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Religious Orientations and Women's Expected Continuity in the Labor Force
Journal of Marriage and Family
Abstract
Pervasive secularization has apparently eroded any contemporary connections between religious and work orientations among males. However, the results of this study, using samples of college females, show a connection between religious devoutness and expected paid labor force continuity among women. Through the use of path analysis the conclusion reached is that enhanced devoutness depresses future work expectations as mediated by certain intervening variables. Thus, irrespective of denominational label, being more devout (less secular) apparently tends to reduce college women's expected continuity in the labor force.
... Son los centros privados y religiosos los que puntúan más alto en la escala de sexismo, datos que corroboran la investigación de Glick, Lameiras y Rodríguez (2002) donde se demuestra que las creencias religiosas de las personas están relacionadas con el nivel de sexismo. Morgan & Scanzoni (1993) también concluyen en su investigación que a mayor religiosidad mayor nivel de sexismo hacia las mujeres, al igual que Rodríguez et al, (2010) quienes reflejan que los chicos ARTICULOS y las chicas que se manifiestan como católicos (practicantes o no practicantes) tienen actitudes más sexistas hacia mujeres que los que se consideran agnósticos. Estas conclusiones nos hacen reflexionar sobre la influencia del estilo educacional (considerando el estilo de los colegios privados más rígido y conservador) como factor desencadenante del comportamiento sexista de los participantes. ...
Partiendo de la investigación sobre estereotipos de género, y dada la polémica en torno a las diferencias
y desigualdades entre hombres y mujeres, este estudio investiga los autoestereotipos como proceso psicosocial
marcado por las relaciones entre factores situacionales, las estructuras sociales y la interacción
con diversos procesos psicológicos. Para ello, el estudio analiza las autoatribuciones y evaluaciones de
género y su relación con el sexismo, en una muestra de 192 adolescentes, utilizando como instrumento
la escala de sexismo de Glick y Fiske (1996). Asimismo comparamos las respuestas de los participantes
en función del género y la tipología del centro educativo al que asisten, donde diferenciamos entre
colegios privados (religiosos/laicos) y colegios públicos. Los resultados muestran homogeneidad en las
atribuciones que realizan chicos y chicas pero diferencias en relación con el sexismo. Además muestran
la influencia del estilo educativo en las manifestaciones de sexismo.
Palabras claves: Sexismo, estereotipos, autoatribuciones y género.
... Employment is related religious activity, primarily attendance and holding church position (Chadwick and Garrett, 1995). Morgan and Scanzoni (1987), however, found support for the hypothesis that religiosity is related to lower labor force participation. They surveyed 325 female college students about their current religious devoutness and their intentions to enter the labor force and pursue a career. ...
After the Islamic revolution in Iran, wearing hijab became mandatory for women in Iran by law based on the Islamic republic legal system in 1983. Many controversial debates have started since then about hijab. Background: Some studies mentioned that mandatory hijab excludes women from the public domain while others stated that policing hijab is necessary for Islamic society in order to make a safer society for women to participate in the public arena. So, such point of view assumes that women who are more religious and wear hijab could participate in the Islamic society after revolution easier than non-religious women who do not wear hijab. Objective: In this study, I want to examine the relationship between the level of religiosity of women and their employment status. Method: I used secondary data analysis in this study to examine this relationship. In order to conduct this study, I used the World Value Survey (WVS) 2005 dataset relate to Iran.
... Specifically, we anticipated the following bivariate correlations: Being domestic and involved with children will be positively correlated with Religious Fundamentalism, Intrinsic Religiousness, and Religious Commitment. This is based on previous research that found that stronger beliefs in traditional work and home roles for women were related to higher Intrinsic Religiousness, more devout religious beliefs, and affiliation with religious organisations that did not allow women to assume an organisational role (Jones & McNamara, 1991;Morgan & Scanzoni, 1987;Rhodes, 1983;Sevim, 2006). Because participants in this research included mostly freshman college students, the findings of this previous research reflect primarily people who neither had children nor had yet to enter the full-time workforce. ...
