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Abstract
Recent research in consumer behavior has documented the phenomenon of compensatory consumption, whereby individuals respond to information about deficits in their abilities, skills, status, and so forth by consuming products that symbolically compensate for the self-deficits. However, the examination of factors that might lead individuals to take more productive action in response to self-deficit information is limited. This article identifies self-acceptance as a moderator of when individuals engage in compensatory consumption versus adaptive consumption (i.e., consumption intended to help the individual improve in the area of deficit) in response to self-deficit information. Three studies show that, through self-acceptance, individuals reduce compensatory consumption and are more likely to engage in adaptive consumption to address self-deficits. Evidence suggests that self-acceptance affects individuals’ responses to self-deficit information by changing their appraisal of self-deficits from harmful to benign to their self-worth. We distinguish self-acceptance from the related constructs of self-esteem, self-affirmation, and apathy.
... Shubin Yu shubin.yu@bi.no consumption to improve self-deficiencies and is conducive to problem-solving (Kim & Gal, 2014). For example, when individuals believe that their social skills are insufficient, they may increase their investment in education to improve their social skills. ...
... For example, when individuals believe that their social skills are insufficient, they may increase their investment in education to improve their social skills. Judging from the results of coping strategies, adaptive consumption is more positive than compensatory consumption (Kim & Gal, 2014). Therefore, how to help consumers switch from compensatory consumption to adaptive consumption is crucial and meaningful. ...
... Researchers examined factors that influence consumers' consumption strategy choices in response to self-deficiencies. For example, Kim and Gal (2014) believed that self-acceptance not only helps consumers reduce compensatory consumption but also increases adaptive consumption to solve selfdeficiencies. However, research on factors that may cause individuals to act differently in response to ability self-discrepancies is limited. ...
Self-discrepancy refers to the extent to which individuals believe there is a discrepancy between who they are, who they wish they were, or who they should be. The negative consequences (e.g., depression, anxiety, and eating disorders) of self-discrepancy motivate individuals to adopt different consumption strategies. However, previous research on factors that may cause individuals to act differently in response to ability self-discrepancy is limited. Based on the self-discrepancy theory and self-efficacy theory, this study identifies self-efficacy as a moderating factor for individuals’ compensatory consumption and adaptive consumption due to the ability self-discrepancy. Two between-group experiments examined the effects of ability self-discrepancy (with vs. without) and self-efficacy (high vs. low) on the purchase intention of compensatory products and adaptive products respectively. The results show that consumers with low self-efficacy are more likely to engage in compensatory consumption than consumers with high self-efficacy. However, the moderating effect of self-efficacy is not significant in adaptive consumption.
... Prior research mostly focused on within-domain compensation, and there are relatively few studies on across-domain compensation. The definition of compensatory consumption strategies is also subject to controversy [43,45,59]. It is critical to emphasize the dominant role of within-domain and acrossdomain compensation in compensatory consumption strategies. ...
... In addition, consumers will adopt different compensatory consumption strategies when they perceive self-discrepancies in knowledge, brand, time, creativity, age, health, religion, and other domains [7,25,42,43,52,63,72,84]. Some studies also explore across-domain compensation from meaning maintenance theory [85,88]. ...
... The first conflict is that, considering compensatory consumption as a means of solving self-discrepancy, do escapism, dissociation, and emotional coping strategies belong to compensatory strategies? The second question is whether consumers' behavior in buying, using, or sharing products with functional value is considered compensatory consumption or adaptive consumption [43,59]. The third issue is the difference in the role of symbolic completed products and merely symbolic products in the compensatory consumption behavior. ...
Different from previous studies on the motives of compensatory consumption, this review focuses on the strategies of compensatory consumption. This literature review aims to introduce two main strategies for compensatory consumption, within-domain and across-domain compensation. Within-domain compensation is a consumption strategy to repair a self-discrepancy in a specific domain, while across-domain compensation refers to a consumption strategy that consumers restore their global self-worth by affirming themselves in other important domains yet unrelated to the self-discrepancies. Based on the SPAR-4-SLR protocol to assemble, arrange and assess literature published from 2008 to 2023 Q1, we chose 65 articles to review. In order to gain a deeper understanding of within-domain and across-domain compensation, we systematically review the existing literature in the field and propose a framework based on the ADO models. Lastly, we discuss the various research directions for within-domain and across-domain compensation from the viewpoint of theory, context, characteristics, and methodology according to the TCCM framework. Researchers, marketers, and advertisers can learn about the latest research related to compensatory consumption strategies in this article.
