negative overall population trend was already acknowledged (BirdLife International 2011). The potential need to move the species to a higher threat category had been highlighted previously by Snyder et al. (2000), who proposed that it be listed as Vulnerable. But a category change did not take place, perhaps because of taxonomic uncertainty, and the need for a review was later independently communicated to BirdLife International by T. Wright and R. Bjork. ...
... The Yellow-naped Parrot is found in Middle America, ranging along the Pacific slope of the isthmus from the Mexican states of Oaxaca and Chiapas in the north, south-and eastwards into Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica; on the Caribbean slope it is found in eastern Honduras (Colón and Olancho) and north-eastern Nicaragua, as well as the Honduran Bay Islands of Roatán, Guanaja and Barbareta (Lousada & Howell 1996, Juniper & Parr 1998, Snyder et al. 2000 (Figure 1). ...
... The primary threat affecting the species is the removal of individuals from the wild through trapping and nest-raiding for local and international pet trade, with another factor, despite the species' flexible habitat requirements, being habitat destruction, caused mainly by the expansion of intensive agriculture (Stiles 1985, Thurber et al. 1987, Juniper & Parr 1998, Snyder et al. 2000, Renton & Wright 2002, Chassot et al. 2007, Anon. 2008. ...
... In contrast, for other species (e.g. A. swindernianus), even basic aspects of natural history such as descriptions of nests are lacking. Two decades ago, the global Parrot Action Plan (Snyder et al. 2000) highlighted the threat posed by trade to wild lovebird populations. For many species, the volume of trade is now much reduced, and the primary threats instead come in the form of habitat loss and a changing climate. ...
... Such data, in combination with an improved understanding of the phylogeography and phylogeny of lovebirds, will help determine priorities and inform actions to protect and restore wild populations. Building upon the Parrot Action Plan (Snyder et al. 2000), it is our sincere hope that this review will provide a foundation for decisions on how to address the conservation challenges facing lovebirds and, in doing so, facilitate advances towards the conservation of this special taxonomic group. ...
Lovebirds (genus Agapornis of family Psittaculidae) are a group of small, colourful parrot species endemic to
sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, two-thirds of which are considered to have declining populations. Effective
conservation efforts are hampered by a lack of information, particularly for species occurring in regions that have
received little research attention. We combined expert knowledge with a review of the primary and grey literature
to identify key knowledge gaps and priority conservation actions for this group of birds. Published studies were
found to be largely concentrated on lovebird populations in southern Africa and, to a lesser extent in East Africa,
and therefore mostly concern members of the ‘white eye-ring’ clade. Some species, such as the Black-collared
Lovebird Agapornis swindernianus, remain very poorly studied, with a lack of even basic information such as
georeferenced occurrence records. Several lovebird species were historically taken from the wild in large numbers
for the international pet trade, leading to population declines. Although trade in wild lovebirds has been much
reduced compared with historical levels, considerable numbers are still captured for local and international trade
without any monitoring of the wild populations. Habitat change continues to drive declines in the population and
range of some species, particularly those considered habitat specialists, such as the Nyasa Lovebird A. lilianae
and the Black-cheeked Lovebird A. nigrigenis. However, changing habitat has also driven range expansions and,
in combination with trade, has created numerous novel contact zones between formerly allopatric species, such
as between Fischer’s Lovebird A. fischeri and Yellow-collared Lovebird A. personatus. Hybridisation has been
widely reported, particularly in East Africa, and studies on the implications of this for conservation, building on
recent advances in genetic tools, are urgently needed. We call for more targeted research on lovebirds to inform
assessments of their population trends, to understand the drivers of these trends, and to highlight opportunities to
leverage existing data and new research tools to advance knowledge to support conservation in this group of birds.
... This whole scenario, in addition to a poor diet and a lack of exercise, may harm their reproductive performance, health, and survivorship (Larcombe et al., 2015), compromising their chances of being reintroduced into nature. One way of improving the animals' conditions consists of the use of pre-release training techniques based on the use of learning paradigms, such as classical and operant conditioning (Griffin et al., 2000;Snyder et al., 2000;Swaisgood et al., 2018). Such training protocols must be directed to improve abilities that were hindered during the captivity period and that are decisive for survivorship in wild, such as predator recognition, flight, and human avoidance (IUCN/SCC, 2013;Snyder et al., 2000). ...
... One way of improving the animals' conditions consists of the use of pre-release training techniques based on the use of learning paradigms, such as classical and operant conditioning (Griffin et al., 2000;Snyder et al., 2000;Swaisgood et al., 2018). Such training protocols must be directed to improve abilities that were hindered during the captivity period and that are decisive for survivorship in wild, such as predator recognition, flight, and human avoidance (IUCN/SCC, 2013;Snyder et al., 2000). ...
The maintenance of parrots in captivity, caused by the illegal traffic and illegal ownership of these animals, makes them lose essential abilities for free-living survival, such as flight capacity and human avoidance, which hinders the success of reintroduction programs. Here, we assessed the influence of physical features (body weight, wing load, and plumage condition), endoparasites, and a training protocol on flight capacity and aversion to humans in captive parrots which were candidates for reintroduction. In addition, we assessed the relations of flight capacity and aversion to humans with the parrots’ temperament. Therefore, 38 parrots were submitted to a flight training and human aversion training protocol for 10 weeks. The following variables were registered over time for each animal: human aversion score, flight score, flight time (in s), and latency to flight (in s). A GLMM was adjusted to analyze the flight performance of the parrots over time, as well as the effects of body weight, wing load, occurrence of intestinal parasites, and plumage condition. Pearson correlation coefficients were applied to evaluate the association of parrots’ temperament with flight capacity and responsiveness to humans. We have observed a significant increase in the flight time (P = 0.0016) and flight score (P < 0.0001), as well as in the human aversion score (P < 0.0001). Factors that influenced flight capacity were body weight, wing load, and plumage condition. The temperament dimension neophilia was negatively correlated to the human aversion scores, with neophiliac parrots showing less aversion. The risk-taking dimension was negatively correlated to flight capacity, i.e. risk-averse parrots had better flight capacity. Using the training procedures described in this study, it was possible to improve flight capacity and increase aversion to humans, these abilities are essential for the animals’ survivorship in wild. Furthermore, we identified factors (body weight, wing load, plumage condition, and the temperament dimensions neophilia and risk-taking) that must be treated cautiously and that aid in the selection of individuals which are suitable for reintroduction, an important process for the conservation of endangered species.
... Por outro, existe uma longa história de convivência dos psitacídeos com a sociedade humana, consequência de sua aparência carismática e inteligência. Isso confere a possibilidade de utilizá-los como espécies bandeira para conservar regiões degradadas (Fleishman et al., 2000;Snyder et al., 2000). Esse é o caso da ararinha-azul, uma espécie que atrai a atenção de todos, especialmente após o lançamento dos longas-metragens Rio e Rio 2, nos anos 2011 e 2014. ...
... De forma integrada ao manejo ex situ, as ações relacionadas à conservação do habitat são extremamente importantes, especialmente para essa espécie, visto que a degradação do habitat teve um papel importante para o seu declínio (Roth, 1990a(Roth, , 1990bJuniper & Yamashita, 1990, 1991. Sabe-se que mais de 70% das espécies de psitacídeos é dependente de ambientes florestados, devido aos seus hábitos de forrageamento, descanso e reprodução (Snyder et al., 2000;White et al., 2005), sendo fortemente afetados por diferentes tipos de atividades antrópicas, que reduzem os seus locais de nidificação (Newton, 1994). Neste contexto de perda de habitat e conflitos no uso do solo, as UCs desempenham um papel crucial na manutenção da biodiversidade (Pollock et al., 2017) e as UCs criadas em 2018 garantirão a recuperação e conservação do habitat. ...
A ararinha-azul (Cyanopsitta spixii) é o único representante do seu gênero e hoje é considerada provavelmente extinta na natureza. O manejo ex situ é prioridade na estratégia de conservação desde o início da década de 90, sendo um exemplo de parceria público-privada de sucesso. Em 2017, finalmente, a população cativa alcançou a estabilidade com 152 indivíduos, possibilitando planejar as ações de reintrodução. Além disso, duas unidades de conservação foram criadas para propiciar a recuperação da espécie no ambiente natural, e, em 2020, 52 ararinhas-azuis foram repatriadas para um Centro de Reprodução e Reintrodução no interior do Refúgio de Vida Silvestre da Ararinha Azul. Aproximadamente 20 ararinhas-azuis estão em adaptação para o início da reintrodução e restabelecimento da população na área de distribuição histórica. Estamos perto de devolver a espécie para o seu ambiente natural, de onde nunca deveria ter sido extirpada.
... It is listed as a CITES Appendix I species and receives legislative protection in most countries across its distribution (Collar andJuniper 1992, CITES 2001). However, internal and illegal trade is persistent across its range (Snyder et al. 2000, Gonzalez 2003, Dear et al 2005, Guzman et al. 2007). The northern subspecies A.m. cyanoptera, which has declined significantly, disjunctly ranges from northeastern Nicaragua to southern Mexico (Forshaw 2010). ...
