Article

Mass Shooters in the USA, 1966–2010: Differences Between Attackers Who Live and Die

Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences
Justice Quarterly
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Abstract

Previous research suggests that there are fundamental psychological and behavioral differences between offenders who commit murder and offenders who commit murder-suicide. Whether a similar distinction exists for rampage, workplace, and school shooters remains unknown. Using data from the 2010 NYPD report, this study presents results from the first regression analysis of all qualifying mass shooters who struck in the USA between 1966 and 2010 (N = 185). Findings suggest that there are fundamental differences between mass shooters who die as a result of their attacks and mass shooters who live. Patterns among offenders, the weapons they use, the victims they kill, and the locations they attack may have significant implications for scholars and security officials alike.

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... Shooters who died on the scene of the crime, but not by suicide, perished at the hands of intervention by an external force (e.g., law enforcement). Within this category of shooter mortality, the phenomenon known as suicide-by-police may act as a driving factor (Lankford, 2015), with up to 10% of mass shooters creating a suicide-by-police situation (Lankford, 2015). ...
... Shooters who died on the scene of the crime, but not by suicide, perished at the hands of intervention by an external force (e.g., law enforcement). Within this category of shooter mortality, the phenomenon known as suicide-by-police may act as a driving factor (Lankford, 2015), with up to 10% of mass shooters creating a suicide-by-police situation (Lankford, 2015). ...
... Results, such as these from Kowalski and colleagues (2021), indicate that the interpersonal risk factors that drive suicidal ideation and suicide attempts, may also play a role in driving acts of mass murder. As SRTBs have become identified as common antecedent experiences of mass shooters prior to and during their shootings (see Joiner, 2024), researchers have called for further research into the relationship of the two distinct yet possibly related phenomena (Hagan et al., 2015;Lankford, 2015). With those perpetrating a mass shooting and simultaneously experiencing SRTBs only composing a statistically rare proportion of all individuals who experience SRTBs, it's important to attempt to understand what may lead one to act on lethal urges toward others, and possibly themselves, rather than only themselves. ...
Article
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Suicide-related thoughts and behaviors (SRTBs) have become identified as common antecedent experiences of mass shooters prior to and during their shootings. To better support and inform efforts of such upstream prevention and intervention efforts of mass violence, this study aimed to provide an exploratory descriptive perspective of the interpersonal experiences of mass shooters who survived and those who died on the scene (i.e., died by self-inflicted suicide, or died by police intervention) using the interpersonal psychological theory of suicide (IPTS) as a theoretical framework. Through an open-source data collection method, researchers gathered data related to the interpersonal constructs of thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and a capability for suicide, for N = 112 mass shooters that perpetrated their crime in the 21st century. Interpersonal constructs were observed as similar across both on-scene outcomes. The interpersonal constructs of thwarted belongingness and a capability for suicide were evidenced in a majority shooters across outcomes. These results offer initial exploratory evidence that most mass shootings may, at their core, be influenced to some extent by SRTBs as described by the IPTS. By addressing mass shootings through such a point-of-view, prevention and intervention efforts may benefit from alignment with those proven efficacious for SRTBs.
... The use of a firearm also increases the likelihood of an offender committing suicide after the attack or being killed by police (Hagan et al., 2015). Suicidal motives can play a major role in offender behaviours (Lankford, 2015b). Almost two-thirds of LAGFH offenders in this study died at the scene, by suicide or police intervention. ...
... Almost two-thirds of LAGFH offenders in this study died at the scene, by suicide or police intervention. This is mirrored in LAGFH literature, where a similar outcome was noted in one-to two-thirds of LAGFH cases (Meloy et al., 2004;Lankford, 2015b;Taylor, 2018). Our review showed substantially lower rates of suicide for the FFV cases though this was dependent on the type of FFV. ...
... Studies, supported by this review, have consistently found that most LAGFH offenders are male (Lankford, 2015b;Hamm and Spaaij, 2017;Liem et al., 2018;Capellan et al., 2019;Duwe, 2020;Kenyon et al., 2021). Similarly, most acts of homicides against family members are committed by males, though there is more gender discrepancy in parents who kill children (Daly and Wilson, 1988;Bourget et al., 2007;Liem and Koenraadt, 2008;Heide and Frei, 2010;Heide, 2013;Duwe, 2020). ...
Article
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Introduction The concept of lone actor grievance fuelled violence assumes that homicides that occur in very different contexts can be thought about in a consistent manner because they share common motivations and resultant emotional states like resentment, outrage or revenge. Fatal family violence has been largely excluded from discussions of lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide, based on the assumption that it is conceptually different. This scoping review examines similarities and discrepancies between the characteristics and motivations of perpetrators of fatal family violence and those who have engaged in lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide outside the family context, and the relevance of the concept of grievance-fuelled violence to fatal family violence. Methods This study reviewed published case studies and case series, resulting in a dataset of 102 homicide cases from 36 studies, of which there were 38 fatal family violence cases and 64 categorised as lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide. Results Twenty of the 38 fatal family violence cases were identified as being grievance-fuelled, based on the presence of motivations consistent with definitions in the grievance literature. Whilst there were some offence similarities between the fatal family violence cases (e.g., location of offence), those driven by grievance were more similar to lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide in other ways (e.g., offender’s gender and offence methods). In both these categories violence was predominantly motivated by grievance and a desire for revenge, whereas non-grievance fatal family violence cases were predominantly motivated by altruism. Discussion The motivations that defined behaviour as lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide were equally apparent in a sub-group of fatal family violence, implying that some family violence cases can be integrated into the construct of lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide in future research and theorising.
... Mass gun violence research has predominantly focused on schools (Kimmel & Mahler, 2003;Leary, Kowalski, Smith, & Phillips, 2003;Muschert 2007;Newman, Fox, Roth, Mehta, & Harding, 2004;Wike & Fraser, 2009), but other important locations include workplaces, religious institutions, government buildings, and "open-spaces" (e.g. malls, restaurants, clubs, bars, and events) (Capellan, 2015;Lankford, 2013Lankford, , 2015Lankford, , 2016Silva & Capellan, 2018). ...
... Finally, ideological shooters are motivated by extremist views including religious, political, racist, and single-issue ideologies (Osborne & Capellan, 2015). While definitions of mass murder have traditionally excluded terrorist-sponsored killings (Levin & Madfis, 2009), some scholars have suggested the inclusion of ideologically motivated lone-wolf terrorist shootings in mass gun violence data (Bowers, Holmes, & Rohm, 2010;Capellan, 2015;Duwe, 2004;Fox & Levin, 1998;Kelly, 2012;Lankford, 2015;Osborne & Capellan, 2015). Capellan (2015) finds that in all ideologically motivated active shooter incidents occurring in the US from 1970 to 2014, not one was executed under the direct command of a terrorist organization. ...
... The limited access to government documents, court records, and police reports should not discourage comprehensive data collections. Researchers building mass gun violence databases should begin by searching openly available databases from previous research (see for example Lankford, 2013Lankford, , 2015Lankford, , 2016, government reports (see Blair & Schweit, 2014;Kelly, 2012), and news outlets (see Follman, Aronsen, & Pan, 2017;Schaul, 2015). This provides a strong foundation for datasets and contributes to advancing the study of mass gun violence. ...