... Self-acceptance refers to having a positive regard or attitude towards oneself as a whole, including past life experiences (Chamberlain & Haaga, 2001), and is characterised by unconditional acceptance and appreciation of oneself, regardless of external approval or personal achievements. Individuals with high self-acceptance do not base their selfworth on meeting ideal standards of attractiveness, intelligence, or task outcomes (Gratz et al., 2007;Kim & Gal, 2014). Previous research has shown that self-acceptance plays an important role in individual well-being (Kivity et al., 2016), self-control (Pan et al., 2021), and consumption decisions (Kim & Gal, 2014). ...
... Individuals with high self-acceptance do not base their selfworth on meeting ideal standards of attractiveness, intelligence, or task outcomes (Gratz et al., 2007;Kim & Gal, 2014). Previous research has shown that self-acceptance plays an important role in individual well-being (Kivity et al., 2016), self-control (Pan et al., 2021), and consumption decisions (Kim & Gal, 2014). Individuals with high levels of self-acceptance tend to have a greater tolerance for failure or setbacks (Williams & Lynn, 2010), and a reduced desire to prove their needs to others (Chamberlain & Haaga, 2001). ...
... In addition, individuals with high self-acceptance may unconditionally accept judgments of self-competence or self-expression and place less emphasis on whether behavioural performance satisfies others or conforms to external ideals (Chamberlain & Haaga, 2001;Grube et al., 1982;MacInnes, 2006). Conversely, individuals with low self-acceptance perceive self-deficits as threats to self-worth and are more likely to engage in compensatory consumption as a way of coping with self-concept threats Kim & Gal, 2014). In the consumer domain, existing research has found (Magee & Galinsky, 2008;Magee & Smith, 2013), and their own purchases are consistent with the consumption of powerful people in society. ...
The present study examines whether and why power expectations differentially affect the impulsive buying of hedonic products by powerful and powerless individuals, and how self-acceptance moderates the relationship between power expectations, power experience and impulsive buying of hedonic products. Integrating findings from two different literatures such as normative evaluation of impulsive buying and self-conscious feelings of deservingness, we propose and find that in situations where power expectations are activated, social stereotypes associated with power consumption lead to normative judgments of hedonic impulsiveness, which activate self-conscious feelings of deservingness. Thus, powerless individuals were unable to find a normative justification for hedonic products, had a lower sense of deservingness, and reduced their impulsiveness to purchase hedonic products. In contrast, powerful individuals increased their impulsiveness to purchase hedonic products, and power expectations can act as both catalysts and barriers that shape the impulsive buying behaviour. Furthermore, we find that the above effect is significant when self-acceptance is low. Our study provides a new perspective on power expectations for impulsive buying, which helps to reconcile the controversial findings on power and impulsive buying.
... On the other hand, Self-Discrepancy is a dissonance that occurs when individuals face an imbalance between who they are and who they want to be. Self-discrepancies impact varying dimensions of one's selfperception, such as, but not limited to; social identity; resulting in an altered behavior to alleviate the uneasiness created by the discrepancy (Kim & Gal, 2014;Li et al., 2019;Mandel et al., 2017). Hence, (Social Identity) Self-Discrepancy is a disparity stemming from adverse judgment, by peers, towards one's membership group; causing the individual to negatively perceive their social group and deflect from it (Mandel et al., 2017). ...
... Further, the significance of (social identity) self-discrepancy is evident in the studies published by Mandel et al., 2017), where they highlight the importance of understanding the impact selfdiscrepancies, especially, social identity discrepancies, have in the fields of consumer behavior and international marketing. Additionally, most scholarly articles written on self-discrepancy theory and the compensatory consumer behavior model were analyzed in South-East Asian countries, utilizing an experimental approach, and almost consistently recommended testing out the CCB model in relation to (social identity) self-discrepancy theory in differing cultural contexts (Kim & Gal, 2014;Li et al., 2019;Valaei & Nikhashemi, 2017). Thus, although the importance of comprehending the influence (social identity) self-discrepancy exhibits on purchase behavior, is well-established, the literature on (social identity) self-discrepancy falls behind in diversity of population samples and research design. ...
