Analysis of pesticide application and applicator's training level in greenhouse farms in Galicia, Spain

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to determine whether training level affects the safe use of pesti-cides amongst pesticide applicators of Galician greenhouse farms (Spain). The rela-tionship between pesticide applicator training and safe use of pesticides was statisti-cally analyzed using non-parametric tests. Results did not reveal any relationship be-tween the training level of pesticide applicators and the implementation of good prac-tices in pesticide use. This paper questions current training systems for pesticide appli-cation and points to the need for the implementation of methods that assess and monitor the results and added value of training to pesticide applicators' practices.

Full text

2013, Vol 14, o 2
5
Analysis of pesticide application and applicator’s training level
in greenhouse farms in Galicia, Spain
S. Lamosa Quinteiro
*
, M. F. Marey Pérez,
C. Cabaleiro Sobrino, M. Barrasa Rioja
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to determine whether training level affects the safe use of pesti-
cides amongst pesticide applicators of Galician greenhouse farms (Spain). The rela-
tionship between pesticide applicator training and safe use of pesticides was statisti-
cally analyzed using non-parametric tests. Results did not reveal any relationship be-
tween the training level of pesticide applicators and the implementation of good prac-
tices in pesticide use. This paper questions current training systems for pesticide appli-
cation and points to the need for the implementation of methods that assess and monitor
the results and added value of training to pesticide applicators’ practices.
Keywords: Training, safe use, pesticides, pesticide applicator, non-parametric test
Introduction
Intensification of agriculture around the world has led to an increase in the use of
pesticides. Many authors have studied the health and environmental effects and conse-
quences of the use of pesticides at the global and regional level (Ecobichon, 2001; Kishi
and Ladou, 2001; Ergonen et al., 2005; Chelme-Ayala et al., 2008; Buchanan et al.,
2009).
According to some authors, farmers are aware of the health and environmental ef-
fects of the use of pesticides in agriculture despite their low level of education or spe-
cific training in pesticides (Recena et al., 2006; Atreya, 2007; Zhang and Lu, 2007).
Pesticide hazard awareness encourages farmers to: 1) use less toxic pesticides (FFTC,
2004), 2) increase the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) (Perry and Layde,
2003), 3) create an awareness on the potential danger of indiscriminate use of pesticides
(Mandel et al., 2000), 4) improve safe storage of pesticides (Bury et al., 2005), 5) re-
duce expenditure on pesticides (Yamazaki and Resosudarmo, 2008), 6) increase crop
yield (van den Berg, 2004), and, in general, 7) increase the safety measures taken by
farmers (Salameh et al., 2004; Atreya, 2007; Sam et al., 2008).
Yet, the analysis conducted by Damalas et al. (2008) in Greece revealed the exis-
tence of poor practices among farmers, such as inappropriate disposal of pesticide pack-
ages, leftover spray solution or rinsates generated from washing the application equip-
ment. Other authors verified a low use of personal protective equipment during pesti-
*
Department of Crop Production, Escola Politécnica Superior.
Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario de Lugo. 27002 Lugo, Spain
telfs. 00 34 982 823 111, 00 34 609 591 013, e-mail santiago.lamosa@usc.es