Chapter
The excessive media coverage of mass gun violence has contributed to the public perception of an epidemic. These senstionalized media accounts highlight statistics suggesting a dramatic rise of the phenomenon. This chapter provides an in-depth analysis and comparison of open-source datasets to identify methodological weaknesses and clarify the prevalence of the problem. Findings illustrate the definitional, temporal, and data collection issues impacting the accuracy of assessment. This deconstruction of research counters the perception of a substantial rise in mass gun violence and suggests rates will vary depending on the typological phenomenon being investigated. A discussion of findings illustrates the importance of continuing the examination of mass gun violence and provides comprehensive guidelines for future research assessing the frequency of the phenomenon.
... Previous research on mass murder commonly centres on the USA (e.g., Duwe 2004;Lankford 2015;Taylor 2018;Fox and Levin 2022;Fridel 2022). Specific types (Huff-Corzine and Corzine 2020) of mass murder such as school shootings, general public shootings, or familicide are typically examined (e.g., Kowalski et al. 2021;Larkin 2009;Leary et al. 2003;Liem and Reichelmann 2014). ...
... Research has examined the neurocognitive features of mass murderers (Fox et al. 2016), and studies have compared offenders who die following their attack and those who survive (Ilic and Frei 2019;Lankford 2015). The characteristics and proximate motives of various sub-types of mass murderer have also been outlined (Brucato et al. 2023;Capellan 2015;Gerard et al. 2016;Fridel 2022;Lankford and Hakim 2011;Lankford 2016a, b;Liem and Reichelmann 2014;Taylor 2018;Silva and Greene-Colozzi 2021). ...
Article
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This study uses latent class analysis to examine a global sample of mass murderers, identifying two distinct offender categories analyzed through an evolutionary lens. “Envy type” offenders were typically younger, characterized by a lack of reproductive success and signs of future reproductive challenges, often stemming from chronic rejection and ostracism. In contrast, “Jealous type” offenders were generally older, employed, frequently married, yet in the process of losing these social ties, often following a relationship breakdown. Male reproductive success is strongly linked to status, itself keyed to implications of formidability. This factor was associated with both types of offenders, who had both suffered status-based setbacks. We hypothesized that younger offenders would more often leave behind legacy tokens, and these would display an envious resentment at the world while also acting as an advertisement to a receptive female audience (hybristophiles). Our findings support this hypothesis: younger offenders were more likely to leave behind writings marked by narcissism, grandiosity, envy, and a desire for fame. In contrast, the writings of jealous type offenders focused on bureaucratic issues and blamed female partners, with little evidence of fame-seeking. The study concludes by discussing its limitations and future research directions, highlighting the value of further analyzing the writings left behind by mass murderers to gain deeper insights into their motivations and psychological profiles.
... This review focuses on the use of open-source data in criminology and criminal justice research, highlighting the field's advancements through these data, optimal practices for constructing opensource databases, and key methodological hurdles to address. Although open research strategies have been widely adopted across the social sciences (Aksulu & Wade 2010;Amaya et al. 2021;Askitas & Zimmermann 2009, 2015Bouchard et al. 2014;Raasch et al. 2013;Schober et al. 2016;Willinsky 2005), this article focuses on these issues in criminology and criminal justice research. ...
... For example, open-source research has been instrumental in increasing the rigor of terrorism studies , Gruenewald 2022, LaFree & Gill 2024. Scholars have also used open-source data to study disparate crimes ranging from cyber and hate offenses to domestic violence and school shootings, with many of these studies published in prestigious high-impact journals , LaFree et al. 2018, Lankford 2015. ...
Article
Full-text available
This review focuses on the use of open-source data in criminology and criminal justice research, highlighting the field's advancements through these data, optimal practices for constructing open-source databases, and key methodological hurdles to confront. As the amount and types of available public information have grown, scholars have capitalized on this access by constructing open-source databases. Our review found extraordinary growth in this research area and that these flexible methods have been used to study a range of important topics, including issues that have been historically challenging to research. These methods have been most impactful in the study of rare events, such as school shootings, terrorism, and mass shootings. Some studies have become core works that significantly impacted criminology and other scientific disciplines, and the limits of the use of sources have yet to be determined. Our review of this literature found variations in the methodological approach to constructing such databases. Many studies did not evaluate the credibility of the open-source information they relied upon and often were not transparent in describing their research process. We identify the different processual elements of systematically developing and using such data. We highlight the strengths and weaknesses of these methods, set forth best practices, and discuss how to improve methodological rigor and oversight in future research.
... Frame analysis is relevant to understanding mass shooting news coverage. In response to the seminal study of mass shooting data by Lankford (2015Lankford ( , 2016a, researchers have employed episodic and thematic frame analysis methods to gain a better understanding of how these tragedies are portrayed in news coverage. Such studies focus primarily on frames related to guns, mental health, or both (Kleck, 2009;McGinty et al., 2013;Lott and Moody, 2019). ...
... The term mass shooting was introduced into the United States' public discussion following the Texas sniper shooting of 1966 (Kelly, 2012;Lankford, 2015). Since then, scholars have debated the formal definition or classification of the phenomenon. ...
Article
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News frames play a vital role in shaping the audience's interpretation of the news, their participation in policy discussions, and their engagement in public discourse. This study uses the Analysis of Topic Model Networks (ANTMN) frame analysis grounded approach and examines the 2017 Sutherland Springs, Texas, mass shooting coverage in a house of worship by three U.S. cable television networks—CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC. News reports for the first seven days following the shooting were collected from the cable networks' Twitter, YouTube, and website accounts. A total of 290 news reports were analyzed and 760 aggregate units for frames were coded. The results demonstrate that ANTMN grounded approach is an effective method for frame analysis and support research about the news media's emphasis on victims, community, and individual frames in cases of mass shootings. They identify differences in the issue-based frame of gun vs. mental health debates. Additional new frames of empathy, interventions, reactions, and security were discovered. Results also show differences in frames used and their frequency between the digital platforms of Twitter, YouTube, and websites and cable organizations. These differences show each media network's ideological perspectives or competing news narratives. The findings raise relevant questions to news coverage, policy debates about mental health and gun violence, and cultural awareness of the problem of mass shootings and public safety as the world becomes more global.
... There are presumedly many differences between the behaviours of shooters who intend to commit suicide and those who want to stay alive. However, these differences are not very clear in school shootings (Lankford, 2015). Interestingly, both the Russian school shooters in our study attempted to commit 'murder-suicide' and demonstrated other brutal forms of auto-aggressive behaviours and excessive cruelty. ...
... However, researchers lack a fundamental understanding of how risk factors contribute to school shootings given their random and unpredictable nature. Before 2019, only three studies had provided large-scale comparative analyses of mass shootings in the US and other countries (Lankford, 2015;Lankford, 2016;Lemieux, 2014). ...