... Thus, the assumption that Jordanians experiencing a (social identity) self-discrepancy would perceive the West as an aspirational group, is primarily based on (Touzani et al., 2015)'s findings in regard to Tunisian consumers' longing to acculturate with the West, and the researchers' recommendations to conduct research in varying Arab countries; to better understand the deeply seeded effects of western communications on Arab consumers' purchasing behavior. In addition to the prior explained importance of the following variable, it is necessary to re-emphasize how most scholarly articles written on self-discrepancy theory and the compensatory consumption behavior model highlight the role of (social identity) self-discrepancy in purchasing decisions Kim & Gal, 2014;Mandel et al., 2017), and stress the significance of conducting in-depth research utilizing mixed methodologies and analyzing a more diverse sample of consumers (Mandel et al., 2017;Xiao et al., 2018). Also, the relevance of (social identity) selfdiscrepancy in relation to COR is noted in )'s conceptual paper, yet it too requires quantitative testing, which will be carried out in the current research. ...
This study sought to empirically test the novel Country-of-Reference (COR)-effect by investigating the impact of Westernization on Jordanian youth's purchasing behavior. The constructs examined were (Social-Identity) Self-Discrepancy, eWOM, and Herd Behavior in relation to Western COR and subsequently, purchase behavior. The data was collected in two phases; semi-structured in-depth interviews and online surveys. 12 interviews were conducted in total, following the saturation principle. Moreover, 232 questionnaire responses were gathered, through convenience sampling and snowballing techniques. The study substantiated the existence of strong links between (social identity) self-discrepancy, eWOM, herding behavior, and Western COR. In addition, proved Western COR's mediating role between the variables and purchase behavior. Conclusively, all the proposed hypotheses were corroborated qualitatively and quantitatively. Researchers looking to further study the COR-effect should consider possible time, budget, and language restraints. As well as extend the literature to varying age groups and geographical areas. Moreover, it might be interesting to explore the COR concept in diverse industries and through a comparative research approach. This research paper analyzed a new notion of understanding consumer behavior. More specifically, it is the first to assess the role Westernization plays in Jordanian youth consumers' consumption behaviors. Further , the findings presented in this study can aid businesses and boost the economy, through encouraging "shop local" communication strategies.
... In summary, considering the self-discrepancy theory and the literature discussed earlier, individuals with high scores on the competitiveness trait would be expected to perceive their performance as falling short of their self-guided standards, giving rise to a discrepancy (Guízar-Sánchez et al., 2020). As a result, this perception may drive them to seek ways to meet those standards and achieve the desired state (Kim & Gal, 2014;Beos et al., 2021). Therefore, the present study proposes that the competitiveness trait can influence the level of perfectionism discrepancy, which in turn can affect one's attitude towards memory implants. ...
... training programs, reducing the discrepancy and enhancing cognitive abilities (Kim & Gal, 2014). Additionally, those confident in their intelligence tend to choose objects associated with intelligence over unrelated items such as candy (Gao et al., 2009). ...
... Respondents in our study likely had a high self-concept vs. self-directive discrepancy, leading to favorable attitudes towards memory implants, as they enhance competence. This study echoes past findings where perceived intelligence-ideal intelligence gaps led people to pursue brain training programs and intelligencerelated products (Gao et al., 2009;Kim & Gal, 2014). ...
The utilization of technology, such as memory implants, is associated with the competitiveness trait. This revolutionary technology is potentially attractive to individuals who seek to outperform others and to win. Yet the relationship between the competitiveness trait and attitude towards memory implants remains underexplored. This study aimed to investigate the direct link between the competitiveness trait and attitude towards memory implants, while also examine the mediating role of perfectionism discrepancy, drawing upon the self-discrepancy theory. A sample of 402 digital-native higher education students from Austria, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands (Meanage = 23.14, SD = 2.63) participated in this study. The findings revealed a positive association between the competitiveness trait and attitude towards memory implants. Furthermore, it was found that the discrepancy from perfection partially mediated this relationship. These findings contribute to an understanding of the underlying mechanisms influencing individuals’ attitudes towards memory implants and add to the growing body of literature on psychological predictors of such attitudes. Moreover, the implications are applicable to proponents of human-machine hybrids and equally to those with concerns regarding memory implant technologies.