... The northern subspecies A.m. cyanoptera, which has declined significantly, disjunctly ranges from northeastern Nicaragua to southern Mexico (Forshaw 2010). Habitat destruction and the illegal pet trade have resulted in isolated populations and reduced population viability, putting these populations at risk (Ridgely 1982, Sparks and Soper 1990, Wiedenfeld 1994, Snyder et al. 2000. The Scarlet Macaw is listed in Mexico as a species in danger of extinction (CITES 2001) with approximately 200 breeding pairs (Iñigo-Elías 1996); it is on Guatemala's Red List of Wild Fauna with 250-300 individuals (Eisermann and Avendaño 2006). ...
The Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) is a wide-ranging parrot which has experienced reduced abundance and increased isolation in Mesoamerica as a result of habitat destruction and the illegal pet trade. In 2010, nest survival rates suggested that the known breeding population in Belize may be experiencing a decline driven primarily by high poaching rates, especially in close proximity to the Chalillo reservoir. In 2011, nest poaching reached a known maximum; 89% of nests were poached. In 2012, Friends for Conservation and Development collaborated with our team to put forth a strong initial nest protection effort, reducing poaching in the Chalillo reservoir area to 30%. Collaborative efforts were strengthened in 2013 resulting in a reduction in nest poaching to approximately 20%. However, nest survival continued to be low (0.19). In 2014, five of the monitored nesting attempts (n =12) were successful, producing 8 fledglings.
... It is listed as a CITES Appendix I species and receives legislative protection in most countries across its distribution (Collar andJuniper 1992, CITES 2001). However, internal and illegal trade is persistent across its range (Snyder et al. 2000, Gonzalez 2003, Dear et al 2005, Guzman et al. 2007). The northern subspecies A.m. cyanoptera, which has declined significantly, disjunctly ranges from northeastern Nicaragua to southern Mexico (Forshaw 2010). ...
... The northern subspecies A.m. cyanoptera, which has declined significantly, disjunctly ranges from northeastern Nicaragua to southern Mexico (Forshaw 2010). Habitat destruction and the illegal pet trade have resulted in isolated populations and reduced population viability, putting these populations at risk (Ridgely 1982, Sparks and Soper 1990, Wiedenfeld 1994, Snyder et al. 2000. The Scarlet Macaw is listed in Mexico as a species in danger of extinction (CITES 2001) with approximately 200 breeding pairs (Iñigo-Elías 1996); it is on Guatemala's Red List of Wild Fauna with 250-300 individuals (Eisermann and Avendaño 2006). ...
The Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) is a wide‐ranging parrot which has experienced reduced
abundance and increased isolation in Mesoamerica as a result of habitat destruction and
the illegal pet trade. In 2010, nest survival rates suggested that the known breeding
population in Belize may be experiencing a decline driven primarily by high poaching
rates, especially in close proximity to the Chalillo reservoir. In 2011, nest poaching
reached a known maximum; 89% of nests were poached. In 2012, Friends for
Conservation and Development collaborated with our team to put forth a strong initial
nest protection effort, reducing poaching in the Chalillo reservoir area to 30%.
Collaborative efforts were strengthened in 2013 resulting in a reduction in nest
poaching to approximately 20%. However, nest survival continues to be low (0.19). A
more aggressive approach may need to be initiated by the Scarlet Macaw Working Group
in order to improve overall Scarlet Macaw breeding productivity in 2014 and beyond.
... Introducción El Periquito de Cara Amarilla (Forpus xanthops Salvin, 1895) es una especie endémica de Perú, distribuida en el valle del Marañón, desde el sur de Amazonas, sureste de Cajamarca hasta el extremo este en la Libertad, con un rango de distribución altitudinal que va desde los 600 a 2000 metros (Begazo 1996, Schulenberg et al. 2010, Angulo-Pratolongo et al. 2008; la especie está considerada a nivel nacional e internacional como vulnerable (VU) (DS N° 004-2014-MINAGRI, Bird-Life International 2016), siendo la caza, el tráfico ilegal y la pérdida del hábitat sus mayores amenazas (Begazo 1996, Snyder et al. 2000, Begazo et al. 2001, SERFOR 2018. Esto convierte a F. xanthops en una especie de importancia para estudios y conservación. ...
... El BTES-Marañón (hábitat de F. xanthops) posee características únicas que hacen posible la presencia de diversas especies endémicas de flora y fauna, sin embargo las diferentes actividades antrópicas como la quema, deforestación, caza y el tráfico de especies amenazadas contribuyen a la pérdida de estas (Snyder et al. 2000, Angulo-Pratolongo et al. 2008). El conocimiento de las especies de flora que sirven de alimento a las especies de aves con cierto grado de amenaza y condiciones de endemismo, permite identificar las áreas a priorizar para su conservación. ...
Se documentan los registros de las observaciones de campo de Forpus xanthops.
Entre 2013 y 2018, ocho observaciones muestran a F. xanthops alimentándose en
diversos lugares del bosque tropical estacionalmente seco del Marañón (BTESMarañón)
en Cajamarca y Amazonas. Estos registros muestran que algunos ítems
en su dieta son especies de cactus, como Espostoa lanata (Kunth) Britton & Rose,
Espostoa mirabilis F. Ritte, Armatocereus rauhii Backeb siendo estas dos últimas
especies endémicas de Perú; también se presentan registros de alimentación en
Parkinsonia praecox (Ruiz & Pav.) Hawkins, Eriotheca discolor (Kunth) A. Robyns,
Ochroma pyramidale (Cav. ex Lam.) Urb. y las especies frutales Spondias purpurea
L. y Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck.
... Although parrots are threatened by several human-induced factors, their long history of coexistence with human society is also a consequence of their charismatic image and intelligence, and many of them can be used as flagship species to conserve highly threatened regions (Fleishman, Murphy, & Brussard, 2000;Snyder, McGowan, Gilardi, & Grajal, 2000). Indeed, those characteristics of parrots and their high level of threat have recently highlighted the importance of parrot conservation, and by now, it became evident that this group is the most threatened bird order today (see special issue on parrots in Emu-Austral Ornithology 2018; Heinsohn, Buchanan, & Joseph, 2018). ...
... These varied external factors often interact with species traits of parrots, such as large body size, narrow range of distribution, or forest dependence (Bennett & Owens, 1997). In fact, over 70% of parrot species are forest dependent due to their feeding and breeding habits (i.e., parrots are secondary tree cavity nesters ;Snyder et al., 2000;White, Collazo, & Vilella, 2005). Therefore, they are strongly affected by different kinds of human activities in forested regions, and most of them are extremely sensitive to the reduction of nesting sites caused by forest destruction (Newton, 1994). ...
Human advance on natural habitats is a major cause of biodiversity loss. This transformation process represents a profound change in wooded environments, disrupting original communities of flora and fauna. Many species are highly dependent on forests, especially parrots (Psittaciformes) with almost a third of their species threatened by extinction. Most parrot species occur in tropical and subtropical forests, and given the forest dependence of most species, this is the main reason why habitat loss has been highlighted as the main threat for the group. Such habitat loss acts in synergy with other important threats (e.g. logging and poaching), which become especially problematic in certain developing countries along tropical latitudes. In this study, we used available information on parrot distributions, species traits, IUCN assessment, habitat loss and timber extraction for different periods, and distribution of protected areas, in order to determine conservation hotspots for the group, and analyze potential changes in the conservation status of these species. We detected four conservation hotspots for parrots: two in the Neotropics and two in Oceania, all of them facing different degrees of threat in regard of current habitat loss and agricultural trends. Our results suggest that the future of the group is subject to policymaking in specific regions, especially in the northeastern Andes and the Atlantic Forest. In addition, we predicted that agricultural expansion will have a further negative effect on the conservation status of parrots, pushing many parrot species to the edge of extinction in the near future. Our results have conservation implications by recommending protected areas in specific parrot conservation hotspots. Our recommendations to mitigate conservation risks to this group of umbrella species would also benefit many other coexisting species as well.
... The Hyacinth Macaw Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus is the largest member of the Psittacidae and has suffered major population declines over the last 30 years (BirdLife International 2016). The species is classified as "Endangered" in CITES Appendix I and as "Vulnerable" by the IUCN (BirdLife International 2018), owing to illegal trade, local hunting, and habitat loss (Mittermeier et al. 1990, Guedes 1993, Snyder et al. 2000. The species was once widely distributed in Brazil, yet most of the remaining individuals occur in three major regions. ...
... Although long-term studies of Hyacinth Macaws have been conducted in the Pantanal region (Guedes 1993, Antas 2004, Guedes 2009, little is known about the population status, breeding ecology, or life-history of the species in other locations (Snyder et al. 2000, Dornas et al. 2013. Vegetation structure and composition differ in the three main areas where Hyacinth Macaws occur, and consequently, resource availability varies (Presti et al. 2015). ...
Natural history studies can provide information that can be used in species conservation and management. The present study provides information about the nests and nest sites of Hyacinth Macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) in a mosaic of protected areas in Carajás and surrounding areas in the Amazon region of the state of Pará, Brazil. Data were collected during four expeditions conducted in 2007, 2008, 2013 and 2014. A total of 66 tree cavities were monitored, and 28 of these were used by Hyacinth Macaws. In addition, 38 breeding events were recorded (some nests were active in multiple seasons), and 17 eggs and 33 nestlings were observed. Environmental variables for the 24 cavities that were actively used by Hyacinth Macaws were evaluated. Most of the nest cavities were located in Sterculia sp. trees (86.6%) and in open areas (e.g., near pastures). Nesting tree and cavity measurements were variable, but the mean diameter at breast height of the trees containing Hyacinth Macaw nest cavities was larger than that reported from other regions, such as the Pantanal. The present study describes the unique ecology and life history of Hyacinth Macaws in Carajás, for which information is scarce. This information will facilitate the conservation and management of Hyacinth Macaws and can be used locally for environmental education.