Article
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Background: The Cumulative Strain Theory (CST) is a multi-stage explanatory model which is used to analyse students' involvement in mass shootings at schools across the world. School shootings were once considered a uniquely American phenomenon. However, over the last decade, the incidence of these violent attacks has spiked around the globe. In particular, recent reports from Russia have demonstrated a worrying increase in the number of school shootings despite efforts to implement policies to prevent them. Aim: The aims of this report are (1) to discuss the genesis of school mass murders in the context of cumulative strain theory, and (2) to analyse the scope of the problem in the US versus Russia. Methods: We used the five-stage cumulative strain theory to analyse the factors contributing to school shootings using two case studies from each country. We gathered information and evidence from a variety of sources including interview transcripts, statistical data, journal articles, reviews, and other secondary sources published in Russian and English. Results: Our analysis revealed some common features among the school shooters in Russia and the US, such as the self-perception of superiority, vindictiveness and a lack of social support, including challenging relationships with parents and peers. However, the American shooters displayed a readiness for encounters with and possible firearm use against law enforcement officers during the mass murders. We further found that auto-aggressive behaviours were prevalent in the attacks that occurred-in Russia in particular. Unlike those from the US, the reports from Russia pointed towards an association between cumulative economic hardships and various behavioural outcomes ranging from poor psychological health to severe behavioural outbursts and violent behaviours. Conclusion: We believe that the cult of weapons and militarism increase the risk of school shootings in both countries. Neither a single stage of CST nor all five stages together can predict or confirm the association with mass shootings.
... This work supports previous research finding incidents with high rates of victim casualties are more likely to resolve in the offender's death (Blau, Gorry, and Wade 2016;Lankford 2015). These offenders may be more willing, expecting, and potentially hoping to die (Peterson and Densley 2019), and as such, they may not stop the attack until police intervene. ...
... This is consistent with previous completed (Yelderman et al. 2019), completed + some attempted (Greene-Colozzi and Silva 2020; Silva and Greene-Colozzi 2021b), and completed + attempted + failed (Blair, Sandel, and Martaindale 2020) research measuring casualties as continuous variables. Multiple guns have also been linked to higher rates of offender gun proficiency and incident planning, which may explain these shooters' ability to reach the completed outcome threshold (Lankford 2015;Peterson and Densley 2019;Silva and Greene-Colozzi 2021a). Importantly, the link between multiple guns and planning also offers insight into the link between completed and foiled outcomes having multiple guns, given foiled offenders are inherently caught during the planning of their attack. ...
Article
This study examines completed, attempted, failed, and foiled mass shooting outcomes in the United States (2000-2019). Comparative analyses of these four outcomes determine differences in the offender, motive, gun, target, and resolution. Findings indicate predictors of completed outcomes included open-space targets and offender death. Attempted outcome predictors included older offenders, victim-specific motives, and workplace targets. Failed outcomes were more likely than completed and attempted outcomes to involve school targets, although still less likely than foiled outcomes. Foiled outcome predictors included younger white co-offenders, fame and ideological motives, multiple guns, and school and religious targets. A discussion of findings provides implications for justice officials and scholars seeking potential procedures for mass shooting harm mitigation and prevention.
... The notion that firearm policies can and do affect interpersonal gun violence outcomes is also supported by research which suggests that firearm accessibility has a significant impact on one's likelihood of death by firearm [10], and previous analyses have demonstrated an association between stronger regulations and fewer firearm deaths [11]. There is also ample evidence suggesting that firearm regulations significantly impact firearm suicide rates [12][13][14], as well as that suicidal intent is present in a significant number of perpetrators of certain categories of mass firearm violence [15][16][17][18], further supporting the importance of firearm regulations to mass murder involving firearms. ...
Article
Understanding the relationship between firearm regulations and the lethality of mass murder involving firearms has implications for prevention efforts. We examined 625 incidents of mass murder involving firearms that occurred in the United States between 1900 and 2023. The stringency of regulatory practices was based on the 2010 rankings provided by the Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. We identified a significant difference in fatalities when examining events in which firearms with only semi‐/fully automatic, only non‐automatic, or both firing methods were used ( p = 0.019), primarily driven by high‐fatality rates associated with events in which both types of weapons were used. In high‐regulation states, there were significantly fewer events per capita ( M = 0.070, SD = 0.044) relative to low‐regulation states ( M = 0.118, SD = 0.059, p = 0.002). Most events involved firearms that were exclusively acquired legally (64%). The legal status of firearms used in mass murders was significantly associated with fatalities. This was found to be driven primarily by fatalities associated with events in which all firearms were legally acquired being higher than those associated with events in which at least one firearm was illegally acquired. Per capita event and fatality rates of mass murder involving firearms were significantly higher after the Federal Assault Weapons Ban expired. These data support a relationship between firearm regulation and the incidence of mass murder involving firearms, perhaps implying that effective prevention can at least partially be a top‐down process.
... The overlap between suicide and homicide is most evident when perpetrators die by suicide immediately after their crimes (Nock 2014). Although this phenomenon is relatively rare in the general population of murderers in the United States, where only 4% die by suicide during their crime (Eliason 2009;Lankford 2015), it is more prevalent among mass shooters (Lankford, Silver, and Cox 2021). In a comprehensive analysis of 200 mass shooters over nearly six decades, Peterson and Densley (2021) found that a third had prior suicidal tendencies, 40% died by suicide during their act, and about 20% instigated their deaths at the hands of law enforcement. ...
Article
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This study explores the intersection of suicidality and homicidality through psychosocial life-history interviews with 18 people convicted of murder or manslaughter incarcerated in Minnesota. During in-depth qualitative life- history interviews about their childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, the participants revealed significant adverse childhood experiences and mental health issues. A majority of them were on the suicide spectrum before committing homicide. Hopelessness and previous suicide attempts were prevalent, highlighting the complex interplay between suicidality and violent behavior. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive mental health support and early interventions to address ACEs, suggesting that integrated care could mitigate the risk factors for both suicide and homicide. This study contributes to understanding the nuanced relationship between these behaviors among perpetrators of homicide and emphasizes the importance of holistic approaches in prevention and policymaking.
... Research on mass murder and the subtype of mass shootings has yielded a number of key trends. Suicide is commonly observed among perpetrators of mass murder [3,7], with approximately one-third to one-half taking their own lives during the event [2,[8][9][10]. Firearms are the most commonly used method, being used in approximately two-thirds of events [2]. ...
Article
Most research on mass murderers to date has focused on perpetrators of male sex, while research on perpetrators of female sex has been relegated to case reports and series. We aimed to more fully examine the phenomenon of female-perpetrated mass murder. We analyzed 1715 worldwide incidents of personal-cause mass murder from 1900 to 2019, identifying 105 (6%) events perpetrated by females. We defined mass murder as any event involving at least three fatalities, not including the perpetrator, using any method. We identified cases of mass murder from English-language databases of mass murder or murder in print or online. There were no significant differences in age and race between female and male perpetrators. Relative to males, female perpetrators were significantly less likely to employ firearms in their mass murders, using them in less than half of cases, compared to over 70% for males. The prevalence of psychotic signs and symptoms among female mass murderers was more than double that among males (25.7% vs. 12.5%, p < 0.01), while the rate of nonpsychotic psychiatric or neurological conditions was also much greater among female perpetrators (29.5% vs. 17.1%, p < 0.01). Over half of female perpetrators took or attempted to take their own lives. More than three-quarters of mass murders by females involved at least one family member as a victim. This study underscores sex-specific differences in the perpetration of mass murder and the need for further research to understand how insights about such dynamics might lead to the development of more effective and informed intervention policies.