Although various forms of religiousness have been found to be associated with women’s body image, sexuality, and personal and professional roles, these studies have failed to examine multiple aspects of religiousness and femininity (i.e., conformity to feminine norms) concurrently. The current study explored the association between femininity and religiousness among women using multivariate definitions of these constructs. As hypothesised, there were multiple significant associations between religiousness and femininity. In terms of the more complex, multivariate relationships, more conservative and “traditional” religiousness was found to be associated with high sexual fidelity, adherence to domestic roles, and adherence to being sweet and nice. Also, minimal engagement in religiousness was associated with low levels of modesty, low adherence to being nice, and more emphasis on being in a romantic relationship. Several simpler, bivariate relationships were also found as hypothesised.
... Betz and Fitzgerald noted in 1987 that research documenting the effects of religion on women's career development was sorely needed. Although research since that time has documented the impact of religious variables on college students' intention to engage in careers (Jones & McNamara, 1991;Morgan, 1987;Morgan & Scanzoni, 1987), this is, to the authors' knowledge, the first to look at the impact of religious variables in women actually engaged in careers. Future studies should explore this relationship more directly by comparing the relationships between employment status and outcome variables in both religious and nonreligious samples that have been matched on other relevant variables. ...
The present study explored the effects of self-expectations and societal expectations of the host culture on the well-being of 37 married missionary women. The results did not support a relationship between the expectations of the host culture, and well-being. Homemakers appeared to be more relaxed and to experience life as more satisfying and interesting than women involved more actively in the missions task. The congruence of roles with self-expectations, role satisfaction, and freedom in choosing a role emerged as highly related to several indices of well-being. These findings highlight the centrality of freedom in choosing a role, and suggest that important subcultural differences in self-expectations exist in the Christian subculture which should be taken into account in research on women's issues.
... Women, more so than men, perceive their personal religious beliefs to be connected with their social and political attitudes (Wilcox 1987(Wilcox ,1988). Also, individual-level measures of religious variables other than fundamentalism exhibit stronger associations with women's gender attitudes than do group-level, denominational measures (Morgan & Scanzoni 1987). ...
Insensitivity to gender plagues the considerable research on religious fundamentalism and sexism. Most of this research neither
examines whether the fundamentalism/sexism association differs between genders, nor explores whether individual-level measures
of fundamentalism more likely applicable to women (personal beliefs about the Bible as literally true) have different relationships
to sexism than the more typically used group- level measure (denominational affiliation). Analysis of covariance of data from
the 1985 and 1988 General Social Surveys reveals that both individual and group fundamentalism are connected with sexism in
the entire sample, but mainly because of opposing tendencies by gender. For women, sexism is related to fundamentalist personal
beliefs rather than to fundamentalist affiliations. For men, the opposite occurs: sexism is related to fundamentalist affiliations
rather than to personal beliefs in the literalness of the Bible. These findings suggest the need for a healthy dose of gender
sensitivity in research on this topic, as well as throughout the sociology of religion.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to focus on the role of stress and work from home and their influence on the frequency of praying (spirituality) and attending ritual services (religiosity).
Design/methodology/approach
Drawing from a data set from Understanding Society (COVID-19 study) in the UK from 5,357 participants, this study specifies a two-level mixed-effects ordered-probit regression to test the main hypotheses and chi-square ( x ² ) analysis, gamma (γ) and tau-b (τ b ) for checking the robustness of this study results.
Findings
The findings of this study exhort with statistical confidence that spirituality is positively related to religiosity. Working from home positively influences individuals’ spiritual and religious needs, while attending religious services in person is associated with less stress. Females have been found to be more likely to pray rather than attend religious services.
Originality/value
This study investigates the role of work from home and stress on spirituality and religiosity, two key elements often forgotten in personal life and copying. This paper considers spirituality as the frequency of praying, while religiosity is the frequency of attending rituals, which religion has institutionalised.