... Among birds, Psittacidae is a family of major conservation concern. Nearly half of the 344 species in the world (Snyder et al. 2000) are considered threatened under the IUCN Red List criteria, including nine already 'Extinct in the Wild' due high levels of habitat loss and trapping for illegal trade (BirdLife International 2015). ...
... The few monitoring programmes for this family are usually focused on one, often globally threatened species, or are limited to narrow geographic areas (but see Hille 2014). Status assessment of range and population trends for psittacids are usually based on static representation of species distribution (range maps; Snyder et al. 2000). However, range maps could provide a misleading interpretation of trends because they lack estimates of uncertainty in under-or over-prediction and assume homogeneous probability of occurrence across the range (Peterson et al. 2011). ...
The global decline in psittacid populations highlights the need for monitoring programmes that allow us to estimate the level of confidence that can be placed in a non-detection observation in order to assess changes in range status. We used the detection/non-detection records for 26 psittacid species detected during the first national bird monitoring programme in Venezuela carried out in 2010 by the Neotropical Biodiversity Mapping Initiative. We fitted occupancy models and evaluate the suitability of the data to explain the lack of detections given the current sampling effort, and the expected occurrence probabilities due to environmental conditions (conditional probability of occurrence; Ψ CONDL ). We were able to fit reliable models for 13 of the 26 species detected. For Green-rumped Parrotlet Forpus passerinus , Blue-headed Parrot Pionus menstrus , and Orange-winged Amazon Amazona amazonica , the probability of detection ( p ) under the current sampling effort was too low (< 0.2) in areas where environmental conditions would imply high Ψ CONDL (> 0.3). This suggests that sampling effort should be increased to generate reliable estimations of occurrence. In contrast, for Scarlet Macaw Ara macao , Yellow-crowned Amazon Amazona ochrocephala , Orange-chinned Parakeet Brotogeris jugularis and Brown-throated Parakeet Eupsittula pertinax the model estimated high p (> 0.3) and low Ψ CONDL (< 0.2), suggesting that the species are reliably detected and better models could be obtained by including other predictive variables related to temporal use of resources and habitat heterogeneity. To improve the effectiveness of parrot monitoring programme in Neotropical countries, we suggest increasing the sampling effort, developing several surveys per year, and including variables related with temporal use of resources and habitat heterogeneity.
... Brazilian Journal of Animal and Environmental Research, Curitiba, v.7, n.3, p. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]2024 como compañía o mascotas, pero la demanda no se limita a especies criadas en cautiverio sino que son las poblaciones silvestres de psitácidos, las más diezmadas dentro de las aves para satisfacer esta demanda (Weston y Memon, 2009). De las aproximadamente 300 especies de loros en el mundo, la tercera parte están en peligro principalmente debido a la extracción (Snyder et al., 2000). ...
El 15 de mayo del 2023 ocurrió un fuerte decomiso de aves en la Ciudad de México y por una cuestión fortuita fue posible hacer la rehabilitación de 115 polluelos de loros (Amazona spp.), casi una séptima parte de las aves incautadas. Durante el tráfico ilegal de loros se conoce que 7.5 de cada 10 loros mueren en el trayecto. Las condiciones en las que se mantienen son de hacinamiento, mala alimentación, deshidratación, hipotermia y estrés, además de condiciones inmunológicas que les afectan debido a la falta de alimentación materna y la administración de antibióticos que “en forma preventiva” administran los traficantes. La fortaleza de estos individuos se puede ver mermada de por vida por lo que aun cuando se hagan los mejores esfuerzos puede haber pérdidas. En este trabajo se relatan las intervenciones que tuvieron que hacerse guiados por médicos especialistas en aves para lograr la sobrevivencia de 86 loros después de un año, es decir, el 75%. Esto implicó un gasto muy significativo, el cual fue cubierto con la ayuda de la sociedad, principalmente personas amantes de los loros que están conscientes del daño del tráfico ilegal a los individuos y poblaciones de estas especies en vida libre. Fue prácticamente nulo el apoyo gubernamental y aún se rechazan autorizaciones de liberación para los loros rehabilitados, pero esperamos que al dar a conocer esta problemática, puedan ir cambiando sus procedimientos poniendo enfrente el bienestar de estas especies con peligro de extinción a nivel nacional o mundial.
... Dunia diperkirakan memiliki sekitar 403 jenis burung paruh bengkok dengan variasi morfologi yang cukup tinggi, termasuk didalamnya adalah burung nuri talaud (Snyder et al. 2000). Burung nuri talaud (Eos histrio) dikenal secara umum sebagai sampiri merupakan salah satu spesies burung endemik dari gugusan kepulauan di Provinsi Sulawesi Utara yaitu Sangihe dan Talaud (Diah dan Arini, 2016). ...
AbstrakPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk karakteristik pohon tidur burung nuri talaud di Kecamatan Tampan‘Amma Kabupaten Kepulauan Talaud. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode wawancara dan observasi lapangan. Pengambilan dokumentasi digital dan herbarium dilakukan untuk setiap jenis yang diidentifikasi (jika tidak diketahui jenisnya). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan terdapat empat pohon dari dua jenis yang berbeda yang digunakan oleh koloni burung nuri talaud untuk pohon tidurnya, terdiri dari tiga jenis pohon gehe (Pometia corriaceae Radkl) dan satu jenis pohon lawean (Sterculia sp.). Tinggi pohon tidur nuri talaud berkisar 30,1-38,7 meter dan diameternya mencapai 42,3-59,7 cm. Pohon tidur nuri talaud di temukan pada ketinggian antara 437 m dpl sampai dengan 503 m dpl. Suhu rata-rata dari seluruh pohon tidur nuri talaud terdapat pada sore hari 26.8°C sedangkan tingkat kelembaban rata-rata dari seluruh pohon tidur nuri talaud terjadi pada pagi hari 80.68% dan intensitas cahaya yang masuk di sekitar seluruh pohon tidur burung nuri talaud rata-rata pada pagi hari 257.75 lux dan sore hari 287.25 lux. Vegetasi penyusun lingkungan pohon tidur burung nuri talaud pada tingkat pohon memiliki nilai INP terbesar pada jenis pohon kelapa (Cocos nucifera L) (61.63), pada tingkat tiang pada jenis pohon weneran (Macaranga hipsida) (32,39), dan untuk tingkat pancang pada jenis pohon binsar (Ficus variegata) (41.85).
... The order Psittaciformes contains approximately 400 species, 56% of which are in global decline and 28% of which are listed as threatened by the IUCN [1,2]. Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, and wildlife trade are considered the main anthropogenic threats to this group of birds [3]. Despite this situation, there is still a lack of information on the population size and productivity for most parrot species [4,5], as well as on the non-breeding fraction of their populations [6][7][8], which are key to understanding the relationship between the reproductive ecology of a species and its ability to persist in the long term, and to identify and manage the forces that compromise its persistence. ...
Psittaciformes are one of the bird orders with the highest number of threatened species and the most marked declining population trends. At present, the lack of information on the population size, reproductive fraction, and productivity of most parrot populations makes it difficult to design effective conservation actions. In this study, we monitored a population of Burrowing Parrots (Cyanoliseus patagonus) breeding in urbanized habitats in the southwest of Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Every December and February from 2018 to 2023, we counted the individuals arriving at a single communal roost, located in the main park of Bahía Blanca city, which gathers all the parrots breeding in 18–22 colonies within a radius of 20 km. Censuses were conducted before (December) and immediately after the incorporation of juveniles into the flocks (February). Breeding pairs were also counted annually in the colonies, and the average annual productivity and the proportion of juveniles were estimated from surveys in pre-roosting and feeding areas in February. The non-breeding fraction approached half of the population with no statistically significant differences among years (range: 37–53%), and the breeding population showed little annual variation, with a minimum of 1363 and a maximum of 1612 breeding pairs. The proportion of juveniles in the flocks and the estimated productivity showed larger variations among breeding seasons. Our results add insight to the scarce information available on the breeding-to-non-breeding-population ratios in parrots, and birds in general, and show key breeding parameters for a species that is thriving well in urban habitats.
... A retirada de filhotes dos ninhos causa uma elevada taxa de mortalidade (WRIGHT et al., 2001). Juntamente com o tráfico de aves, características destas aves como: exigência na escolha de ninhos, adultos não reprodutores, demora para atingir maturidade sexual e baixa taxa de reprodução, intensificam a ameaça sobre a existência destas aves (COLLAR;JUNIPER, 1992;PARR, 1998;SNYDER et al., 2000, WRIGHT et al., 2001. ...