... The link between suicide and mass shootings has been reported previously (Lankford, 2014(Lankford, , 2015(Lankford, , 2016(Lankford, , 2018Lankford et al., 2021) and may be considered in the context of links between suicidal behavior and aggression. Research on homicide-suicide events has found that a life stressor is a common antecedent event (Chan, 2007;Flynn et al., 2016;Theodorou et al., 2024), and that psychiatric conditions, especially depression (Chan, 2007;Flynn et al., 2016), as well as past suicide attempts or self-harm (Chan, 2007;Flynn et al., 2016;Theodorou et al., 2024), and previous violence (Flynn et al., 2016;Theodorou et al., 2024), are relatively common. ...
Article
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Objective: The rate of worldwide mass shootings increased almost 400% over the last 40 years. About 30% are followed by the perpetrator's fatal or nonfatal suicide attempt. Method: We examined the rate of fatal and nonfatal attempts among 528 mass shooters over the last 40 years and their relationship to detected mental illness to better understand this specific context of suicide. We collected information on U.S.-based, personal-cause mass murders that involved one or more firearms, from online sources. Results: A greater proportion of mass shooters from 2000 to 2019 took or attempted to take their own lives (40.5%) compared with those from 1980 to 1999 (23.2%, p < 0.001). More than double the proportion of perpetrators who made a fatal or nonfatal suicide attempt had a history of non-psychotic psychiatric/neurologic symptoms (38.9%), compared with perpetrators who did not make a fatal or nonfatal suicide attempt (18.1%; p < 0.001). Among mass shooters who made fatal or nonfatal suicide attempts, 77 of 175 (44%) did not have any recorded psychiatric, neurologic, or substance use condition. Of the 98 mass shooters who made fatal or non-fatal suicide attempts and had a psychiatric, substance use, or neurologic condition, 41 had depressive disorders. Conclusion: It is possible that a lack of information about the perpetrators' mental health or suicidal ideation led to an underestimation of their prevalence. These data suggest that suicide associated with mass shootings may represent a specific context for suicide, and approaches such as psychological autopsy can help to ascertain when psychiatric illness mediates the relationship between mass shootings and suicide.
... To date, several typologies pertaining to offenders who murder more than one victim exist encompassing serial, mass, spree, and sexual homicide prototypes (see, Adjorlolo & Chan, 2014;Beauregard & Martineau, 2016;Chan, 2019;Duwe, 2004;Fox & Levin, 1998;Lankford, 2015;Reid, 2017;Silva, 2022). 1 In broad terms, the Federal Bureau of Investigation defines serial murderers are those who perpetrate two or more homicides in separate events (Morton, 2008). Murders are interrupted by periods of latency or "cooling-off," followed by subsequent murder perpetration. ...
Article
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The nosology for criminals who murder multiple victims is at once well‐established and controversial, perhaps because theorists have largely segregated such offenders from the broader criminal population. The current study introduces the superhomicide offender, an individual convicted of at least five murders, to locate multiple homicide offenders within the criminological and epidemiological science pertaining to the most pathological offenders, and statistically place them with other conceptualizations of severe offenders at the 95th percentile of the offending distribution. Relative to other capital murderers, superhomicide offenders have lengthier criminal history, greater conviction history, and coextensive psychopathology characterized by psychopathy, sexual sadism, homicidal ideation, cluster A and B personality disorders, and major depressive disorder. Superhomicide offenders are profoundly psychopathic with 20 of the 39 offenders reaching the clinical threshold of 30 or more on the PCL‐R, and 19 of the 39 are sexually sadistic. Regarding extant typologies of sexual and multiple homicide offenders, 15 are serial murderers, 17 are sexual homicide offenders, 17 are mass murderers, and 17 are spree murderers. Twenty‐four of the 39 superhomicide offenders (61.5%) met criteria for multiple typologies, suggesting the new prototype can help unify the study of those who perpetrate multicide and embed them within criminological and epidemiological models that specify pathological antisocial outcomes.
... In the United States, a mere 4% of murderers die by suicide during their crimes (Eliason 2009, Lankford 2015). Yet, this statistic is considerably higher for mass shooters . ...
Article
This in-depth review delves into the multifaceted realm of mass shootings and explores their epidemiology from a psychological perspective. The article presents a comprehensive examination of the prevalence, perpetrator and victim profiles, motives, and contributing factors associated with mass shootings. By investigating the intricate relationship between masculinity, domestic violence, military service, social media, fame-seeking, suicidal ideation, mental illness, and firearms, this article sheds light on the multifaceted nature of mass shootings. Moreover, it discusses the importance of implementing effective prevention strategies to address this growing public health concern. The findings from this review serve as a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, policy makers, and the community at large, facilitating a deeper understanding of mass shootings and fostering the development of evidence-based solutions to prevent these tragic incidents. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Volume 20 is May 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... Given their statistical rarity, mass shootings present a low base rate of events that makes it difficult (if not impossible) to predict where such events will occur and who will perpetrate them (Rocque 2012). Perpetrators do share certain commonalities including histories of DV (Geller, Booty, and Crifasi 2021;Zeoli and Paruk 2020), suicidality (Lankford 2015(Lankford , 2018, far-right or jihadi ideologies (Byman 2019;Dickey 2016;Lewis 2019), and other precipitative factors such as job loss, relationship problems, or other adverse childhood experiences (Dowdell et al. 2022;Fowler et al. 2021;Kowalski et al. 2021). Many mass shooting perpetrators also struggle with mental health issues (Metzl, Piemonte, and McKay 2021), though individuals living with mental illness are more likely to be the victims rather than the perpetrators of violence (Choe, Teplin, and Abram 2008;Swanson et al. 2015). ...
Article
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Mass shootings in the U.S. elicit strong reactions and often are followed by demands for preventive or ameliorative policy action. Often, however, little change is made to policy, and the cycle of tragedy and passionate discourse is left to start anew. We assess the efficacy of a range of specific policies that may help to prevent mass shootings or mitigate their harms: we review empirical evidence on their effectiveness and consider arguments that both proponents and opponents of these policies bring to bear on the public discourse. We conclude that extant evidence and policy ideas that are on the table now can, in fact, point to a productive way forward: we argue for a proactive, layered approach to policy implementation that minimizes risks and impacts and capitalizes on effective interventions that enjoy broad public support.
... Public mass shooters seek out random and targeted victims (Fox & Levin, 2022), but should their attacks result in a non-completed fatality outcome, it becomes difficult to assess the intent of the attack. Suicide is a common comorbidity with public mass shooting attacks (Lankford, 2015;Newman et al., 2004;Peterson & Densley, 2019), and in the absence of expressed intent, suicide notes, or legacy tokens, the motive and intention of a suicidal attack can be frustratingly abstruse to law enforcement and researchers. Nonetheless, we believe the benefits outweigh the costs, and we propose considerations when curating data collection, as well as strategies for addressing these potential limitations. ...
Article
In this commentary, we propose a unifying public mass shooting definition that captures the generally conceptualized phenomenon but also expands the inclusion to all incidents regardless of casualty count. We suggest that public mass shootings be broken down into four outcome categories – completed, attempted, failed, and foiled – which have unique incident outcomes but share a common thread of mass intent. We argue for the importance of a no-minimum casualty count definition (thus including zero casualties) that emphasizes mass intent rather than the completion of the shooting. We highlight the value of and rationale for this definition by discussing the limitations of current victim criteria, and we conclude with a proposed strategy that emphasizes objective indicators of mass intent.