... When individuals consent to being dominated in their company, school institution, family, etc., they are more likely to engage in compensatory consumption to achieve their need for power. For example, powerless consumers may purchase statusrelated products (e.g., limited-edition and exclusive pictures, executive pens with a prestigious private university's seal, luxury magazines, larger brand logos, bigger sizes and more brand logos on luxury clothing and handbags, larger-size food options) to regain their sense of power Kim and Gal, 2014;Koo and Im, 2019;Rucker and Galinsky, 2008;Wong et al., 2022). They may also be more likely to spread word of mouth about brands and products with high-status associations (Barone et al., 2017;Thomas et al., 2020) and to lie about their work achievements such as publication records and signed business contracts (Li et al., 2022). ...
... Compensatory consumption refers to the desire for and acquisition or use of products to respond to a psychological need or deficit (Dwivedi and Lewis, 2021;Kim and Gal, 2014;Koles et al., 2018;Rucker and Galinsky, 2008). The core argument for compensation is that consumption can be used to cope with self-threats. ...
... Manipulating people's sense of power, they find that consumers' induced states of powerlessness lead them to choose larger-sized food options when they believe that size is associated with status. Kim and Gal (2014) report that their study participants were willing to pay more for a luxury magazine that was symbolic of power when they experienced a power deficit. ...
Adapting the design and configuration of robots to human social needs is a challenge for the future. Individuals may be caught in social structures in which they feel dominated, which triggers their need to regain a sense of power. Feeling powerless is painful and leads consumers to compensatory consumption behaviour. We seek to ascertain whether powerless consumers may view social robots as a way of improving their well-being. In Study 1, we used an online scenario-based experiment to manipulate robot autonomy through a comic strip panel. Results show that powerlessness increases the anticipated improvement of well-being associated with robot ownership and thus the adoption intention, but only when the robot has a low (vs. high) level of autonomy. In Study 2, an online survey was conducted to understand better the psychological mechanism underlying these effects. The results reveal that powerlessness positively influences the anticipated improvement of well-being because the consumers perceive an enhancement of their sense of power induced by the domination exerted over the robot. Study 3 replicated the central findings on a larger and more diverse sample. Further, it suggests that robot autonomy and age play crucial roles in understanding the mechanism underlying the effects. Our research contributes to the literature on human-robot interaction, psychological power, and compensatory consumption. We also contribute to an emerging body of research investigating how intelligent products (social robots) can change people's lives in unexpected ways.
... Individuals with low self-acceptance associate information about selfdiscrepancy with self-worth, and therefore engage in self-restoration actions such as compensatory consumption to mitigate discrepancy. On the contrary, individuals with high levels of self-acceptance strip this negative information from self-worth, seeing it not as a source of discrepancy or threat, and without the need for self-restoration [93]. Self-worth and self-acceptance are two related but distinct concepts in psychology that play different roles in regulating our thoughts, emotions, and behaviour [94]. ...
... Therefore, individuals who are high on self-acceptance are less likely to engage in compensatory consumption to restore self-discrepancy. For example, research by Kim and Gal [93] find that individuals with high self-acceptance engage in adaptive rather than compensatory consumption in response to self-deficit information. According to Smith and Petty [97], individuals with high self-acceptance have more confidence in their abilities and the achievement of their efforts regardless of resource abundance, which can buffer the impact of adverse events, while individuals with low self-acceptance lack confidence in their abilities and the achievement of their efforts when they are subjected to resource scarcity. ...
... After completing the savings rating study, participants were asked to participate in an exercise designed to manipulate participants" self-acceptance. Following the manipulation exercise in Kim and Gal [93] (2014), participants under the high self-acceptance condition were required to read over a list of "thoughts" that can help increase self-acceptance (e.g., "I would better not define myself entirely by my behavior, by others" opinions, or by anything else under the sun."; "I can accept myself whether I win, lose, or draw," see Appendix D in S4 Appendix of S1 File for a complete list of those thoughts) and were given a chance to choose their favorite thought. They were then asked to explain in no less than 50 words in detail why this particular chosen thought was their favorite, and how this thought could be applied to their daily lives. ...