Para uma parcela da população brasileira, as aves da família Psittacidade possuem valor sentimental, e são tratados como animais de estimação. Sendo assim, este estudo teve como objetivo pesquisar quais as espécies de psitacídeos convivem como pet, definir qual a espécie mais encontrada, observando condições de criação, legalidade e sanidade das aves. Das 100 aves encontradas, 68% são da fauna nativa e 32% são da fauna exótica. A espécie Amazona ochrocephala foi a mais encontrada representando 30%. Verificou-se que, 47% das aves viviam num sistema de confinamento e que a maioria (75%) não possuia dieta adequada. 85% das aves não apresentaram alterações clínicas e 15% apresentaram sinais clínicos compatíveis com alguma patologia. Constatou-se, uma alta taxa de aves nativas sendo ilegalmente retiradas da natureza e uma baixa procura por serviços veterinários para o tratamento das aves. Tais achados demostram um cenário desfavorável aos psitacídeos domiciliados uma vez que, desconsideram aspectos biológicos e comportamentais das espécies e ferem a legislação brasileira.
... According to The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN2019), 16 parrot species are extinct, 16 are critically endangered, 36 are endangered, 56 are vulnerable, and 57 are near threatened. The reduction in wild parrot populations results from hunting for food or trade, habitat loss, and competition from invasive species [2,3]. Therefore, the preservation of these various species from extinction is urgent and intensive bird breeding programs might help in some instances, e.g., to reduce the number of birds captured from the wild for pets. ...
Over 400 of the 3800 tropical avian species are endangered or threatened. One of many solutions to conserve animal biodiversity is breeding animals in zoos or private animal farms. Animal breeding programs are difficult to implement in species with sexual monomorphism, such as parrots. Molecular biology methods offer a solution to determine the sex of these species. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to test the performance of PCR and LAMP techniques on sex identification for 21 parrot species belonging to three families, i.e., Psittacidae, Cacatuidae, and Psittaculidae. We established a protocol for DNA isolation from feathers in our laboratory and found optimal conditions for PCR and LAMP. We showed that the LAMP method with the use of the PSI-W primers set, developed by Centeno-Cuadros, functions in 17 previously untested species. Moreover, we found that further improvements are required in universal LAMP primers for the detection of parrot DNA, which are necessary for confirmation of the male sex. The LAMP method also proved to be more sensitive for female sex identification in contrast to the reference PCR test. Therefore, we conclude that LAMP is a suitable method for the routine diagnostic sex identification of parrots.
... Forest loss and degradation throughout the 20th century on Sumba has certainly played a role in the cockatoo's decline (Jones et al., 1995) and constrains its current population as is common for most parrot species (e.g. Snyder et al., 2000;BirdLife International, 2021). Cavities of sufficient size for cockatoos and their competitors only form in certain tree species at maturity or in senescence. ...
Knowledge of breeding success and its limiting factors is crucial in assessing species’ conservation needs. As cavity-nesters, parrots are particularly influenced by the availability of suitable cavities and low breeding output, whether due to natural processes or trapping. On the island of Sumba, Indonesia, the Critically Endangered Citron-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua citrinocristata) has the added problem of co-existing with an unusually rich hole-nesting bird community in a forested environment much constrained by habitat loss. We monitored 95 nesting cavities of cockatoos and their competitors and potential nest-predators, over one to four breeding seasons, using a combination of camera-traps, direct checks on nest contents, and observations from the ground. Competition for suitable cavities was intense among three large parrot species, two owls and a hornbill. Visitation rates by potential competitors were higher at unoccupied cavities than at those containing active nests, reflecting the guarding behaviour of the occupants. The Endangered Sumba Hornbill (Rhyticeros everetti) dominated observed direct confrontations and was the most frequent visitor to active parrot nests, suggesting a further role as a potential nest-predator. Cockatoos prospected many cavities but rarely then attempted to nest: instead the sites were usually occupied by other cavity-nesters, or by bees. At the few cavities where cockatoos did breed, predation pressure was likely low, and observed success rate high (10 successful of 15 nests), although the low number of nests found early in the breeding cycle suggests that some may have failed before detection. Intense competition for cavities suggests a shortage of suitable nest-sites, the need for preservation of old hole bearing trees and a role for nestboxes. Accessible, known, safe artificial nest-sites would also provide opportunities to assess the scale of nest-site shortage, allow camera placements to study productivity, exclude some competitors and predators and prevent illegal trapping. Especially given continued trapping pressure, the species would benefit from targeted local awareness-raising and law enforcement, with the whole endeavour backed up by longer-term forest restoration.
... There are multiple factors associated with declining parrot populations, however, capture of wild parrots for the pet trade, intensified agriculture, hunting, and logging are the most frequent threats [10,11], with depredation by introduced species being a serious threat on islands [12]. Moreover, susceptibility to diseases substantially threatens some parrots e.g., Philippine cockatoo Cacatua haematuropygia, Cape parrots (Poicepahlus robustus), blueheaded racquettail Prioniturus platenae, orange-bellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster [13][14][15]. ...
The beak and feather disease virus (family Circovirdae) is a virus of concern in the conservation of wild Psittaciformes globally. We conducted a PCR screening for the beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) using samples collected during previous field studies (1993–2014) in five populations of parrots of the Southern Hemisphere: Eclectus parrots (Eclectus roratus) and Crimson rosellas (Platycercus elegans) from Australia, Burrowing parrots (Cyanoliseus patagonus) and Monk parakeets from Argentina (Myiopsitta monachus), and Forbes’ parakeet from New Zealand (Cyanoramphus forbesi). A total of 612 samples were screened. BFDV was not detected in any of the sampled birds. Our results provide a retrospective screening, covering three different tribes of Old and New World parrots, including two of the most numerous species, and contributing a large set of negative results. Furthermore, our results suggest that geographical and temporal differences in BFDV distribution may exist and merit further research, as a critical component in the efforts to manage the disease and its epidemiological aspects. The results presented here hold the potential to provide a baseline for future studies investigating the temporal evolution and the spread of BFDV.
... The Mesoamerican scarlet macaw (Ara macao cyanoptera) is classified as endangered in Mexico [5] because it has disappeared from most of its original distribution, which used to extend from Tamaulipas through Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco and Chiapas, and as far south as Costa Rica [6][7][8]. The IUCN received a proposal to consider this subspecies as endangered [9]. The drastic decline in its populations is caused by the poaching of nestlings for the pet trade and loss of its natural habitat: the high evergreen forest [10]. ...
Given the interest in the conservation of the Mesoamerican scarlet macaw (Ara macao cyanoptera), the Xcaret Park formed an initial reproductive population about 30 years ago, which has progressively grown to a considerable population in captivity. In this work, we focus on the evaluation of the genetic diversity of the captive population, taking two groups into account: its founding (49) and the current breeding individuals (166). The genetic analysis consisted of genotyping six nuclear microsatellite loci that are characterized by their high variability. Tests for all loci revealed a Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium in four loci of the founders and in no loci of the breeding groups. The results showed that the genetic variation in the Xcaret population was relatively high (founders He = 0.715 SE = 0.074, breeding pairs He = 0.763 SE = 0.050), with an average polymorphism of 7.5 (4–10) alleles per locus in founders and 8.3 (4–14) in breeding pairs. No significant differences in the evaluated genetic diversity indexes were found between both groups. This indicates that the genetic variability in Xcaret has been maintained, probably due to the high number of pairs and the reproductive management strategy. Bayesian analysis revealed five different genetic lineages present in different proportions in the founders and in the breeding pairs, but no population structure was observed between founders and breeding individuals. The analyzed captive individuals showed levels of genetic diversity comparable to reported values from Ara macao wild populations. These data indicate that the captive population has maintained a similar genetic diversity as the metapopulation in the Mayan Forest and is an important resource for reintroduction projects, some of which began more than five years ago and are still underway.
... Agraria, enero 2020). Snyder et al. (2000) exponen que el desarrollo del ecoturismo puede aportar beneficios económicos a las comunidades, conservar el ecosistema del cual dependen los psitácidos y al mismo tiempo utilizar estas especies carismáticas como un atractivo turístico. ...
Introducción: las poblaciones de la guacamaya roja (Ara macao) en México han disminuido o se han extinguido en algunas regiones. Debido a esto, en Reforma Agraria, Chiapas, México se han implementado diferentes estrategias de manejo para su conservación. El objetivo de este estudio fue describir el proceso y la implementación de las estrategias de manejo y conservación para la guacamaya roja (Ara macao) e indagar como han impactado estas actividades en sus poblaciones.
Método: se realizaron 20 entrevistas semiestructuradas a los prestadores de servicios ecoturísticos, a los socios de la Cooperativa Ara macao y a ejidatarios para registrar los procesos de la implementación de las estrategias de manejo y las percepciones sobre estas actividades. La primera parte de esta herramienta consistió en los datos demográficos de las personas, y en la segunda parte se establecieron cuatro categorías para describir: a) la organización social: origen, proceso de la organización, ordenamiento del área del ejido y del Centro Ecoturístico; b) las actividades económicas; c) las estrategias de manejo y conservación para la guacamaya roja, y d) obstáculos para la conservación. Los datos se sistematizaron mediante la conceptualización, la organización de ideas y se estructuraron cronológicamente. Asimismo, se analizó la base de datos de registros de guacamayas de eBird y se realizaron muestreos en el ejido para registrar a las guacamayas en dos transectos lineales y dos puntos elevados de observación a principios de 2020.