... Public mass shooters seek out random and targeted victims (Fox & Levin, 2022), but should their attacks result in a non-completed fatality outcome, it becomes difficult to assess the intent of the attack. Suicide is a common comorbidity with public mass shooting attacks (Lankford, 2015;Newman et al., 2004;Peterson & Densley, 2019), and in the absence of expressed intent, suicide notes, or legacy tokens, the motive and intention of a suicidal attack can be frustratingly abstruse to law enforcement and researchers. Nonetheless, we believe the benefits outweigh the costs, and we propose considerations when curating data collection, as well as strategies for addressing these potential limitations. ...
Article
In this commentary, we propose a unifying public mass shooting definition that captures the generally conceptualized phenomenon but also expands the inclusion to all incidents regardless of casualty count. We suggest that public mass shootings be broken down into four outcome categories – completed, attempted, failed, and foiled – which have unique incident outcomes but share a common thread of mass intent. We argue for the importance of a no-minimum casualty count definition (thus including zero casualties) that emphasizes mass intent rather than the completion of the shooting. We highlight the value of and rationale for this definition by discussing the limitations of current victim criteria, and we conclude with a proposed strategy that emphasizes objective indicators of mass intent.
... 15 On the other hand, perpetrators of mass shootings are often actively suicidal prior to their attack, and many take their own lives-or provoke law enforcement to do so, known as suicide by cop-during them. 16 Warning signs often are different when an attacker has suicidal motives vs a desire for attention or fame. 17 Publicly leaking plans may function as a cry for help when perpetrators become increasingly suicidal and hopeless. ...
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Importance Understanding the motivation of a mass shooter’s intent to do harm can help practitioners and policy makers develop more effective intervention strategies. Objective To examine the prevalence of communication of intent to do harm, known as leakage, in a sample of 170 mass public shooters from 1966 to 2019; the characteristics of perpetrators who do and do not leak their plans; and whether leakage is a form of fame-seeking behavior or a cry for help among individuals who are in crisis or suicidal. Design, Setting, and Participants This cross-sectional study included perpetrators who killed 4 or more people in a public space from 1996 to 2019 and were included in a comprehensive database of US mass shootings. That database was built from August 2017 to December 2019, and analysis took place from January to May 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures Leakage was identified and coded using publicly available records. Any communication to a third party of an intent to do harm prior to the shooting was coded as leakage. Logistic regression models were used to examine the risk factors associated with leakage. Models estimating leakage were examined to assess the 2 hypothesized pathways to leakage (the cry-for-help model and the fame-seeking model). Results The 170 participants in this sample included 166 (97.7%) male perpetrators and 3 (2.3%) female perpetrators, with a mean (SD) age of 34 (12) years. Overall, 161 participants had known race and ethnicity: 11 (6.8%) Asian individuals, 35 (21.7%) Black individuals, 14 (8.7%) Latinx individuals, 7 (4.4%) Middle Eastern individuals, 3 (1.9%) Native American individuals, 89 (55.3%) White individuals, and 2 (1.2%) individuals with other race and ethnicity. Overall, 79 mass shooters (46.5%) leaked their plans. Of perpetrators who leaked their plans, 35 (44.3%) leaked specific plans about a mass shooting, and 44 (55.1%) leaked nonspecific plans about generalized violence. The study findings indicate that leakage was associated with receiving counseling (odds ratio, 7.0; 95% CI, 2.0-24.8) and suicidality (odds ratio, 3.7; 95% CI, 1.0-13.6), suggesting that leakage may best be characterized as a cry for help from perpetrators prior to their act. Conclusions and Relevance In this study, nearly half of the perpetrators of mass shootings leaked their plans. Leakage was associated with receiving counseling and suicidality. Leakage is a critical moment for mental health intervention to prevent gun violence. Opportunities to report threats of violence need to be increased. Traditional threat assessment models focused on specific threats of violence may miss critical opportunities for intervention.
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Recent work by Allison and Klein examining violence and homicide introduced the concept of strained masculinity, a theoretical integration of general strain theory and hegemonic masculinity. Using qualitative data collection ( n = 63), the current study considers strained masculinity themes in the context of mass shootings and the gender gap. Findings demonstrated support for the prevalence of Allison and Klein’s themes in mass shootings. The men who committed mass shootings in our sample responded to challenges to their masculinity (62%), pursued hegemonic masculinity through “sport” (33%), and pursued hegemonic masculinity through controlling space (27%). In addition, qualitative analysis revealed overlaps in strained masculinity themes for mass shooting cases, demonstrating the complexity of this type of violence. There were six outlier cases identified that did not display strained masculinity, rather the perpetrators in these cases suffered from psychological or emotional troubles before opening fire. Overall, findings indicate that the integration of traditional criminology theories and gender theories is warranted.
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This study examines the reality and news media coverage of all mass shootings in the United States from 1966 to 2016. It employs agenda-setting and framing theoretical frameworks to determine the social construction of mass shootings via the mass media. The project uses open-source data to create a comprehensive list of mass shooting incidents. It then identifies all published New York Times articles on each incident. The study summarizes both the reality of the social problem (i.e. incidents) and the news mediated reality (i.e. New York Times). Next, this dissertation conducts a media distortion analysis to determine the perpetrator, motivation, and incident characteristics influencing media selection, prominence, and framing. The purpose is to illustrate the media’s social construction of mass shootings that in turn shapes public perceptions, political discourse, and public policies. The study concludes by highlighting the findings and implications for scholars, practitioners, policy-makers, media outlets, and the general public.
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We present outcomes from a field test of a student-centered and technology-driven school safety framework. We describe the framework components rooted in school violence prevention. Results from our field test indicate moderate student and teacher use of the framework components, improvements in student perceptions of school safety, reductions in student reported peer victimization, and reductions in teacher and parent reported inappropriate student behavior. Consumer satisfaction rating were adequate. We present recommendations for implementing a school safety framework emphasizing student voice.
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In the decade since the publication of the first edition of The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology, the field has expanded into areas such as social work and education, while maintaining the interest of criminal justice researchers and policy makers. This new edition provides cutting-edge and comprehensive coverage of the key theoretical perspectives, assessment methods, and interventions in forensic psychology. The chapters address substantive topics such as acquisitive crime, domestic violence, mass murder, and sexual violence, while also exploring emerging areas of research such as the expansion of cybercrime, particularly child sexual exploitation, as well as aspects of terrorism and radicalisation. Reflecting the global reach of forensic psychology and its wide range of perspectives, the international team of contributors emphasise diversity and cross-reference between adults, adolescents, and children to deliver a contemporary picture of the discipline.
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In this paper we examine variations in police arrest practices. Data collected in 1977 from police encounters with suspects indicate that arrest practices reflect legal and extra-legal factors. The decision to take a suspect into custody is influenced by such features of the situation as the dispositional preferences of victims, the race and demeanor of the suspect, and the presence of bystanders. Furthermore, the seriousness of the offense increases the chances of arrest. Contrary to much existing literature, males and females are equally likely to be arrested. The relevance of these findings to theoretical models of police behavior is discussed and the implications of our analysis for studies of criminal processing in general are considered.
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Research carried out by the author on suicide in mass murderers and serial killers is reviewed. The incidence of suicide in rampage murderers (34.7%) is much higher than in serial killers (4.4%). Whereas all of the suicides in mass murderers occurred during attempts to arrest them, 52% of the suicides in the serial killersoccurred after arrest. Case studies are presented, and suggestions made for future research.