Objective
Everyone in life will experience resource scarcity, which causes self-discrepancy. It is widely known that individuals participate in reactive consumption to solve the problems of self-discrepancy and resources scarcity. This kind of consumption may be symbolically related to the essence of the resource scarcity or may occur in an unrelated domain. This study proposes a theory for "filling up" one’s resource scarcity through high-intensity sensory consumption (HISC).
Methods
We used different methods, including one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), linear regression, mediating effect, and moderating effect, to test the four hypotheses. Four experiments in the study were conducted from May 2022 and August 2022 and involved undergraduates from a university and volunteers recruited online. All participants are adults and verbally agree to participate voluntarily. Study 1a (N = 96 (male 47, female 49), participants from a business school in China) measured resource scarcity in the laboratory experiments and verified the effect of resource scarcity on consumer HISC preference by using linear regression (H1). Study 1b (N = 191 (male 98, female 93), students and teachers from a university in China) measured resource scarcity in the laboratory experiments and manipulated positively and negatively valenced experiences. Using the PROCESS SPSS Mode l, we verified that negatively valenced stimuli also lead to higher levels of arousal, which in turn restores the self-discrepancy caused by resource scarcity (H2). Study 2 (an online experiment, N = 182 (male 91, female 91), participants from China) manipulated the resource scarcity in a color sensory stimulant context, replicating the preliminary effect and examined the mediating effect of the self-worth by using the PROCESS SPSS Mode 4 (H3). Study 3 (an online experiment, N = 251 (male 125, female 126), participants from China) manipulated resource scarcity and self-acceptance in the tactile sensory experience, and tested the moderating effect of self-acceptance by using the PROCESS SPSS Mode 8 (H4).
Results
Four studies suggest that not only do individuals facing resources scarcity prefer HISC but also that this consumption is mediated and moderated by self-worth and self-acceptance, respectively. This preference for HISC is negated when individuals have high self-acceptance traits. The findings are tested in the auditory domain (as evidenced by a propensity for louder volume), the visual domain (as evidenced by a propensity for more intense colors), and the tactile domain (as evidenced by a propensity for more intense need for touch). The findings also demonstrate that individual preferences for HISC is shown to operate regardless of the valence (positive valence vs. negative valence) of the sensory consumption.
Conclusions
Across four experiments, we find that individuals who are subjected to resource scarcity show a preference for high-intensity sensory consumption in the auditory, visual, and tactile domains. We also find that both negatively and positively valenced sensory stimuli have the same impact on resource-scarce individuals’ preference for HISC. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the sense of self-worth significantly mediates the effect of resource scarcity on HISC. Finally, we reveal that self-acceptance moderates the effect of resource scarcity on HISC preference.
... Specifically, prior research has shown that self-discrepancies can create negative affective responses such as dejection (Higgins, 1987;Packard & Wooten, 2013), self-conscious emotions such as shame (Tangney, 1999), feelings of social pain (Mead et al., 2011), and even depression (Dickerson, Gruenewald, & Kemeny, 2009). Self-discrepancies can also trigger cognitive responses, such as ruminative thinking (Lisjak, Bonezzi, Kim, & Rucker, 2015), and a reduced sense of self-worth (Kim & Gal, 2014;Wang et al., 2021). These negative consequences motivate people to engage in efforts to resolve self-discrepancies. ...
... After defining each strategy, we provide examples, clarify the focus of the strategy and the type of benefits offered. People who felt less intelligent were more willing to subscribe to a "brain training program" (Kim & Gal, 2014). ...
... Page 6 of 32 Direct Resolution involves engaging in behavior that improves one's standing in the domain of the self-discrepancy (Kim & Gal, 2014;Mead et al., 2011;Park & Maner, 2009). For example, people who completed a "cognitive intelligence test" and received false failure feedback (vs. ...