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AGRICULTURAL ECOOMICS REVIEW
cide handling (Zhang and Lu, 2007; MacFarlane et al., 2008) and low levels of reading
and understanding of pesticide labels (Avory and Coggon, 1994; Waichman et al.,
2007).
Pesticide applicator training is considered one of the most relevant aspects in the
reduction of pesticide exposure and, consequently, of intoxications, as well as in the
improvement of pesticide handling safety. Many authors have observed that training
leads pesticide applicators to: 1) an improvement in diffusion of knowledge and inte-
grated pest management (Feder et al., 2004a; Feder et al., 2004b; Hashemi et al., 2008;
Yang et al., 2008; Hashemi et al., 2009), 2) an increase in safe use of pesticides (Win-
stead, 1993; Mandel et al., 2000; Sam et al., 2008; Yamazaki and Resosudarmo, 2008)
and 3) a reduction in the use of pesticides (Matthews, 2008; Mancini et al., 2009).
Moreover, Matthews (2008) verified that training caused increased crop yield, while
Mancini et al. (2009) reported a positive effect of training on the decrease in the number
of intoxication events, and MacFarlane et al. (2008) concluded that training increased
the use of personal protective equipment.
Despite the positive effects mentioned in the above paragraph, some authors did not
find a definite effect of training on the implementation of good handling practices by
pesticide applicators. For example, Prochaska (1998) analyzed a population of Ohio
Certified Private Pesticide Applicators and found no significant differences between
level of education and reading pesticide labels. Feder et al. (2004a; b) did not find any
improvement in farming activities among farmers who had attended the Farmer Field
School (FFS), whereas Yamazaki and Resosudarmo (2008) reported an improvement in
agricultural practices among farmers who had attended training courses, but verified
that improvements decreased considerably over time. Moreover, other authors have
found that knowledge is not transferred between pesticide applicators who have been
trained and those of their neighbours who have not been trained (Feder et al., 2004a;
Tripp et al., 2005; Hashemi et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2008; Hashemi et al., 2009).
European and Spanish legislation regulating the use of pesticides, as well as Spanish
Order 43/2002 of 20th of November governing Plant Health (BOE, 2002), enforce pes-
ticide handlers and applicators to take training courses or exams that certify and ensure
that they meet minimum training standards. In Spain, the requirements for getting a pes-
ticide applicator license are regulated by Royal Decree 1311/2012 of 14th of September
establishing the framework for action to achieve the sustainable use of plant protection
products (BOE, 2012). The Galician legislation envisages six levels of certification:
basic, qualified, fumigator, special certification for the application of toxic and very
toxic pesticides to disinfect agricultural soils, special certification for the application of
pesticides against micromammals in agricultural soils, and pest control aircraft pilot for
agriculture and forestry (DOGA, 2009).
In this legal context, many farmers have taken training courses in the last decade.
Actually, the number of farmers involved amounted to more than 2500 in specific years.
Yet, this pesticide applicator training policy has not been monitored and its effective-
ness has not been tested, such that the actual improvements in the practices of pesticide
applicators remain unknown.
The objective of this study is to determine whether the training of the pesticide appli-
cators affects the safe use of pesticides in greenhouse crops in Galicia, a region in
Northwest Spain.

2013, Vol 14, o 2
7
Materials and methods
A survey was conducted among greenhouse pesticide applicators in Galicia. Accord-
ing to data made available by the Galician Department of Rural Affairs, Consellería de
Medio Rural, Xunta de Galicia, in 2009 there were 1260 farms specialized in indoor
crops with an area equal to or over 500 m² in this region. The mean area of these farms
was 1932 m
2
per farm.
This paper focuses on farms specialized in indoor crops because pesticide applicators
are most exposed in this type of farms, insofar as applications are more frequent than in
open-air fields, environmental conditions are extreme (high temperature and relative
humidity), and ventilation is poor in partially-closed spaces.
The stratifying variable was selected based on the criteria defined by ASPROGA
(2001), which suggest farm area as the variable with the strongest influence on the dif-
ferentiation of farm management and crop yield per unit. Based on farm area, four types
of strata were defined (Table 1). To calculate sample size, a single-stage stratified sam-
pling strategy was used, and an error of 5% at 95% confidence level was assumed (Da-
lenius and Hodges, 1959), which provided a sample size of 301 pesticide applicators,
which accounted for 23.9 % of greenhouse farmers. The final distribution of surveys
across the region was randomly determined by defining a proportion of farms based on
the area covered by greenhouse farms in each province. Table 1 shows the distribution
of surveys according to the strata considered in the analysis and the representativity of
the surveys.
Personal interviews with pesticide applicators were carried out (INE, 2009) between
April and September 2009. First, applicators were contacted by telephone to arrange an
appointment for a personal interview at their workplace. The questionnaire included 71
questions divided into 11 blocks.
Table 1. Distribution of population and sampled farms by types (area of greenhouses)
and provinces
PROVICES
TYPE A CORUÑA LUGO OURESE POTEVEDRA GALICIA
POP SA POP SA POP SA POP SA POP SA
No. 169 31 24 4 96 11 292 50 581 96
E1 % 35.1 26.7 45.3 28.6 50.0 25.0 54.7 39.4 46.1 31.9
No. 175 39 13 4 69 18 157 45 414 106
E2 % 36.4 33.6 24.5 28.6 35.9 40.9 29.4 35.4 32.9 35.2
No. 109 37 11 5 27 15 72 30 219 87
E31 % 22.7 31.9 20.8 35.7 14.1 34.1 13.5 23.6 17.4 28.9
No. 28 9 5 1 0 0 13 2 46 12
E32 % 5.8 7.8 9.4 7.1 0.0 0.0 2.4 1.6 3.6 4.0
No. 481 116 53 14 192 44 534 127 1260 301
TOT % 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
TYPE (by area of greenhouses): E1, 500 - 1000 m²; E2, 1000 - 2000 m²; E31, 2000 - 5000 m²;
E32, >5000 m².
POP, population; SA, sample; TOT, total