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This paper shows that suicides increase immediately after a suicide story has been publicized in the newspapers in Britain and in the United States, 1947-1968. The more publicity devoted to a suicide story, the larger the rise in suicides thereafter. The rise in suicides after a story is restricted mainly to the area in which the story was publicized. Alternative explanations of these findings are examined; the evidence indicates that the rise in suicides is due to the influence of suggestion on suicide, an influence not previously demonstrated on the national level of suicides. The substantive, theoretical, and methodological implications of these findings are examined.
Article
The study reexamines Phillips's findings regarding the linkage between the appearance of news stories on prominent suicides and the subsequent monthly rise of national suicides-the Werther effect. Extending Phillips's original data set to 1977, and employing the quasi-experimental method, it is found that stories on prominent suicides are likely to trigger a subsequent rise in national suicides. However, this rise may be related to the linkage of suicide with the business cycle, and the fact that more prominent suicides may occur in years when there is a downturn in the economy. This study analyzes suicide rate data with a multivariate time-series model and controls for seasonal effects, the average duration of unemployment and war. No significant linkage is found between the national suicide rate and stories on prominent suicides on the front page of the New York Times. Employing Boorstin's definition of celebrities, the prominent suicides on the front page of the New York Times between 1947 and 1977 are differentiated as celebrity and noncelebrity suicides. Examining only celebrity suicides, it is found that a significant rise in the national suicide rate occurs in the month after a celebrity commits suicide. Suicidal imitation by the public is more selective than originally hypothesized by Phillips.
Article
School shootings have become more common in the United States in recent years. Yet, as media portrayals of these ‘rampages’ shock the public, the characterisation of this violence obscures an important point: many of these crimes culminate in suicide, and they are almost universally committed by males. We examine three recent American cases, which involve suicide, to elucidate how the culture of hegemonic masculinity in the US creates a sense of aggrieved entitlement conducive to violence. This sense of entitlement simultaneously frames suicide as an appropriate, instrumental behaviour for these males to underscore their violent enactment of masculinity.
Article
Mass shootings at a Connecticut elementary school, a Colorado movie theater, and other venues have prompted a fair number of proposals for change. Advocates for tighter gun restrictions, for expanding mental health services, for upgrading security in public places, and, even, for controlling violent entertainment have made certain assumptions about the nature of mass murder that are not necessarily valid. This article examines a variety of myths and misconceptions about multiple homicide and mass shooters, pointing out some of the difficult realities in trying to avert these murderous rampages. While many of the policy proposals are worthwhile in general, their prospects for reducing the risk of mass murder are limited.
Article
Background Public health and clinical efforts to prevent suicide clusters are seriously hampered by the unanswered question of why such outbreaks occur. We aimed to establish whether an environmental factor—newspaper reports of suicide—has a role in the emergence of suicide clusters. Methods In this retrospective, population-based, case-control study, we identified suicide clusters in young people aged 13–20 years in the USA from 1988 to 1996 (preceding the advent of social media) using the time–space Scan statistic. For each cluster community, we selected two matched non-cluster control communities in which suicides of similarly aged youth occurred, from non-contiguous counties within the same state as the cluster. We examined newspapers within each cluster community for stories about suicide published in the days between the first and second suicides in the cluster. In non-cluster communities, we examined a matched length of time after the matched control suicide. We used a content-analysis procedure to code the characteristics of each story and compared newspaper stories about suicide published in case and control communities with mixed-effect regression analyses. Findings We identified 53 suicide clusters, of which 48 were included in the media review. For one cluster we could identify only one appropriate control; therefore, 95 matched control communities were included. The mean number of news stories about suicidal individuals published after an index cluster suicide (7·42 [SD 10·02]) was significantly greater than the mean number of suicide stories published after a non-cluster suicide (5·14 [6.00]; p<0·0001). Several story characteristics, including front-page placement, headlines containing the word suicide or a description of the method used, and detailed descriptions of the suicidal individual and act, appeared more often in stories published after the index cluster suicides than after non-cluster suicides. Interpretation Our identification of an association between newspaper reports about suicide (including specific story characteristics) and the initiation of teenage suicide clusters should provide an empirical basis to support efforts by mental health professionals, community officials, and the media to work together to identify and prevent the onset of suicide clusters. Funding US National Institute of Mental Health and American Foundation for Suicide Prevention.
Article
Currently there is growing professional concern in education about ‘boys’ schooling underachievement'. At the same time, popular representations are emerging in the media that position boys as the new victims of institutional gender discrimination. Implicit in these accounts is the notion of fixed gender categories for girls and boys that are in the process of changing. In contrast, recent feminist research on schooling has shown the limits of earlier sex role models of socialisation, that operated with fixed gender images of male and female pupils. It is suggested in this paper that there is a need to draw upon this literature, in order to develop a more sophisticated framework of male identity formation at a school level. The emerging thesis of ‘boys’ underachievement’ needs to be located within this framework, that suggests that schools make available a range of femininities and masculinities that young people come to occupy. This paper focuses upon an exploration of the cultural production of white working-class male students. More specifically there is a critical examination of a crisis masculinity experienced by specific sectors of young working class men, who are low academic achievers and have little prospect of future work. Of particular concern here is that new models of school masculinity are being constructed at a time of retreat from social class analysis in critical accounts of schooling.
Article
Even though previous research has not examined mass murder prior to 1965, scholars have asserted that the mid-1960s marked the onset of an unprecedented and ever-growing mass murder wave. Using news accounts and the FBI's Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR) as sources of data, this study analyzes 909 mass killings that took place between 1900 and 1999. Although the mid-1960s marked the beginning of a mass murder wave, it was not unprecedented, because mass killings were nearly as common during the 1920s and 1930s. The results also show that familicides, the modal mass murder over the last several decades, were even more prevalent before the 1970s. Moreover, mass killers were older, more suicidal, and less likely to use guns in the first two-thirds of the 20th century. Although some have claimed that workplace massacres represent a new “strain” in mass murder, the findings suggest that the only new type of mass killing that emerged during the 20th century was the drug-related massacre.
Article
In discussing the problem of mass murder, an ever increasing expression of violence in society, the typology of the perpetrators of such crimes is presented. Illustrations of some of the most notorious killers are provided and the unique case of a mass murderer who left, as a suicide “note,” a videotaped soliloquy is presented. The dynamics of mass murder and of mass murder-suicide are discussed; the killings are viewed as the outcome of deep frustration and perceived rejection in a highly narcissistic person, wounded in his ego, hostile towards society, and in search of identity and notoriety through a cathartic self assertion. Similarities are shown between the mass murderer and the mythological Norse “berserk” and it is speculated that the superman complex may be at the core of the killer's behavior. It is contended that the personal psychopathology of the killer is determinant of the destructive behavior, although social factors are highly contributory.