In the last two years, consumers have experienced massive changes in consumption – whether due to shifts in habits; the changing information landscape; challenges to their identity, or new economic experiences of scarcity or abundance. What can we expect from these experiences? How are the world's leading thinkers applying both foundational knowledge and novel insights as we seek to understand consumer psychology in a constantly changing landscape? And how can informed readers both contribute to and evaluate our knowledge? This handbook offers a critical overview of both fundamental topics in consumer psychology and those that are of prominence in the contemporary marketplace, beginning with an examination of individual psychology and broadening to topics related to wider cultural and marketplace systems. The Cambridge Handbook of Consumer Psychology, 2nd edition, will act as a valuable guide for teachers and graduate and undergraduate students in psychology, marketing, management, economics, sociology, and anthropology.
... As such, the small-self has been revealed to be effective in coping with stress [30,35]. Accordingly, individuals with an appraisal of the small-self are less likely to assess themselves negatively even if encountering self-deficiency and thus generate low levels of negative emotions [17,18]. In addition, previous research has shown that some states related to the small-self, such as self-distracting [36], self-distancing [34], and mindfulness [37], can also reduce negative reactions in self-threatening situations, which provides further support for the buffering effect of the small-self. ...
... Studies 3 and 4 examined H2 through measuring or manipulation of the small-self. Across four studies (see Table 1), we adopted various manipulations of emotion and different operationalization of the small-self, and implemented experiments in three types of ubiquitous self-threatening situations (i.e., appearance-threat, power-threat, and intelligence-threat) [17,18] to improve the robustness. Moreover, the groups were completely independent among these studies. ...
... After reading the informed consent, the participants assessed their baseline mood (happy, excited, lighthearted, sad, distressed, and downbeat) [40] and awe trait ("I usually feel awe," "I see beauty all around me," "I feel wonder almost every day," "I often look for patterns in the objects around me," "I have many opportunities to see the beauty of nature," "I seek out experiences that challenge my understanding of the world"; α = 0.76) [34] on seven-point scales (1 = not at all, 7 = extremely). Second, we induced the intelligence-threat by asking the participants to answer five difficult Raven intelligence questions within 75 s (the pretest showed that less than 30% of participants answered four or five questions correctly), which was used in previous research [17,18]. Ten seconds after submitting their answers, participants received corresponding feedback: "Unfortunately, your intelligence level ranks in the bottom 10% among all the people participating in the test." ...
Negative emotions arising from self-threat are ubiquitous and harmful. We propose that the experience of awe awakens the small-self, which in turn alleviates these negative emotions. We examine our theoretical hypotheses in four studies employing various self-threatening situations, using distinct awe manipulations and involving participants from different countries. The participants experiencing awe reported lower levels of negative emotions arising from self-threat compared with those in the neutral (Study 1) and happiness conditions (Study 2). Moreover, we verified that the small-self mediates the alleviating effect of awe on negative emotions through measuring (Study 3) and manipulating the small-self (Study 4). Beyond a set of practical implications for promoting mental health and well-being, our research also provides novel insights into awe, self-appraisal, and self-threat.
... Our findings consistently show that self-discrepancy significantly drives NFT advertising responses, with psychological ownership playing a central role in enhancing purchase intentions. By demonstrating how NFTs are perceived as a means of self-expression, our research aligns with the extended-self theory (Belk 1988) and further substantiates how digital possessions fulfill identity-driven needs in ways comparable to physical goods (Elliott and Wattanasuwan 1998;Kim and Gal 2014). Our paper also makes distinct contributions to the fields of NFT, self-discrepancy, psychological ownership, and luxury branding. ...
... Drawing on Gollwitzer, Wicklund, and Hilton (1982), we posit that NFTs are not merely digital assets but represent a canvas for self-expression and identity formation. These virtual goods are akin to products that consumers select to reflect their aspirational selves or to narrow the gap between their actual and desired states (Elliott and Wattanasuwan 1998;Gollwitzer et al. 1982;Hirschman 1981;Kim and Gal 2014;Mandel et al. 2017;Morrison and Johnson 2011). That is, NFTs serve as a symbolic means for individuals to achieve self-completion. ...
Brands are increasingly integrating non-fungible tokens (NFTs) into their marketing tactics, aiming to bolster brand awareness and expand their influence in the metaverse. However, there is limited understanding of the factors that motivate consumers to purchase NFT products and the effective advertising strategies in this context. This paper addresses this gap by examining the influence of self-discrepancy on consumer reactions to NFT advertisements. Results from three experiments demonstrate that individuals with a pronounced self-discrepancy are more inclined to purchase NFTs than non-NFTs. The types of self-discrepancy and NFTs play a role: individuals with a gap between their actual and ideal selves favor virtual-only NFTs, whereas those with a discrepancy between their actual and ought selves favor hybrid NFTs, available in both real and virtual realms. This trend is especially evident for luxury brands. The core mechanism driving these findings is psychological ownership, which shapes consumer purchase intentions toward NFTs.