During the history of mankind, women have always had a significant role in social, political and economic development. Nowadays, even though economic activities have expanded considerably, the share of women in labor force in many developing countries is still very low. In development studies, sometimes this question raises thatwhetherwomen's low participation rate is a result of religious and traditional beliefs. In this paper we tried to compare the status of women in the labor market of Islamic and Non-Islamic Countries by selecting 16 developing countries and also providing a statistical review of female participation rates in selected countries. Eventually, using numerical taxonomy method, we have shown that countries with a higher economic development, experience a better women's employment status; and religious differences have no significant (let alone negative) influence on women's participation rates.
El objetivo principal de esta investigación es identificar el nivel de sexismo interiorizado tanto hacia mujeres como hacia hombres por estudiantes de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria, como variable independiente se tiene en cuenta la tipología del centro educativo y se analiza también la relación entre las distintas escalas de sexismo moderno. La muestra representativa a nivel nacional, está compuesta por 1113 estudiantes españoles de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (49.9% chicos y 50.1% chicas), con un rango de edad de 14 a 18 años. Se aplicaron las siguientes escalas: ASI, Escala de Sexismo Ambivalente (Glick & Fiske, 1996); AMI, Escala de Actitudes ambivalentes hacia hombres (Glick & Fiske, 1999); MOS, Escala de Viejo Sexismo y Sexismo Moderno (Swim et al., 1995); y Escala de Neosexismo (Tougas et al., 1995). Los resultados muestran que los chicos independientemente de la tipología del centro, son más sexistas hacia las mujeres y tiene mayores actitudes benevolentes hacia los hombres; por su parte las chicas tienen actitudes más hostiles hacia los hombres. En cuanto a la relación de las escalas, la escala de Neosexismo se relaciona tanto con la de MOS y como con la de Sexismo Hostil, pero no con la de Sexismo Benevolente, al igual que la escala de Viejo Sexismo, mientras que la escala de Sexismo Moderno se relaciona con la de Sexismo Benevolente.
Using information about household consumption data from TURKSTAT's Household Surveys for 2007–13 as a sign of religious unorthodoxy, this study explores the effect of religion on women's labor force and educational participation in a Muslim-majority country, Turkey. A household is categorized as “unorthodox” if its members report that they consume goods that contradict conservative Sunni practices, such as alcohol. This information is then used in female labor force participation estimations. Results show that living in an unorthodox household has a positive and highly significant effect on the probability of married women's labor market participation. For single women, the estimations provide weaker evidence regarding the positive effect of unorthodoxy on the probability of participation in education and the labor force. The study concludes that protection of the rights to follow unorthodox practices in society may bear positive implications with regard to women's agency.
Political scientists and sociologists alike have been intrigued by the phenomenon of low voter turnout in US elections during the second half of the 20th century. This paper explores the connection between religious affiliation and rising political alienation in America during this period. Recent studies on religion and politics in Latin American countries have identified lower-class religion, or the so-called church of the poor, as a catalyst that mobilizes the poor to engage in political action aimed at reforming or overthrowing political regimes. Using a Marxian framework and working with statistical analyses, this study shows that lower-class religion in America has the opposite effect. When all significant secular determinants of political alienation are controlled for, affiliation with conservative Protestant churches is shown to be significantly and positively related to nonvoting.
A fundamental premise of this chapter is that commitment to negotiation is as vital as any other kinds of commitments made by the dyadic pair. We will elaborate the validity of that proposition first, by describing the basic elements of dyadic decision making; second, by describing the basic elements of the contemporary sexually based primary relationship; third, by analyzing the ways decision making assumes a pivotal role (driving force) within that type of relationship.