Resultados: se identificaron algunas estrategias de manejo y conservación, como son la instalación de cajas para anidación, el establecimiento de Unidades de Manejo para la Conservación de Vida Silvestre, Áreas Destinadas Voluntariamente a la Conservación y el ecoturismo. Este último se identificó como una actividad económicamente relevante por un 63 % de los entrevistados, en comparación con la agricultura, ganadería y carpintería. El análisis de la base de datos de eBird mostró una media de 5.3 registros y no varió en los 5 años analizados (P = 0.65). En este estudio se registraron 81 guacamayas rojas en los transectos lineales, con un índice de abundancia estimado de = 2.95 ± 2.51 ind/km recorrido. Con la metodología de puntos elevados de observación se registraron 90 guacamayas rojas, con un número máximo también de 19 aves por muestreo; y con un índice de abundancia estimado de = 3.55 ± 2.39 ind/h. Las iniciativas para la conservación de la guacamaya roja que se han implementado en la comunidad por medio de la organización ejidal y la consolidación del Centro Ecoturístico Las Guacamayas han sido fundamentales localmente para el mantenimiento de las guacamayas en el área.
Discusión o conclusión: las iniciativas, compromisos y gobernanza propia en el ejido Reforma Agraria han permitido mantener estas estrategias de conservación en pro de las poblaciones de la guacamaya roja en Chiapas.
... Parrots are one of the most threatened orders of birds, with~43% of all species listed as Near Threatened or worse by IUCN (Marsden and Royle 2015), and they face many different pressures, including habitat loss and trapping (Snyder et al. 2000). Parrots are often considered "keystone mutualists," providing many important ecosystem functions (Blanco et al. 2016). ...
Due to climate change and habitat conversion, estimates of the resulting levels of species extinction over the next century are alarming. Devising conservation solutions will require many different approaches, including examining the extinction processes of recently extinct species. Given that parrots are one of the most threatened groups of birds, information regarding parrot extinction is pressing. While most recent parrot extinctions have been island endemics, the Carolina Parakeet Conuropsis carolinensis had an 18th-century range covering nearly half of the present-day United States, yet mostly disappeared by the end of the 19 th century. Despite a great deal of speculation, the major cause of its extinction remains unknown. Establishing the date when a species went extinct is one of the first steps in determining what caused their extinction. While there have been estimates of their extinction date, these analyses used a limited dataset and did not include observational data. We used a recently published, extensive dataset of Carolina Parakeet specimens and observations combined with a Bayesian extinction estimating model to determine the most likely extinction dates. By considering each of the two subspecies independently, we found that they went extinct~30 years apart: the western subspecies C. c. ludovicianus going extinct around 1914 and the eastern subspecies C. c. carolinensis either in the late 1930s or mid-1940s. Had we only considered all observations together, this pattern would have been obscured, possibly missing a major clue in solving the mystery of the parakeet's extinction. Since the Carolina Parakeet was a wide-ranging species that went extinct during a period of rapid agricultural and industrial expansion , conditions that mirror those occurring in many parts of the world where parrot diversity is highest, any progress we make in unraveling the mystery of their disappearance may be vital to modern conservation efforts.
... ; Snyder et al., 2000). De las 98 especies consideradas como no amenazadas, prácticamente todas están en declive y necesitan medidas asegurar su supervivencia. ...
El objetivo principal de este proyecto es el análisis de viabilidad de la reintroducción de la lapa verde (Ara ambiguus), en el Caribe Sur, Costa Rica. La lapa verde es una especie de guacamayo en peligro de extinción que muestra una relación de dependencia directa con el almendro de montaña (Dipteryx panamensis), especie también amenazada.
... A more recent review of records up to the year 2000 (Keith et al. 2003) provided further evidence of decline, describing the species as 'extirpated or uncommon in most areas' and citing 'at least a 95% decline in Los Haitises National Park, DR from 1976 to 1996' (a site from which it was soon afterwards declared extirpated; Latta et al. 2006). The parakeet has declined and locally disappeared from the landscape across Hispaniola (Wiley 1991, Dod 1992, Collar et al. 1994, Snyder et al. 2000, Stattersfield & Capper 2000, Kirwan et al. 2019. Notably, however, instead of retreating from the centres of human activity into the most remote areas (the typical pattern of decline in species) the parakeet possesses a relatively strong presence in Santo Domingo, DR's capital, and Santiago de los Caballeros, DR's 'second' city (Luna et al. 2018). ...
While urbanisation remains a major threat to biodiversity, urban areas can sometimes play an important role in protecting threatened species, especially exploited taxa such as parrots. The Hispaniolan Parakeet Psittacara chloropterus has been extirpated across much of Hispaniola, including from most protected areas, yet Santo Domingo (capital city of the Dominican Republic) has recently been found to support the island’s densest remaining population. In 2019, we used repeated transects and point-counts across 60 1 km² squares of Santo Domingo to examine the distribution of parakeets, identify factors that might drive local presence and abundance, and investigate breeding ecology. Occupancy models indicate that parakeet presence was positively related to tree species richness across the city. N-Mixture models show parakeet encounter rates were correlated positively with species richness of trees and number of discrete ‘green’ patches (> 100 m²) within the survey squares. Hispaniolan Woodpecker Melanerpes striatus, the main tree-cavity-producing species on Hispaniola, occurs throughout the city, but few parakeet nests are known to involve the secondary use of its or other cavities in trees/palms. Most parakeet breeding (perhaps 50–100 pairs) appears to occur at two colonies in old buildings, and possibly only a small proportion of the city’s 1500+ parakeets that occupy a single roost in street trees breed in any year. Our models emphasise the importance of parks and gardens in providing feeding resources for this IUCN Vulnerable species. Hispaniola’s urban centres may be strongholds for populations of parakeets and may even represent sources for birds to recolonise formerly occupied areas on the island.
... Parrots (Psittaciformes) are among the most imperilled bird orders, with 28% of species currently Threatened and 24% Near Threatened (BirdLife International 2020a), with large species being three times more likely at risk than small ones (Collar 1998). Most parrot species are threatened by a combination of habitat loss or degradation and excessive trade (Snyder et al. 2000, BirdLife International 2020a. Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus has a huge range in West and Central Africa, but populations have been subjected to intense anthropogenic pressures (BirdLife International 2020b). ...
While populations of the Endangered Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus have collapsed across its range, the species remains remarkably abundant on the island of Príncipe, Gulf of Guinea. We examine how aspects of its ecology interplay with local environmental conditions, to inform conservation strategies for this species and other large parrots. On Príncipe, parrots breed in large trees of common species, with nest densities (42 ± 34 km−2) greatly exceeding those for any comparably sized parrot. Productivity is high (1.9 chicks per cavity), probably reflecting the absence of nest competitors and predators. Food sources are abundant and much of the island is inaccessible to trappers, so many nests are successful each year. Historically harvest has involved taking only chicks from trees in a few traditional patches. These conditions have combined to allow Grey Parrots to thrive on Príncipe, while elsewhere nest trees are timber targets, nest competition and nest predation are likely to be more intense, trapping is indiscriminate, and few areas remain unexploited by trappers. Preservation of large trees as breeding refugia, and vigilance against the indiscriminate trapping of adult birds, are identified as key conditions to stabilize and recover mainland Grey Parrot populations and indeed large parrots generally, given their very similar ecological traits and anthropogenic circumstances.
... Parrots are among the most distinguishable and widely distributed of all the birds, referring to more than 350 species of the order Psittaciformes occupying major parts of the tropics (Snyder and McGowan, 2000).Several species of parrots are kept as pets because of their friendly and loving nature, ability to emulate human voices, phenomenal feather coloration and intellect (Gill, 1997).The Rose-Ringed Parakeet (Psittaculakrameri) belongs to the family Psittacidae and it is native to Africa and India. Its size is 38-42 cm as it is a medium sized green bird and its tail accounts 25 cm which is more than half of its length immature birds are di cult to differentiate from females as these juveniles begin developing of red ring when they are three years old. ...
The clinicopathological effects of E. coli infected Psittaculakrameri (ring necked parrots) supplemented with N. sativa seeds in feed were evaluated. Faecal samples from “psittacine” species parrots were collected and E. coli was isolated for cultural, morphological, biochemical and in-vitro studies. A total of 27 parrots were selected and divided into 03 groups (A= control, B= no treatment and C= treatment+ infection) having 09 parrots in each and were fed with N. Sativa seeds @100mg/kg from 3 rd day. The parrots of group B and C were challenged with 0.1ml pathogenic E. coli @10 ⁶ CFU/ml/bird subcutaneously on day 9 th . Clinical signs, mortality and morbidity rates were observed during the trial. For haematology, histopathology and CRP in sera, three birds were slaughtered weekly from each group. Significant decreased in feed consumption, haematological values like red blood cells, haemoglobin and pack cell volume while significant increase in clinical signs, morbidity, mortality, liver, heart, kidneys weights and white blood cell were recorded in group B. C-Reactive protein values was significantly decreased in group C as compared to group B while degenerative changes were seen in liver, heart and kidneys of group B.
... Caged birds are kept by hundreds of millions of people worldwide (Whelan et al. 2016a). In the Neotropics, cage bird trapping is among the primary threats to Psittacidae, including the Yellow-naped Amazon (Amazona auropalliata), Hyacinth Macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua), and Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao; Snyder et al. 2000). However, captive-bred birds displayed at zoos or used in educational programs can educate the public about the importance of bird conservation. ...