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AGRICULTURAL ECOOMICS REVIEW
The training level of the surveyed applicators was assessed through six questions:
1) time the respondent has been performing pesticide application activities,
2) general level of education,
3) specialized training in pesticides,
4) surface area of the greenhouse farm,
5) working time (part-time work, full-time work, etc.),
6) technical advice received. Answers to the questions were assigned values from 0 to
3, the most unfavourable answer being 0 and the best answer being 3.
All the questions were assigned the same weight, such that the value obtained for
each pesticide applicator corresponded to the sum of the answers to the six questions.
Based on the scores obtained, the pesticide applicators of the analyzed farms were
grouped into three groups according to training level as follows:
1) high (≥12), 2) medium (>9, <12), 3) low (≤9).
This classification results from rescaling the scores from 0 to 10. Thus, a value of 9
corresponds to 5.0. Respondents under a score of 5.0 were considered to be insuffi-
ciently qualified. Scores between 9 and 12 (5.0-6.5) correspond to pesticide applicators
with minimum qualification, and scores over 12 (6.5-10.0) correspond to the group of
highly qualified pesticide applicators.
Good practices in pesticide use and application were evaluated through 25 questions
classified into six blocks of identical weight. The answers to each question were as-
signed a value between 0 and 3, 0 being the value of the most unfavourable question
and 3 the value of the best response. Each block was assessed by calculating the mean
value of the answers to the questions included in the block. The final score was obtained
by adding the values obtained for each block.
To analyze the correlation between the level of qualification of the surveyed pesti-
cide applicators and the implementation of good practices in pesticide application,
analyses were carried out using the Kruskall–Wallis test (Kruskal and Wallis, 1952) and
the U-Mann-Whitney test (Corder and Foreman, 2009), followed by a testing procedure
analogous to the Bonferroni pairwise comparison procedure, as described in Neter et al.
(1996). These techniques are commonly used to differentiate situations (Kragten and
Snoo, 2008). The R.2.10.1 software was used for statistical analysis (R Development
Core Team, 2008). The method developed in this paper has been widely used in this
type of survey (Litchfield, 2005; Dasgupta et al., 2007; Zyoud et al., 2010).
Results
Overall, the pesticide applicators interviewed in this study show a very homogeneous
profile, with 92.1% having primary education qualification and 7.9% having no educa-
tion qualification at all.
The rank-based analysis of the characteristics of the pesticide applicators surveyed in
this study reveals that the applicator with a high level of qualification (score≥12 points)
show the highest levels of general and specific training and own the farms included
mainly in strata E31 and E32. Moreover, pesticide applicators with a high level of quali-
fication are the most experienced applicators (only 16.7% have less than 10 years ex-
perience) and are engaged in agriculture full-time or belong to cooperatives or agricul-

2013, Vol 14, o 2
9
tural processing companies. In addition, 97.4% of these farmers have received technical
advice (Table 2).
Table 2. Main characteristics of the groups according to the level of qualification of
pesticide applicators
GROUP High Medium Low
VALUE ≥12 >9, <12 ≤9
TYPE E31, E32 E2 E1
TRAINING High High Medium
EXPERIENCE High Medium Low
WORKING TIME Full-time Full-time Full-time / Part-time
ASSOCIATIONS High High Moderate
TECHNICAL ADVICE High High Moderate
Pesticide applicators with a medium level of qualification (9<score<12) have basic
levels of general education (73.8% have primary education qualification) or specific
training (92.1% have attended a basic course on pesticide handling), own greenhouse
farms included mainly in stratum E2, and are mid-experienced applicators (28.6% have
less than 10 years experience). These pesticide applicators are usually engaged in agri-
culture full-time and receive technical advice (95.2%).
Pesticide applicators with a low level of qualification (score≤9) show low levels of
general education (18.0% have no education qualification) or specific training (22.0%
did not attend any training course), own greenhouse farms included mainly in stratum
E1 and are the least experienced farmers (39.0% have less than 10 years experience).
Most pesticide applicators in this group are engaged in agriculture full-time, but 27.1%
of the applicators with a low level of qualification are engaged in agriculture only part-
time. In addition, only 51.2% of these applicators have received technical advice.
Table 3. Results of non-parametric tests for training groups
TRAIIG
GROUP  Rank Mean df As. sig. Chi-square
1 98 137.40
2 126 157.01
3 77 158.47
Good
practices
Total 301
2 0.169 3.560
N: Training group; Rank: number of items in group
Does the training level of workers have any correlation with the implementation of
good practices in the application of pesticides? As shown in table 3, the non-parametric
test does not find any correlation between both variables. According to these results,
higher levels of qualification do not result in better practices in pesticide handling.