This study explores how college-aged women who are members of the Church ofJesus Christ ofLatter-day Saints (LDS) make decisions about choosing a career or staying home fedl-time. It examines how committed they are to 11U1ltiple role planning, what influence their mothers have on their decision-making process, how much they know about the roles they will assume in the future, how certain they are about choosing those roles, and how involved they are in the decision-making process itself. The LDS Decision-Making (LDSDM) scale was answered by 149 junior and senior women at Brigham Young University. Four factors were found that affect decision-making in this popellation: (l)commitment to the single role of motherhood, (2)perceiving that mothers were happiest as homemalurs, (3)lack of confidence in planningfor multiple roles, and (4)active involvement in the decision-making process. Significant differences were also found between women in different academic ｭ Ｌ ｾ ｯ ｲ ｳ Ｎ The counsel of church leaders and personal iYlSpiration-as well as the perception that their mothers are extremely satiified in their roles as homemakers-seem to most influence young women's decisioYlS about their lives.
Previous explanations of couples' tendency to see their household division of labor as fair primarily support the influence
of three factors, net of partners' actual contributions to “female-typed” housework. The three are partners' adherence to
a traditional gender role ideology, wives' limited alternatives to the marriage, and equity across key domains of the relationship.
Using responses from 2,109 male and 2,096 female marital partners from the National Survey of Families and Households 1987–88,
we examine the relative efficacy of these factors in accounting for variation in the perception that housework is unfair to
the wife. We find most support for the effect of ideology and considerations of equity and relatively little for wives' alternatives,
at least when the latter are measured by wives' general human capital. The findings suggest ways in which partners' negotiations
are constrained by gender role beliefs.
Researchers frequently postulate a strong relationship between religiosity and marital stability. We incorporate a multidimensional specification of religiosity into event-history models of the religion-marital stability relationship. Results are based on panel data from the National Survey of Families and Households (N = 4,587 married couples). While no single dimension of religiosity adequately describes the effect of religious experience on marital stability, the frequency of religious attendance has the greatest positive impact on marital stability. When both spouses attend church regularly, the couple has the lowest risk of divorce. Spouse differences in church attendance increase the risk of dissolution. All significant religious affiliation influences disappear once demographic characteristics are controlled. The wife's religious beliefs concerning marital commitment and nonmarital sex are more important to the stability of the marriage than the husband's beliefs.
The resurgence of conservative religious groups over the past several decades raises interesting questions about its effects
on women's life chances. Conservative religious institutions promote a traditional understanding of gender within families.
Women's beliefs about appropriate family roles, in turn, influence their preparation for market work and the timing and extent
of their labor force participation. Using retrospective data from the National Survey of Households and Families, this paper
examines the effect of childhood religious affiliation on American women's acquisition and use of marketable skills, focusing
on women's educational investments, family formation behavior, labor force participation and wage attainment. Results show
that childhood religious conservatism is associated with diminished human capital acquisition and earlier family formation
for White women with more muted results for Black women.
زنان چه در عرصه های سیاسی و اجتماعی به عنوان قشر کثیری از جامعه و چه در عرصه اقتصادی به عنوان نسبت بالایی از نهاده نیروی کار در فرایند بررسی شاخص های اقتصادی، اجتماعی و سیاسی یک کشور به نحو انکار ناپذیری حائز اهمیت هستند. در میان کشورهای در حال توسعه به ویژه کشورهای مسلمان خاورمیانه و کشورهای مسلمان نشین قاره آفریقا نرخ مشارکت زنان در بازار کار مقادیر قابل قبول را نشان نمی دهد. در این مقاله با بررسی وضعیت بازار کار زنان در کنار شاخص های کلان اقتصادی در مجموعه ای از کشور های مسلمان و غیر مسلمان تلاش شده تا به این پرسش پاسخ داده شود که آیا پایین بودن سهم زنان از بازار کار کشورها نتیجه حاکمیت باورهای اسلامی بر این کشورها است، یا که عوامل دیگری نقش اصلی در این مقوله را بازی می کنند. این نگاره با انجام قیاس های آماری و همچنین رتبه بندی کشورها از نظر وضعیت اقتصادی و شاخص های بازار کار برای زنان از طریق روش تاکسونومی نشان داده است که دلیل اصلی پایین بودن نرخ مشارکت زنان، نه مسلمان بودن کشور که وضعیت اقتصادی کشور ها می باشد.