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment described 4 classes of services or functions that ecosystems and their component parts deliver to the benefit of humans: provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. Birds, including Neotropical birds, provide a diverse array of services in all 4 classes. We review the literature describing ecosystem services provided by Neotropical birds, draw inference from studies of avian services in other regions when Neotropical studies are limited, and identify key information gaps. Neotropical birds provide provisioning services in the form of meat and eggs for food, and feathers for down and ornamentation. Regulating services are among the most valuable services provided by Neotropical birds, including pollination, pest control, seed dispersal, and scavenging. Neotropical birds also provide supporting services in the form of nutrient cycling, such as through the deposition of guano on offshore islands. Finally, Neotropical birds provide cultural services as pets (caged birds), sources of recreation (e.g., birdwatching, hunting), as well as by inspiring art, photography, and religious customs. Much remains to be learned about the ecology and natural history of many Neotropical birds before we can fully assign value—monetary, nonmaterial, or otherwise—to the services they provide. However, what we have learned to date makes it clear that humans benefit from birds through multiple services, including but not limited to pest reduction, pollination of some agricultural plants, and seed dispersal.
... Increasing habitat loss and especially loss of nesting-trees due to deforestation in favor of the expansion of banana cultivation and charcoal production are a major threat for this species [4e6]. Likewise, natural events such as hurricanes and volcanic eruptions are still regarded as threat in the Carribean [5]. Currently, the free-ranging population consists of approximately 730 individuals (487 mature individuals) with endemic distribution limited to one island [4,6]. ...
... Por su parte, las dos especies de loros (A. militaris y A. oratrix) presentan poblaciones en disminución principalmente por la pérdida de su hábitat y su uso comercial (Snyder et al. 2000, Wright et al. 2001, BirdLife International 2018a A través de este estudio se ha mostrado que las aica analizadas presentan una gran diversidad de especies en riesgo o endémicas. Desafortunadamente las aica no han sido definidas oficialmente como estrategia de conservación, y no existe un instrumento legal que las proteja en México (Caballero-Cruz 2019). ...
Para el bosque mesófilo de montaña en México se ha sugerido la presencia de 125 especies de aves que se encuentran en riesgo o son endémicas. Esas aves requieren ser conservadas. En un tiempo de defaunación mundial, y de reducción de estos bosques, es importante determinar qué especies de aves aún habitan en este ecosistema. Del bosque mesófilo localizado en la Sierra Madre Oriental de México no se han publicado datos recientes de campo que indiquen su presencia. En este análisis reportamos los registros de especies de aves en riesgo realizados en 2016 en cinco Áreas Importantes para la Conservación de las Aves con bosque mesófilo de montaña (Sierra Gorda, Tlanchinol, Huayacocotla, Cuetzalan y Río Metlac) ubicadas en cuatro estados de México (Querétaro, Hidalgo, Veracruz y Puebla). En total registramos 60 especies de aves (48%) de las 125, 29 son consideradas amenazadas a nivel nacional y 34 presentan algún tipo de endemismo. Seis de las especies están protegidas globalmente (Dendrortyx barbatus, Ara militaris, Contopus cooperi, Ridgwayia pinicola, Setophaga chrysoparia y Passerina ciris). Esta información puede servir como base para lograr su preservación y establecer monitoreos, estudios y acciones de conservación dirigidos a especies en las zonas de bosque mesófilo.
... The Military Macaw (Ara militaris) is a large, globally threatened psittacine species (Snyder et al. 2000;BirdLife International 2016) that is considered uncommon throughout its distribution, and the mated pair is the main social unit (Forshaw and Knight 2006). The northern sub-species of the Military Macaw occurs in Mexico (Forshaw and Knight 2006), where it inhabits tropical dry forest that has suffered high rates of habitat modification and fragmentation (Masera et al. 1997;Trejo and Dirzo 2000). ...
Geographic variation in acoustic signals may arise in vocal learning species due to processes of cultural evolution and population dynamics, but few studies have evaluated geographic vocal variation for large-bodied non-oscine species such as parrots. We evaluated similarity in a contact call of the Military Macaw (Ara militaris) among three populations along the coast of Jalisco, Mexico. We compared contact calls among sites using two approaches i) analysis of specific acoustic parameter measures using GLMM on Principal Components; and ii) evaluation of spectrogram similarity using cross-correlation with a Mantel test to evaluate site and distance effects. Acoustic parameter analysis found that incorporating the site where recordings were obtained significantly explained variation in call features, for both the complete and reduced, balanced dataset. The spectrogram cross-correlations similarity analysis indicated an association with site in spectral similarity of calls, and that call similarity decreased with distance. Our results demonstrated the accumulation of small, fine-scale changes in Military Macaw calls with distance, suggesting that large-bodied non-oscines such as macaws may be able to maintain connectivity among sites by dispersal, facilitating call diffusion, while limited movements among some populations may account for the differentiation among sites in call features.
... They are considered one of the favorite game birds for a large number of hunters, not only for their meat characterized by low fat and high essential fatty acids and amino acids content which make it of a higher quality compared to broilers, ducks and geese, but for hunting characteristics as well (Tucak et al., 2004;Adamski and Kuzniacka, 2006;Strakova et al., 2006). In Asia they are valuable source of cultural traditions, visible in art, religion, and folklore of different ethnic groups (Mcgowan, 1995). Pheasant species are also used as a biological indicator to monitor the health of the ecosystem and other associated wildlife species (Malik, 2003). ...
To study the influence of egg weight on internal and external quality egg parameters and biometrical traits of hatched chicks, a total of 450 eggs of ring necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicums) were collected. These eggs were weighed and classified as light (20.0-26.0g), medium (27.0-32.0g) and heavy (33.0-40.0g) egg weight categories. Egg length, breadth, egg volume and surface area varied significantly (P<0.05) between all the three egg weight categories. Out of total 450 eggs, 150 eggs (50 from each of the egg weight category) were selected for the evaluation of internal egg quality parameters. Significantly higher albumen and yolk weight were recorded in heavy weight egg category while non-significant influence of egg weight was observed on shell and membrane thickness, yolk percentage, yolk index, yolk pH and albumen pH of the egg. Out of the remaining 300 eggs kept in the incubator, 142 hatched successfully. Forty chicks from each of the egg weight category were selected and chick weight, wing length and wingspan were taken at the time of hatching and thereafter increase in these parameters were noted on weekly basis. The effect of egg weight on chick weight, live weight gain, wing length and wingspan was significant (P<0.05). Our studies revealed that egg weight has strong influence on external and internal characteristics of the eggs and the growth parameters in P. colchicus chicks.
... Some of the most important parrot research and conservation work is carried out in the Neotropics (Snyder et al. 2000). However, for many Neotropical parrot species there is still a lack of basic biological data, which are necessary for the identification of specific threats, the monitoring of populations, and the evaluation of the conservation measures taken. ...
We present the first data on the breeding biology of wild Burrowing Parrots (Cyanoliseus patagonus). We studied chick growth and breeding success at the largest colony of the species in the province of Río Negro, Patagonia, Argentina, during the 1999–2000 breeding season. A very high fledging success was observed and related to the absence of nest predation and the colonial breeding system. Safe nest sites were also thought to favor large mass recession of the nestlings before fledging. Mortality during the nestling period tended to be higher for fourth and fifth nestlings of a brood, indicating that brood reduction occurred. Burrowing Parrots in the study colony showed large variability in growth parameters between nestlings, possibly related to the hatching asynchrony observed. Allometric relationships for egg mass, clutch size, relative clutch mass, and nestling period of 29 wild psittaciform species are described and compared with the data from the Burrowing Parrots.
Desarrollo de los Pichones y Éxito de Nidificación de Cyanoliseus patagonus
Resumen. Presentamos aquí los primeros datos de la biología reproductiva en estado silvestre del loro Cyanoliseus patagonus. Se estudió el crecimiento de los pichones y el éxito de nidificación en la colonia más importante de la especie (provincia de Río Negro, Patagonia, Argentina) durante la temporada de cría 1999–2000. Se observó un alto éxito de emplumamiento de los pichones relacionado a la ausencia de depredación en el nido y al sistema colonial de nidificación que presenta la especie. Los sitios de nidificación seguros habrían favorecido la pronunciada pérdida de masa corporal observada en los pichones antes de abandonar el nido. La mortalidad durante el período de nidificación tendió a ser más alta para el cuarto y quinto pichón de la nidada, indicando la existencia de reducción de la camada. Los loros de la colonia estudiada mostraron gran variabilidad en los parámetros de desarrollo de los distintos pichones, estando ésto posiblemente relacionado con el nacimiento asincrónico de los pichones. Se describen también relaciones alométricas para la masa del huevo, el tamaño de la nidada, la masa relativa de la nidada y el período de permanencia en el nido de 29 psittaciformes silvestres y se comparan con los datos de C. patagonus.
Data on the interactions between the order Psittaciformes and the anthropogenic environment are still insufficient and have not been systematized, especially in the Neotropical region. As a consequence of this coexistence, the volume of accumulated knowledge is probably significantly greater than the formal scientific contributions on the subject. In this survey, information was compiled on the wild parrots inhabiting cities in the Southern Cone of South America, based on surveys with key informants. The results obtained highlighted the presence of a large number of parrot species that form part of the urban avifauna of the region, between 67% and 90% of the total number of species of the order cited for each territory evaluated. The greatest species richness and the number of breeding species were associated with the large cities located in middle and low latitudes. We confirmed breeding within the cities for more than 40% of the species mentioned. Seventy-five percent of the species reported are native to the study area, the rest originating from other regions of South America or other continents. A quarter of the reported species are considered threatened and almost 50% have declining populations. Urban parrots represent a challenge in the search for urban models compatible with biodiversity conservation, and in the designing of innovative conservation strategies that respond to the new challenges posed by a constantly growing human population.