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AGRICULTURAL ECOOMICS REVIEW
Discussion
Results suggest that there is no correlation between training level and the implemen-
tation of good pesticide application practices, which contrasts with the results reported
by other authors, who have verified that both general education and specific training
have positive effects on various aspects of agriculture in general and specifically on
pesticide handling, insofar as training increases awareness of the consequences of irra-
tional use of pesticides on health (Mancini et al., 2005; 2009). Yet, our results are in
agreement with the results reported by other authors who did not find any beneficial
effects of training on aspects such as reading pesticide labels (Prochaska, 1998), im-
proving the professional activity after taking professional certification courses (Feder et
al., 2004a; b) or sustaining the good practices over time (Yamazaki and Resosudarmo,
2008).
In our study, the differences found in the positive effects of pesticide applicator train-
ing are probably associated with the level of education of the populations studied. For
example, in the analysis performed by Atreya (2007), the percent of surveyed farmers
with a primary education qualification amounted to 38.2%, while 61.8% did not have
any qualification. On the contrary, the population analyzed in this study shows a very
homogeneous profile. Such a homogeneity can be the cause for the small influence of
level of education and specific training on pesticide application habits.
Most of the authors cited above analyzed the situation in developing countries,
whose population is characterized by a low level of education. In this study, the level of
education and/or training of pesticide applicators is reasonably high, such that the im-
provements attained can be more subtle or even not perceived, as suggested by Mandel
et al. (2000), who observed modest improvements in the use of individual protective
equipment within a group of Minnesota farmers aged 40 years and older who received
specific training. In that case, 82.8% of the population were high school graduates and
17.2% did not have such a qualification.
Based on the literature review conducted, we have observed that the efficiency of
improvements in pesticide applicator training and training activities may increase with
the decrease in the degree of development of the country and in the general education of
the population.
Another characteristic that might have affected the results is the fact that the popula-
tion surveyed is old and highly experienced, particularly if compared with other surveys
carried out in less developed countries. In the analysis conducted in Nepal by Atreya
(2007), 46.1% of the population was less than 31 years old and only 4.9% was older
than 50, while in the analysis performed in India by Mancini et al. (2009), 34.4% was
younger than 30 years and 7.7% was older than 50. Conversely, in the population sur-
veyed in our study, 43.3% of pesticide applicators were older than 50 and 4.2% were
younger than 30, which is indicative of the gradual ageing undergone by Spanish and
European farmers, with 4.5 % and 1.8% of their population younger than 35 years, re-
spectively (ASAJA, 2010).
Because attendance to professional training courses reduces concern about issues
related to safe use of pesticides (Yamazaki and Resosudarmo, 2008), the high training
level of the surveyed pesticide applicators must not reassure the authorities who are in
charge of pesticide applicator training. Such a decrease in farmers’ concern becomes

2013, Vol 14, o 2
11
more serious in the Spanish context, given that Spanish legislation compels farmers who
must apply pesticides to obtain a certified qualification as pesticide applicators (BOE,
2005). This compulsory measure does not envisage the personal motivations of farmers
and, consequently, the measure does not imply greater training efficiency.
Conclusions
Our results suggest that in Galicia, a higher level of education and/or training of pes-
ticide applicators does not result in better practices in pesticide application and han-
dling.
The high level of training and experience of Galician pesticide applicators and the
compulsory nature of specialization courses may be the reasons behind the lack of the
expected positive effects of training on the practices of Galician pesticide applicators.
Policy makers should create new models of specific training to promote the volun-
tary participation of farmers and their motivation about these issues. Moreover, new
models for the evaluation and control of results must be developed to determine the ac-
tual effectiveness of specialization courses.
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