This paper empirically examines whether female labour force participation (FLFP) in a cross‐section of countries between 1985 and 2005 varies depending upon the religion practised in these countries. Using a cross‐sectional empirical specification, we initially find that FLFP is lower in Muslim countries. However, the association between Islam and FLFP greatly diminishes once other controls are included in the regression, suggesting that Islam might not diminish FLFP as some have argued. Moreover, once these additional controls are included, the association between Islam and FLFP is similar to that between Catholicism and FLFP. Countries where Protestantism is prevalent or where no religion is practised have higher FLFP. Finally, we find some evidence that the association between FLFP and religion is weakening over time.
Open-ended survey responses from 205 Christian exemplars drawn from 37 distinct congregations within 19 Christian denominations in the Northwest and New England regions of the United States were analyzed by chi-square and multiple regression analyses to determine relationships between religious experience and gender. Results indicated that men were more likely than women to describe positions of leadership/responsibility/service as influential to their faith, and to indicate their own personal sin as a faith challenge. Women were more likely than men to describe negative/tragic events as a faith influence, the intellectual dimension of their faith as a challenge, and serving other people as a faith satisfaction. These results appear to lend strong empirical support to previous assertions in both the social science and feminist theological literature regarding relationships between gender and religious experience.
This paper presents, discusses and evaluatesempiricalstudies concerned with gender differences in religion. Within the psychology of religion two main groups of theories have been advanced to account for gender differences in religiosity. The first group of theories concentrates on social or contextual influences which shape different responses to religion among men and women. This group may be divided into two categories:gender role socialisation theoriesandstructural location theories. The second group of theories concentrates on personal or individual psychological characteristics which differentiate between men and women. This group may be divided into three categories:depth psychology theories,personality theoriesandgender orientation theories. It is concluded that gender orientation theories provide the most fruitful source for further research.
Previous studies have indicated a relationship between religious homogamy and marital satisfaction and stability. However, most have emphasized denominational affiliation only. Using loglinear analysis of national survey data, this study tested the effects of three types of religious homogamy - namely denominational affiliation, church attendance, and belief in the Bible - upon marital satisfaction and stability. Results indicated that denominational affiliation homogamy is the most critical, with church attendance homogamy contributing slightly to marital success. Similar beliefs about the Bible did not have a statistically significant association with either marital satisfaction or marital stability.
The thesis of this article is that psychologists can benefit in assessment and counseling of clients and in research by understanding the religious development of many of their religious clients throughout the life span. Theories of religious development are reviewed in the initial section of the article. Generally, the early life of the religious person is well described by using a variety of stage theories; however, at adolescence and beyond, prediction is enhanced by using life-event or transition theory perspectives. In the second section, research is reviewed on a variety of issues involving religion over the life span. In the final section, the implications of theory and research on religious involvement in therapy are investigated, and number of important questions for assessment, treatment, and research are identified
The relationship between Judeo-Christian beliefs and attitudes toward employed women was examined. Participants (N= 9,742) responded to the National Opinion Research Center's General Social Survey (Davis & Smith, 1996a). Attitudes toward employed women varied by strength of religiosity, gender, religious affiliation, and year; as strength of religiosity increased, attitudes became more traditional. Men had more traditional attitudes than women. The women who are more religious had attitudes that were more conservative than less religious women. Christians had more traditional attitudes than Jews and the nonreligious. Between 1985 and 1996, attitudes became less traditional. These findings suggest that attitudes toward working women are changing in a gradual manner, but that men and women hold very different attitudes about working women, even within the same religious affiliation.