Parrots are popular with pet consumers and are one of the most traded groups of live birds around the world. China has been considered as an important country in bird trades, but we know little about China’s import and export of parrots. Using the latest data available from the CITES Trade Database, we analyzed China’s import and export of CITES-listed live parrots from 1981–2022 to better understand the patterns and dynamics of these trades. China imported 155,339 parrots of 173 species and exported 608,987 parrots of 42 species during the study period with an annual average of about 18,500 individuals, accounting for c. 5% of the global average number. The most imported parrots to China were Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) and Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), while the most exported ones were Fisher’s Lovebirds (Agapornis fischeri), Rosy-faced Lovebirds (Agapornis roseicollis), and Yellow-collared Lovebird (Agapornis personatus). Since the early 21st century, China’s imports of parrots gradually increased, but exports decreased more pronouncedly, making China’s international parrot trade volume declining in the past 20 years. China’s international parrot trade routes also changed over time, with the destination of parrot exports shifting from Europe to Africa and the Arabian region, while more parrots being gradually imported from countries in South America and Africa. The vast majority of parrots exported from China were captive-bred non-native species like Fisher’s Lovebirds, while a substantial proportion of imported parrots were wild-sourced and the proportion has been increasing in the last decade. The fact that China exported much more parrots than imported suggests existence of large-scale parrot farming and domestic parrot trade in China. Attention needs to be paid to monitoring China’s import of increasing proportion of wild-sourced parrots from South America countries and its potential impacts on their wild populations. Close monitoring of and more studies on domestic and illegal parrot trade are essential to fully understand the role China plays in the international trade of parrots.
Indonesia adalah negara negara megabiodisersity. Meskipun luas wilayah nya hanya 1,3% dari luas muka bumi, namun Indonesia memiliki 12% ma malia, 16% reptilia, 10% tumbuhan, 25% ikan dan 17% burung yang ada di dunia. Pemerintah telah melakukan berbagai upaya perlindungan, penga wetan dan pelestarian keanekaragaman hayati, antara lain melalui pen cadangan kawasan hutan sebagai hutan konservasi seperti taman nasio nal, cagar alam, suaka margasatwa, taman wisata alam, taman hutan raya, dan taman buru. Disamping itu, pemerintah juga menetapkan jenis-jenis tumbuhan dan satwa yang dilindungi melalui Peraturan Menteri Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Nomor P.106/MenLHK/Setjen/KUM.1/12/ 2018. Upaya konservasi satwa juga dilakukan melalui penyusunan Strategi dan Rencana Aksi Konservasi spesies yang terancam punah serta penetapan 25 spesies prioritas. Peningkatan populasi 25 spesies prioritas sebesar 10% dari baseline data 2013 merupakan salah satu yang akan dicapai pemerintah. Upaya pening katan populasi tersebut antara lain dilakukan melalui pembinaan populasi, penanggulangan konflik, perlindungan dan pengamanan, penyadartahuan, rehabilitasi dan pelepasliaran, pengelolaan dan pengem- bangan pangkalan data. Buku bunga rampai berjudul “Mengenal Lebih Dekat Satwa Langka Indonesia dan Memahami Pelestariannya” adalah karya para peneliti konservasi keanekaragaman hayati lingkup Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan yang dirancang untuk konsumsi publik dengan tujuan mengenalkan kekayaan keanekaragaman hayati satwa dan mensosialisasikan upaya-upaya konservasinya. Harapannya adalah masyarakat ber tambah pengetahuannya, meningkat pemahamannya dan akhirnya ber partisipasi serta mendukung segala upaya konservasi keanekaragaman hayati pada umumnya dan satwa langka yang terancam punah pada khususnya. Buku mencakup berbagai jenis satwa liar yang ada di Indonesia dari Pulau Sumatera hingga Papua
Parrots, with their vibrant plumage and remarkable intelligence, play a crucial role in ecosystems worldwide. They contribute to seed dispersal, plant protection, and overall ecosystem functioning, influencing plant life cycles and contributing to ecosystem stability. However, the ecological importance of parrots is threatened by habitat loss and the impacts of global warming. As climate change intensifies, parrots face challenges such as shifts in geographical ranges, disruptions in synchronized relationships with plants, habitat loss, and increased vulnerability to extreme weather events. Effective conservation strategies are crucial for safeguarding parrot populations, including preserving key habitats, establishing protected areas, and implementing sustainable management practices. Tailored approaches, education, addressing land tenure issues, and promoting ecotourism are among the key solutions to mitigate the effects of global warming and protect these ecologically important birds.
Although urban and suburban protected areas may contribute to conserving biodiversity, their importance remains poorly documented. We compared the composition of bird assemblages between two protected areas, the Urban National Park of Martissant (UNPM) and the suburban Wynne Farm Ecological Reserve (WFER) in Haiti, one the poorest country in the world, plagued with severe deforestation and environmental degradation. Species were identified along transects without distance estimation. A total of 718 birds belonging to 38 different species were censused (494 at UNPM and 224 at WFER, from 24 and 26 species, respectively), including two endemic and vulnerable species, Corvus leucognaphalus and Amazona ventralis , observed only at the urban site. Species richness, diversity, evenness and species-abundance distributions did not differ significantly between sites. However, the composition of the two avian assemblages differed significantly, with only 31.6% species in common and a significant difference in their relative abundance. We found no evidence for a difference in the degree of forest dependency between the two assemblages. However, mainly and strict insectivorous species accounted for a larger proportion of observations at WFER (34.8%) compared to UNPM (19.6%). Factors influencing the contrast in avian assemblage composition between two sites include differences in elevation and associated vegetation, difference in water availability and variation in the ability of species to adapt to the urban environment. Our results demonstrate the importance and complementarity of the two protected areas for the conservation of avian diversity in Haiti.
This paper summarizes the ecology of the Desert systems. An ecosystem is defined as the interaction of all living organisms amongst themselves and with the environment. This concept of ecosystem has no delineated boundaries but simply it could be considered as the tussock of grasses along with its root structure, soil characteristics, soil organisms and the atmosphere around the aboveground parts. Deserts are a part of terrestrial ecosystems defined on the basis of the climatic criteria i.e. bioclimatic aridity. The desert characteristics and their features along with the people livelihood are discussed in this paper. The biome of the desert comprises of a variety of complex ecosystems with diverse and fragile groupings of plants, animals and fungi. Their management strategies should primarily focus on the best and the most judicious use of available water, either from groundwater aquifers or from rainfall.
We present the complete genome sequences of 94 species of parrots from 40 genera. Illumina sequencing was performed on genetic material from single individuals. The reads were assembled using a de novo method followed by a finishing step. The raw and assembled data is publicly available via Genbank.
La mayoría de los estudios ecológicos en psitácidos se han enfocado en especies que presentan una amplia distribución, pero se tiene poca información sobre la historia natural y los requerimientos ecológicos de especies pequeñas como las del género Brotogeris. La especie Brotogeris jugularis (Aves: Psittacidae) se enfrenta a amenazas de origen antropogénico directas como la caza ilegal para comercio o tenencia como mascota e indirectas como la pérdida y fragmentación de sus hábitats. Se evaluó el uso de hábitat y la dieta de Brotogeris jugularis en un paisaje rural del piedemonte llanero, Colombia. Se hicieron 35 transectos, distribuidos en cinco coberturas: bosque ripario, pastizal arbolado, tejido urbano, vegetación secundaria y mosaico de cultivos. Se registraron 114 individuos en cuatro de cinco coberturas; 15 en la época de sequía y 99 en la de lluvias. El bosque ripario mostró 55 individuos, seguido del tejido urbano con 41, mosaico de cultivos con 15 y el pastizal arbolado con 3 individuos. El uso y preferencia de hábitat diferencial en las unidades de muestreo fue congruente con los valores de abundancia por cada cobertura y se puede atribuir a la disponibilidad de recursos alimenticios. La dieta de la especie mostró preliminarmente, el uso de selectivo de variedades de frutales (e. g., Mangifera indica). Se muestra un avance en el conocimiento autoecológico de Brotogeris jugularis, que da cuenta de su condición generalista en la elección de los hábitats, mediada por una selección oportunista por aquellas coberturas que presentan mayor disponibilidad de recursos alimenticios, sean naturales o antropogénicas.
Parrots (Order Psittaciformes) hold the trophy as the most threatened bird group globally. Both direct (e.g., poaching) and indirect threats (e.g., habitat loss and degradation, human population encroachment into their natural range) cause a higher risk of extinction for them than for other bird groups. This study identifies the ecological factors affecting the occurrence (presence of individuals/populations) of five endemic and threatened parrot species in the Philippines. Variable distance line transect sampling method was employed to determine parrot species occurrence in Bataan Natural Park–Subic Watershed Forest Reserve in Bataan and Kingfisher Park in Busuanga Island, Palawan. Transects were divided into 400-m segments where 22 habitat variables were measured. Canonical correspondence analysis was performed using PAST 2.14. Using DISTANCE 6.0, parrot population density estimates were calculated for five species: Bolbopsittacus lunulatus (36.6 individuals/ km2), Loriculus philippensis (13.7 individuals/km2), Prioniturus platenae (22.2 individuals/km2), Prioniturus luconensis (1.9 individuals/km2), and Tanygnathus lucionensis (0.6 individuals/km2). The key findings of the parrot- habitat association suggest that parrot species are primarily influenced by tree structure and slope. The presence of fruit trees, palms, epiphytes, crops, and pioneering plants is also positively associated with parrot species abundance.