Article
For years, scholars have claimed that suicide terrorists are not suicidal, but rather psychologically normal individuals inspired to sacrifice their lives for an ideological cause, due to a range of social and situational factors. I agree that suicide terrorists are shaped by their contexts, as we all are. However, I argue that these scholars went too far. In The Myth of Martyrdom: What Really Drives Suicide Bombers, Rampage Shooters, and Other Self-Destructive Killers, I take the opposing view, based on my in-depth analyses of suicide attackers from Asia, Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and North America; attackers who were male, female, young, old, Islamic, and Christian; attackers who carried out the most deadly and the least deadly strikes. I present evidence that in terms of their behavior and psychology, suicide terrorists are much like others who commit conventional suicides, murder-suicides, or unconventional suicides where mental health problems, personal crises, coercion, fear of an approaching enemy, or hidden self-destructive urges play a major role. I also identify critical differences between suicide terrorists and those who have genuinely sacrificed their lives for a greater good. By better understanding suicide terrorists, experts in the brain and behavioral sciences may be able to pioneer exciting new breakthroughs in security countermeasures and suicide prevention. And even more ambitiously, by examining these profound extremes of the human condition, perhaps we can more accurately grasp the power of the human survival instinct among those who are actually psychologically healthy.
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This study presents results from the first combined quantitative assessment and comparative analysis of suicide terrorists and rampage, workplace, and school shooters who attempt suicide. Findings suggest that in the United States from 1990 to 2010, the differences between these offenders (N = 81) were largely superficial. Prior to their attacks, they struggled with many of the same personal problems, including social marginalization, family problems, work or school problems, and precipitating crisis events. Ultimately, patterns among all four types of offenders can assist those developing security policy, conducting threat assessments, and attempting to intervene in the lives of at-risk individuals.
Article
Although the so-called “dark figure” crime measurement problem has never been a major concern for homicide researchers, the Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR) as well as other local data series on murder still are plagued by other kinds of missing data issues. Most prominent is missingness in data pertaining to offender characteristics as well as to victim-offender relationship that results from uncleared cases. Ignoring unsolved homicides would, of course, seriously understate calculated rates of offending by particular subgroups of the population, would distort trends over time among these same subgroups, and would bias observed patterns of offending to the extent that the likelihood of missing offender data is associated with offender characteristics. This article presents several approaches for overcoming missing data problems in the 1976-2001 cumulative SHRdata file. First, a weighting procedure is described that uses characteristics of known offenders to serve as proxies for those of unidentified perpetrators. The weighting procedure included in the SHR file archived at ICPSR as well as an enhanced version are both presented and compared. Next, a “hot-deck” imputation strategy is applied to fill in missing offender attributes based on similar cases for which the offender is known. Finally, the matter of imputing victim-offender relationship data is discussed. Because this form of missingness cannot be assumed to occur at random, an ad-hoc procedure for estimating the number of intimate homicides among the pool of unsolved slayings is presented.
Article
Much attention has been devoted in the past several years to public incidents of mass murder. Events such as the shooting on a Long Island commuter train in 1993, the massacre in Luby's Cafeteria in Killeen, Texas, in 1991, or the seemingly numerous workplace homicides have received intensive media coverage and public interest. As a consequence, a stereotype of mass murder has emerged that may or may not be very accurate. This study examines incidents of mass murder that occurred in public settings in the United States between 1965 and 1995 to more closely scrutinize both the events and the offenders involved.
Article
Mass murder—the sudden, explosive killing of a group of people—when committed by adults often is followed by the offender committing suicide. Recently in the United States, frequent cases of mass murder are reported as committed by adolescents. However, among juvenile mass murderers, there are no reported suicides (or attempts) by the offenders. This article provides a typology of mass murderers and offers a dynamic interpretation of the development of conscience and moral decisional capacity in adult and juvenile offenders. Preventive measures are explored along with methodological techniques that may distinguish between adult and juvenile mass murderers in their propensity to commit suicide after the events.
Article
The authors examine rampage shootings in American high schools after 2002 and consider whether factors identified in their prior research on rampages from 1974 to 2002 account for the more recent cases. The authors find that the five factors—social marginality, individual predisposing factors, cultural scripts, failure of the surveillance system, and availability of guns—remain important features. The authors then contrast these high school shootings with the recent spate of college rampage shootings that resemble the high school cases in some ways but differ in others. College shooters are older and therefore typically further along in the development of serious mental illness.
Article
Since the American Bar Foundation Survey of the Administration of Criminal Justice (1953-69) "discovered" the phenomenon of discretion in criminal justice, it has become something of a truism that the administration of criminal justice in the United States consists of a series of discretionary decisions by officials in regard to police discretion, bail, plea bargaining, and sentencing. This book is a history of the attempts over the past forty years to control these discretionary powers in the criminal justice system. In a field which largely produces short-ranged "evaluation research", this study, in taking a wider approach, distinguishes between the role of the courts and the role of administrative bodies (the police) and evaluates the longer-term trends and the successful reforms in criminal justice history. It focuses on four critical decision points in the criminal justice system: police discretion, bail setting, plea bargaining, and sentencing. It examines the various reforms that have been proposed, the major ones implemented, and the impact of those reforms.
Article
Systematic study of the decision-making process at each critical stage of the criminal justice system has been limited. Specifically, little attention has been given to the decision-making of police on whether or not to process juveniles into and through the system. Even more remarkable is the lack of research on the types of information police use to arrive at their decisions. One device available for studying information handling in decision-making is the information or decision board developed by Leslie Wilkins. The technique simulates, as closely as possible, the real-life use of information and allows for rigorous experi mental conditions. By use of this technique, the decision- making of twenty-four policemen was studied—specifically, the amount and types of information each used to make a decision about a juvenile charged with drunk and disorderly conduct. The results show that police use more information to make a decision than is popularly believed. On the average, five pieces of information were selected before a decision was reached. The data also indicate that younger officers (less than five years on the job) tend to use nearly twice as much information as their more experienced counterparts (five or more years on the job) and that these two groups of officers do not always reach the same final decisions. Twenty-three of the twenty-four officers selected offense first, but the most critical topic for reaching a final decision was attitude of offender. Eighteen of the twenty-four officers made a decision when this piece of information was selected. Surprising ly, the piece of information race had little significance in the decision-making process. This study shows that the information board can be used effectively to examine the decision-making of police in their processing of juveniles. The data suggest that future studies may be able to identify types of decision-makers among police by examining their information-search profiles.
Article
Homicides committed against supervisors and coworkers by disgruntled employees have grown at a disturbing rate in the American workplace. Increasingly, embittered employees and ex-employees are seeking revenge through violence and murder for alleged mistreatment on the job. This article examines patterns and trends in available data and presents a theoretical profile of those who kill at the work site. It suggests that the typical homicide of employers and coworkers is committed by a disgruntled, white, middle-aged male who faces termination or who has recently been fired. Recommendations are advanced for how employers might better respond to problem employees and to homicidal threats at the workplace. These include prevention strategies, such as giving higher priority to the role of human resources, affording employees due process protection against unfair terminations, and changing the importance attached to the meaning of work in people's lives.
Article
Over the past twenty years, claimsmakers have asserted that the mid-1960s marked the beginning of an unprecedented and ever-growing mass murder wave in the United States. Recent research has shown, however, that mass murder was just as common during the 1920s and 30s as it has been since the mid-1960s. Using the FBI's Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR) and newspaper, network television news, and newsweekly magazine coverage as sources of data, this study examines why and how mass murder was constructed as a new crime problem. I suggest that the news media have figured prominently in the social construction of mass murder by heavily influencing which cases claimsmakers have selected as landmark narratives and, more generally, as typifying examples. Because claimsmakers have relied almost exclusively on national news coverage as a source of data, they have made a number of questionable claims about the prevalence and nature of mass murder since the high-profile cases represent the most sensational and least representative mass killings. And the news media have completed the circle of distortion by disseminating the bulk of the claims that have been made, leading to policies that have targeted the rarest aspects about mass murder. But not all of the solutions offered by claimsmakers have been accepted by policymakers. As a result, this study also looks at why claimsmakers tasted only modest success in constructing mass murder.