The present paper discusses the use of Coombs' (1950, 1964) unfolding procedure applied to event history data. This procedure is appropriate when several stimuli are rated according to the individuals' preference, and yields scale values for stimuli and individuals, as well as a ‘best’ order of stimuli. We propose to consider the order of occurrence in time of non-repeatable events (such as first marriage, leaving home, and first job) as an indication of the subjects' preference for these stimuli. In that case unfolding may be applied to the analysis of event history-data.
The statistical principles of unfolding analysis in general are briefly discussed. Subsequently an illustration is given, using data concerning the life course of 216 Dutch women of birth cohort 1961, concerning five events: first steady relationship, leaving home, first child, first job, and first occurrence of living together. It is shown that these events can be ordered at an underlying one-dimensional continuum on which individuals can be scaled. Furthermore, using regression analysis it is shown that the location of the subjects at this continuum correlates significantly with various explanatory variables, showing how unfolding may be used in practical applications.
This article contains a review of literature relevant to career development and vocational behavior available during 1987. The two major review segments (vocational choice and career development, and vocational behavior in organizations) cover the literature on theory, research, and practice related to the individual and his or her preparatory and actual work experiences. Concluding comments on the reviewed literature and recommendations for future research are provided.
Political scientists and sociologists alike have been intrigued by the phenomenon of low voter turnout in US elections during the second half of the 20th century. This paper explores the connection between religious affiliation and rising political alienation in America during this period. Recent studies on religion and politics in Latin American countries have identified lower-class religion, or the so-called church of the poor, as a catalyst that mobilizes the poor to engage in political action aimed at reforming or overthrowing political regimes. Using a Marxian framework and working with statistical analyses, this study shows that lower-class religion in America has the opposite effect. When all significant secular determinants of political alienation are controlled for, affiliation with conservative Protestant churches is shown to be significantly and positively related to nonvoting.
DynorphinA (Dyn) administered intrathecally or released spinally in mice produces antianalgesia, that is, antagonizes morphine analgesia (tail-flick test). Spinal transection eliminates this Dyn antianalgesia. Present results in mice show that intracerebroventricular administration of flumazenil, a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist, also eliminated the antianalgesic action of Dyn; flumazenil in the brain eliminated the suppressant effect of intrathecal Dyn on intrathecal and intracerebroventricular morphine-induced antinociception. Intracerebroventricular clonidine, naloxone, and norbinaltorphimine release spinal Dyn. The latent antinociceptive actions of these compounds were uncovered by intracerebroventricular flumazenil. Thus, Dyn, given intrathecally or released spinally, activates a pathway that is inhibited by intracerebroventricular flumazenil. Dyn antianalgesia is not significantly altered by intracerebroventricular administration of bicuculline and picrotoxin, suggesting that activation of the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor has little if any involvement in the antianalgesic action of Dyn. The antagonistic effect of Dyn seems to be mimicked by benzodiazepine agonists. Furthermore, administration of a benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist (methyl-6,7-dimethoxy-4-ethyl-beta-carboline-3-carboxylate) inhibited Dyn antianalgesia as did flumazenil. Thus, flumazenil, through a benzodiazepine antagonist or inverse agonist action, interrupts, as does spinal transection, the neuronal circuit (cord/brain/cord) necessary for the antianalgesic action of spinal Dyn. Because Dyn antianalgesia is an indirect action, activation of the neuronal circuit must lead to the release of a direct-acting antianalgesic mediator in the spinal cord.
Intensive study over four years of one class in the women's college of a private coeducational university yields varied types of adult aspirations. Since all the women aspire to family life, career aspirations are defined as the desire to pursue one's chosen occupation in addition to familial roles. Five types of students are described: Careerists, Noncareerists, Converts, Defectors, and Shifters. Only the Careerist consistently plans her adult life around both family and occupation; the Convert comes to that plan by senior year. While some students develop career interests, some move away from them, and still others oscillate in uncertainty. Most striking is the large number of women whose adult aspirations remain unaffected by the college years.