Gene tree discordance is expected in phylogenomic trees and biological processes are often invoked to explain it. However, heterogeneous levels of phylogenetic signal among individuals within datasets may cause artifactual sources of topological discordance. We examined how the information content in tips and subclades impacts topological discordance in the parrots (Order: Psittaciformes), a diverse and highly threatened clade of nearly 400 species. Using ultraconserved elements from 96% of the clade's species-level diversity, we estimated concatenated and species trees for 382 ingroup taxa. We found that discordance among tree topologies was most common at nodes dating between the late Miocene and Pliocene, and often at the taxonomic level of genus. Accordingly, we used two metrics to characterize information content in tips and assess the degree to which conflict between trees was being driven by lower quality samples. Most instances of topological conflict and non-monophyletic genera in the species tree could be objectively identified using these metrics. For subclades still discordant after tip-based filtering, we used a machine learning approach to determine whether phylogenetic signal or noise was the more important predictor of metrics supporting the alternative topologies. We found that when signal favored one of the topologies, noise was the most important variable in poorly performing models that favored the alternative topology. In sum, we show that artifactual sources of gene tree discordance, which are likely a common phenomenon in many datasets, can be distinguished from biological sources by quantifying the information content in each tip and modeling which factors support each topology.
The Turquoise-fronted Amazon Amazona aestiva is one of the most extensively poached species as a result of illegal trade in Brazil. Reintroduction programs have been increasingly used in the management of these animals in captivity. Several preparatory procedures should be carried out during the pre-release period to characterize the group of animals and subsequently increase the success of reintroduction programs. The most important procedures are temperament assessment and environmental enrichment training, which is expected to influence the behavior of the released birds. This study aimed to assess the temperament of the amazons in captivity and its influence on a reintroduction program. The temperaments of 50 parrots were classified from shy to bold and monitored during five phases of activity throughout the study: environmental enrichment training in captivity, a period of acclimatization in an aviary placed in the release area, the offer of fruit from the release region, dependence on the aviary after it was opened, and post-release food supplementation. Once the animals were released, they were monitored for 18 months. Temperament assessment supported the reintroduction project, because through this information it was possible to predict the individual behaviors of reintroduced animals when dealing with environmental challenges. The purpose of the pre-release environmental enrichment training was to encourage individual amazons to increase exploratory behaviors, and was effective in enhancing the natural behavior of the species and reducing stereotypies. Animals classified as shy required a longer intervention period to achieve the same results since they exhibited greater dependence on the aviary and, consequently, took longer to explore the release area. In the medium term, no significant difference was observed between shy and bold parrots in their departure after opening the aviary, use of supplementary feeding, or survival. Therefore, the activities performed prior to release adequately promoted similar habituation conditions for both profiles.
The eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) is a species of parrot native to the Solomon Islands, Sumba, New Guinea and nearby islands, northeastern Australia, and the Moluccan Islands. The wide range of behaviors emphasizes the existence of knowledge of only a mere fraction of the significant behavioral parameters of these birds. The objective of this study is to identify the behavior of the eclectus parrot kept in captivity and to check the frequency of these birds in certain places of the nursery, comparing the results to other studies about parrots and the behavior in nature. This is a study about the behavior of a bird with a very pronounced sexual dimorphism, where the males have a predominantly green color, and the females are mainly red-colored. In the wild, while the male perches on the outer branches of the trees, the female usually perches close to tree trunks. This location, together with her red and blue plumage, provides the ideal camouflage in the dark interior of the trees.
Parrots (Psittaciformes) are among the most endangered groups of birds today and remain threatened by habitat loss and exploitation for the live bird trade. Under such conditions, reliable and non-invasive monitoring techniques are crucial for successful conservation measures. In this study, we developed a panel of 86 high quality SNPs for genotyping endangered sun parakeets (Aratinga solstitialis) in Guyana, which form one of the last known breeding populations of this South American species in the wild. Genotyping was tested on different types of samples (blood, feathers, feces, beak and cloacal swabs). While blood performed best, feathers and feces also yielded reliable results and could thus be used as non-invasive sources of DNA for future population monitoring. Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components (DAPC) on genotypes revealed that Guyanese sun parakeets clustered separately from other psittacine species as well as conspecifics from a captive population. A priori known first-order kinships were also adequately detected by the SNP panel. Using a series of experimental contaminations, we found that contamination from other psittacine species and slight contamination (~ 10%) from conspecifics did not prevent successful genotyping and recognition of individuals. We show that instances of higher conspecific contamination (~ 50%) can be detected through an increased level of heterozygosity that falls outside the distribution of uncontaminated samples.
For 1996–2003, we determined reproductive output and success of 70 Lilaccrowned Parrot (Amazona finschi) nests in tropical dry forest of the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve in western Mexico. Only 42% of nests had young that fledged; predation was the main cause of nest failure. Low brood survival in 2000 and 2003 caused significant between-year variation in the probability of nest success during the nestling phase of the nest cycle. Reproductive output of Lilac-crowned Parrots was low, with females producing an average of 0.99 fledglings on an initial investment of 2.6 eggs. The fecundity component of clutch size varied significantly between years, because of the high median clutch size recorded in 2000. Nestling survival also varied significantly between years, creating large interannual fluctuations in reproductive output. The most productive breeding season was 1999, with an average output of 1.7 fledglings on an investment of 2.7 eggs; whereas the poorest breeding season was 2000, with an output of 0.57 fledglings from 3.3 eggs. Loss of reproductive potential was greatest in 2000 and 2003, because of brood reduction through starvation of later-hatched nestlings, with hatching order influencing the probability of nestling survival. Mean number of nestlings per egg-laying female was associated with interannual fluctuations in precipitation resulting from the El Niño-La Niña weather cycle in the Pacific Ocean. Both nest predation and food availability may limit parrot reproduction in tropical dry forests, with populations of threatened species in dry habitats being vulnerable to effects of climatic variability and habitat fragmentation.
Although macaws are arguably the most widely recognized species of bird from Neotropical rainforests, little is known of their basic biology or demography in the wild. In Ecuador, as in other Neotropical countries, it is suspected that several species of macaw are declining in response to human activity and habitat alteration but there is little hard data supporting this supposition. In this paper, we present one full year of data on macaw populations from a relatively pristine site in the Ecuadorian Amazon, and compare this site to two other sites with intermediate and relatively high levels of human activity. At Tiputini Biodiversity Station, a pristine terra-firme forest, macaws were more common in the dry season than in the wet season. This pattern is the opposite of that recently reported for seasonally inundated forests in Peru, suggesting that macaws may make large-scale, seasonal movements across habitat types. We employed the same sampling methodology for shorter periods of time at Sacha Lodge, characterized by intermediate levels of human activity, and at Jatun Sacha Biological Station, characterized by relatively high levels of human activity and habitat degradation. We recorded an intermediate number of macaws at Sacha Lodge, and the lowest densities at Jatun Sacha. Three groups of indicator taxa sampled at all three sites showed a similar pattern. These data provide a baseline for future demographic studies of macaws in the Ecuadorian Amazon and lend tentative support to the idea that macaw population declines may be linked to human activity and habitat alteration.
Patrones Temporales y Espaciales de Abundancia de Guacamayos en la Amazonía Ecuatoriana
Resumen. A pesar de que los guacamayos son en principio el grupo de especies de aves más conspicuo de los bosques neotropicales, muy poco se sabe sobre su biología básica y demografía en estado silvestre. En Ecuador, como en otros países neotropicales, se sospecha que algunas especies de guacamayos están desapareciendo en respuesta a la actividad humana y a la alteración del hábitat, aunque hay muy poca información que sustente esta suposición. En este trabajo, presentamos información sobre la demografía de los guacamayos obtenida durante un período de un año en un lugar relativamente prístino de la amazonía ecuatoriana, y lo comparamos con dos lugares que poseen niveles intermedios y altos de alteración humana. En la Estación de Biodiversidad Tiputini, un lugar con bosques de tierra firme en estado relativamente prístino, los guacamayos fueron más comunes en la temporada seca que en la temporada lluviosa. Este patrón es opuesto a lo reportado en bosques estacionalmente inundados en Perú, sugiriendo que los guacamayos podrían realizar desplazamientos estacionales a gran escala a través de diferentes tipos de hábitat. Nosotros empleamos la misma metodología de muestreo durante períodos más cortos de tiempo en Sacha Lodge, un lugar caracterizado por un nivel intermedio de impacto humano, y en la Estación Biológica Jatun Sacha, caracterizada por niveles de impacto humano y alteración de hábitat relativamente altos. Registramos un número intermedio de guacamayos en Sacha Lodge y densidades bajas en la Estación Biológica Jatun Sacha. Otros tres grupos de indicadores taxonómicos muestreados en los tres lugares visitados mostraron un patrón similar. Esta información provee una línea de base para futuros estudios demográficos de los guacamayos en la amazonía ecuatoriana y respalda de modo tentativo la idea de que la disminución de las poblaciones de guacamayos podría estar relacionada con la actividad humana y la alteración del hábitat.
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