Article
Previous research comparing rampage shooters in the U.S. and volunteer suicide bombers in the Middle East appears to be virtually non-existent. When these two types of suicidal killers have been mentioned in the same context, it has primarily been to dismiss any possible connections. Rampage shooters are generally assumed to be mentally unbalanced, while suicide bombers are seen as extreme, but rational, political actors. However, this review explores the possibility that the primary differences between the two types of killers are cultural, not individual, and that in terms of their underlying psychology and motivation, they are actually quite similar. In both cases, substantial evidence indicates that these perpetrators of murder–suicide share many of the following characteristics: (1) they had troubled childhoods, (2) they lived in oppressive social environments, (3) they suffered from low self-esteem, (4) they were triggered by a personal crisis, (5) they were seeking revenge, and (6) they were seeking fame and glory.
Article
This article is an introduction to the special issue of Homicide Studies on missing data. The first section is an overview of the status of missing data approaches in homicide research. It begins by describing the importance of missing data estimation in homicide. This is followed by a discussion of missing data mechanisms, complete case analysis, imputation and weighting, and model-based procedures. The second section is a brief description of each of the articles in this issue. The conclusion describes the myth associated with imputing missing data, the use of missing data approaches in public records, the Supreme Court case that found hot-deck imputation acceptable for the census, and guidelines for handling missing data published by the American Psychological Association. This section concludes by describing the kinds of research that need to be done.
Article
Over the past decade the topic of multiple homicide-serial and mass murder-has attracted increased attention in the field of criminology. Though far from the epidemic suggested in media reports, it is alarming nonetheless that a small number of offenders account for so much human destruction and widespread fear. The serial killer is typically a white male in his late twenties or thirties who targets strangers encountered near his work or home. These killers tend to be sociopaths who satisfy personal needs by killing with physical force. Demographically similar to the serial killer, the mass murderer generally kills people he knows well, acting deliberately and methodically. He executes his victims in the most expedient way-with a firearm. Importantly, the difference of timing that distinguishes serial from mass murder may also obscure strong similarities in their motivation. Both can be understood within the same motivational typology-power, revenge, loyalty, profit, and terror. The research literature, still in its infancy, is more speculative than definitive, based primarily on anecdotal evidence rather than hard data. Future studies should make greater use of comparison groups and seek life-cycle explanations-beyond early childhood-which recognize the unique patterns and characteristics of multiple murderers. A research focus on murder in the extreme may also help us understand more commonplace forms of interpersonal violence.
Article
For years, it has been widely agreed on that suicide terrorists are not suicidal individuals, and that behaviorally, they are more similar to noble soldiers who are willing to sacrifice themselves for a cause. However, upon closer examination, it appears that the foundation of this conventional wisdom is extraordinarily shaky. There are many reasons to think that both event-based and psychological risk factors for suicide may drive the behavior of suicide terrorists. Furthermore, there is growing evidence that more than 75 individual suicide terrorists have exhibited these classic suicidal traits. Given the power that the stigma of suicide may have to deter future suicide terrorists, it is critical that governments, scholars, and practitioners examine this issue once again.
Article
This paper presents a critical examination of homicide circumstances as reported in supplementary homicide reports (SHR). Different types of homicides can be distinguished by the circumstance codes and victim/offender relationship recorded on the SHR. Delineating murder by type invites analysis of this offense from a victimization perspective–homicides have much in common with nonlethal offenses. Different types of homicide present different policy problems to police. The paper also discusses various sources of error in SHR data, which must be recognized by researchers interested in theoretical or policy questions.
Article
The Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR), assembled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), have for many years represented the most valuable source of information on the patterns and trends in murder and non-negligent manslaughter. Despite their widespread use by researchers and policy makers alike, these data are not completely without their limitations, the most important of which involves missing or incomplete incident reports. In this analysis, we develop methods for addressing missing data in the 1976–2005 SHR cumulative file, related to both non-reports (unit missingness) and incomplete reports (item missingness). For incomplete case data (that is, missing characteristics on victims, offenders or incidents), we implement a multiple imputation (MI) approach based on a log-linear model for incomplete multivariate categorical data. Then, to adjust for unit missingness, we adopt a weighting scheme linked to FBI annual estimates of homicide counts by state and National Center for Health Statistics mortality data on decedent characteristics in coroners’ reports for deaths classified as homicide. The result is a fully-imputed SHR database for 1976–2005. This paper examines the effects of MI and case weighting on victim/offender/incident characteristics, including standard errors of parameter estimates resulting from imputation uncertainty.
Article
Because now fragmented to an unprecedented extent, sociology has a special need for a central notion. Control could be that notion, meaning that sociologists can describe and think about all or virtually all of their subject matter in terms of control. Moreover, the notion of control can be used to realize not only greater conceptual clarification and integration but also to anticipate possible empirical relations that might have otherwise gone unanticipated. Such goals are actually steps toward theories, and control or any other central notion candidate fails if it does not facilitate that pursuit.
Article
There has been recent widespread media coverage of events that involve murder-suicide. In this paper, the author does an extensive literature review of studies about murder-suicide. The purpose is to determine whether the incidence of murder-suicide is increasing and what its risk factors are. The results of this review show that the incidence of murder-suicide remains at under 0.001%. Risk factors for murder-suicide are based on relationship between perpetrator and victims, history of domestic violence, sex or perpetrator and victim, age of perpetrator, presence of divorce/separation, use of weapon, and history of mental illness. This paper shows that the incidence of murder-suicide is low, stable, and similar to what has been reported in the past. There are, however, some distinct risk factors for murder-suicide including: substance abuse (not as common), mostly male perpetrators, depression (more common), and older male caregivers are at risk.
Article
There has been little attempt to integrate contemporary studies of suicide and mass murder to homicide-suicides. The current research attempts to do so in the context of 19th-century parricides in America. This project uses archival records from The New York Times and the Chicago Tribune, 1851-1899, resulting in a total of 231 incidents. Our results indicate that parricides, mass murders, and suicides tended to originate as spontaneous acts, usually during the course of an argument, gathering momentum as the interaction unfolded. We contend that suicide is one way of alleviating threats to offender's loss of self-identity.
Article
The death of a patient is a catalysmic event for both the patient's family and physician. This report is about such a death. A 24-yr-old psychiatric patient who manifested great psychological distress was altruistically murdered by her father. He then turned the gun on himself. The authors report this case to alert psychiatric clinicians to some of the circumstances that might be associated with murder-suicide, and to discuss the implications of such a tragedy in relation to the current psychiatric emphasis on patients' rights, brief hospitalizations, and voluntary care in the community.
Article
Twelve couples in cases of murder-suicide were compared to 24 couples in cases of homicide during the period 1978 to 1987 in Albuquerque, N.M. Data were obtained from police, the courts, hospital records, and interviews with friends and family of the deceased. The most striking findings were that perpetrators of murder-suicide were depressed (75%) and men (95%), while perpetrators of homicide were not depressed and one-half were women. The data indicate that the murder-suicide and homicide groups are two different populations.