An analysis of sex-role attitudes by sex of respondent highlights the complexity of the sex-roles concept. The examination of the roles of both sexes in terms of four theoretical components revealed the following results. Males and females tend to show the least divergence over (1) macrolevel social change issues and (2) the familial roles of both sexes. They differ most over (3) extrafamilial roles of females and (4) the stereotypes of both sexes. Both men and women tend to be most traditional in the area of familial roles and most modern in relation to macrosocial change issues. A conceptualization of a general sex-role attitude continuum is suggested which emphasizes the degree of sex-differentiation and sex-typing rather than the frequently used equality-inequality framework. Results of the data analysis (N = 480 college-level juniors and seniors) are interpreted in line with the differentiation/typing conceptualization. Suggestions for the future focus on the need for refinement in conceptualization and operationalization/measurement of the sex roles and sex-role attitudes of both sexes.
Attitudes toward sex roles are compared between male and female Mormon and non-Mormon students at Utah State University. Male and female Mormon students are shown to be much more traditional in their attitudes toward women's participation in nonfamilial roles. Multivariate regression analysis shows religion to have the strongest effect on these attitudes, with respondent's sex having the second strongest effect. Religion differentiates less with regard to attitudes toward equality of the sexes. Multivariate regression analysis shows respondent's sex to have the strongest effect on these attitudes.
Data on sex-role values of a sample of college women are examined to ascertain the effect of family structure, social class, and religion on sex-role values, and to support a structural theory of sex-role socialization. Patterns of dominance are found to be crucial within the family, and they act as an intervening variable between mother's education and work history, on the one hand, and sex-role values of the daughters, on the other. The relative occupational and educational resources of father and mother affect their power within the family. Sex-role values also are affected by social class, which defines options available to women and influences parental dominance. Religious background exerts an independent, but unexplained, effect.
This study examines relationships between sex roles, domestic roles, and occupational expectations within a large sample of American adolescents. Questionnaire data shows that domestic and occupational expectations are intricately interwoven for females, but are relatively discrete spheres for males. For three subgroups—"sex-typical," "sex-atypical," or "sex-neutral" occupational expectations—significant multivariate differences were found for females but not males on background, sex role, and domestic expectation variables. These results indicate that the occupational expectations of adolescent females are related to both generalized sex-role attitudes and specific plans for adult domestic roles.
Literature on women in occupations where men predominate is reviewed from 1930 through 1976, including publications referenced in Psychological and Sociological Abstracts and limited additional materials. The literature is summarized and discussed with reference to the women's personality and background characteristics Personality data show such women to be high on “competency” traits related to the masculine stereotype and ideal. While slightly more oriented toward ideas than people in comparison with other women, the nontraditional woman does not differ from them on “warmth and expressiveness” traits of the feminine stereotype and ideal. These women are emotionally healthy and have good coping skills, although they may experience situational stress. They tend to share background characteristics which foster achievement, i.e., high parental education, frequent foreign ancestry and firstborn status, and high family stability. Other factors relate not only to achievement but to comfort with accomplishment in traditionally male fields, i.e., parental encouragement of androgynous exploration, high maternal employment, and strong paternal support for both mother and daughter. The data are discussed as supporting Almquist and Angrist's “enrichment hypothesis” whereby the nontraditional woman is seen as the product of unusual but positive factors. Suggestions for further research call for a clearer separation of the determinants of career choice and academic achievement, comparisons of occupationally nontraditional members of both sexes, and further investigation of the correlates of competence and atypical career choice in women.
This paper is about the logic of interpreting recursive causal theories in sociology. We review the distinction between associations and effects and discuss the decomposition of effects into direct and indirect components. We then describe a general method for decomposing effects into their components by the systematic application of ordinary least squares regression. The method involves successive computation of reduced-form equations, beginning with an equation containing only exogenous variables, then computing equations which add intervening variables in sequence from cause to effect. This generates all the information required to decompose effects into their various direct and indirect parts. This method is a substitute for the often more cumbersome computation of indirect effects from the structural coefficients (direct effects) of the causal model. Finally, we present a way of summarizing this information in tabular form and illustrate the procedures using an empirical example.
social science setting
social change
National Council of Family Relations (NCFR) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This research attempted to establish relationships between locus of control, self-esteem, and traditional-nontraditional behavior. It was hypothesized that (1) women tending toward internality and high self-esteem should be more likely to manifest nontraditional behaviors, as evidenced through career-oriented roles, and to rank these roles as their primary source of satisfaction; and (2) women tending toward externality and low self-esteem should be more likely to manifest traditional behavior, as evidenced through family-oriented roles, and to rank these roles as their primary source of satisfaction. The sample consisted of 91 White females in a southern metropolitan area. The data were collected using a survey design. As expected, high self-esteem internals were more likely to manifest nontraditional behavior. Contrary to expectation, low self-esteem externals were more nontraditional in role orientation.
Questionnaires that assessed family background, educational goals, career goals, preferred and expected career commitment, and sex-role attitudes were completed by 763 male and female undergraduates. The women expressed significantly more nontraditional goals and attitudes than women in previous studies, but the female respondents' goals and attitudes differ significantly from their male classmates. The correlations between several sex-role-related goals and attitudes are significant for both men and women. Parents' educational attainment, mothers' careers, and religious upbringing are the background variables that most strongly predict traditional/nontraditional goals and sex-role attitudes. The predictive powers of the background traits differ for men and women, and these results are often inconsistent with results of previous studies. Implications for related research are discussed.
This study examined the relationship between sex-role and nontraditional major choice. The sample included 693 male and female students enrolled in traditional and nontraditional majors. In addition to exploring this relationship the study had a methodological intent: Could scales derived from previous factor analyses of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory delineate this relationship as readily as the traditional Bem scoring method. Results indicate significant distributional patterns in sex-role and choice of major, which vary by sex. Men tend to choose male-dominated majors, regardless of sex-role. Patterns for females are more complex. The factored scales used in cross-validated discriminate analysis procedures did demonstrate some power to discriminate students in the two majors, suggesting certain implications for sex-role transcendence in vocational settings.
The choice of a male dominated occupation rather than a traditionally feminine one is the single occupational variable which meaningfully divides a class of women who were studied intensively over the 4 yr of college. Women who choose occupations which employ largely men differ predictably from women who select feminine occupations in terms of familial influence, work values, work experience, role model influence and some collegiate activities. The two groups do not differ appreciably in sociability experiences or in relationships with parents, so it cannot be argued that the work plans of the pioneer women stem from social isolation, rejection, or lack of appropriate feminine socialization.
The relationship between women's fertility and labor force participation plans has commanded much attention recently. Some analysts have argued that women reduce their desired fertility in order to accommodate their desires for labor force participation; others have suggested that women's plans for labor force participation are modified to accommodate their expected fertility; still others have argued that women's fertility expectations and labor force participation plans both affect each other simultaneously; and at least one analyst has suggested that the commonly observed inverse relationship between women's childbearing and labor force activity is spurious and is caused by common antecedents of both variables. In this paper, we investigate these and other related hypotheses by examining simultaneous equation models of young women's fertility expectations and plans for future labor force participation (i.e., plans for labor force participation when they are 35 years old). Our analyses are based on a large national sample of women in their mid twenties (n = 3589 after deletion of cases with missing data). We find that the number of children a woman plans to bear has only a small effect on the probability that she plans to participate in the labor force when she is 35 years old. However, we find that a woman's plans to participate in the labor force when she is 35 have a substantial effect on the total number of children she plans to bear in her lifetime. We find this relationship for presently married and for never-married women. We also find the same relationship for married women when their husbands' income and their husbands' attitudes toward their labor force participation are included in the model. We discuss the methodological implications of our findings for other studies of women's fertility and labor force activity.