... Considering this, they receive compensation via other channels [25,34]. This behavior ranges from private, repetitive buying that may lead to negative outcomes, to satisfying public, product-focused interactions [35]. Different types of compensatory consumption may involve various products or services. ...
... However, within the context of the pandemic, finding a way to release this pent-up stress became essential for allowing their exhausted and anxious minds and bodies to relax. The concept of compensatory consumption refers to the desire to purchase, use, or consume products or services as a means of compensating for or reducing the sense of loss of control and lack of self-control [35,69]. ...
This research examines the correlation between the COVID-19 pandemic and the desire to engage in compensatory consuming behaviors, specifically emphasizing emotional eating as a psychological coping strategy, particularly with respect to snacks and sweets. Conducting sentiment analysis by using a Natural Language Processing (NLP) method on posts from Sina Weibo, a leading Chinese social media platform, the research identifies three distinct phases of consumer behavior during the pandemic: anxiety, escapism, and compensatory periods. These stages are marked by varying degrees of emotional eating tendencies, illustrating a psychological trajectory from initial shock to seeking comfort through food as a means of regaining a sense of normalcy and control. The analysis reveals a notable increase in posts expressing a desire for compensatory consumption of snacks and sweets in 2020 compared to 2019, indicating a significant shift towards emotional eating amid the pandemic. This shift reflects the broader psychological impacts of the crisis, offering insights into consumer behavior and the role of digital platforms in capturing public sentiment during global crises. The findings have implications for policymakers, health professionals, and the food industry, suggesting the need for strategies to address the psychological and behavioral effects of natural disasters.
... For example, people experiencing a discrepancy in the physical appearance domain may buy clothes, join a gym, or opt for cosmetic surgery (Park & Maner, 2009;Schouten, 1991). Similarly, Kim and Gal (2014) found that consumers engaged in direct resolution behaviors when faced with discrepancies relating to power and intelligence. In one experiment, individuals were willing to pay more for the book "Power and Influence for Dummies" when experiencing a powerrelated discrepancy. ...
... We propose that imposter discrepancies, albeit different in nature to general self-discrepancies, may drive consumption effects in a similar way (see Kim & Gal, 2014;Schouten, 1991). We find that imposter thoughts heighten intention for direct resolution consumption, specifically increasing engagement intentions for training to improve one's professional competence. ...
We attend to the unexamined intersection between professional social network site (SNS) usage and imposter syndrome. Specifically, we provide the first examination of: do such sites cause imposter thoughts ("others think I am more competent than I think I am"); if so, why and when this happens, and what effect this has on well-being and consumption-related results. Supported by objective self-focused attention theory and two online experiments, we show that professional SNS usage heightens professional self-focused attention, triggering imposter thoughts. This results in negative emotions and consumption-related effects. We further examine two boundary conditions, showing that effects are reduced for individuals high in narcissism or work centrality. From these findings, we extend the sociocognitive theorization of the imposter phenomenon by uncovering, first, context-specific self-focused attention as the reason "why" people feel imposter-ish in particular circumstances and second, consumption-related consequences. We further contribute imposter thoughts as a new alternative explanation for negative emotions experienced whilst using professional SNSs. K E Y W O R D S compensatory consumption, imposter phenomenon, imposter syndrome, LinkedIn, objective self-focused attention, social network sites, well-being
... As an example of direct resolution, consider work by Kim and Gal (2014). The authors exposed participants to a psychological threat through negative feedback about their intelligence. ...
... That is, they are less threatened by negative feedback about the self and can engage in adaptive behavior to improve the self. Consistent with this idea, Kim and Gal (2014) had participants write about either an incidence in which they engaged in self-acceptance (that is, self-acceptance condition) or their last trip to the grocery store (that is, control condition). Participants were then instructed to recall a prior experience in which they had low power, or to write about the room around them. ...
... . These activities are examples of escapism that distract individuals from selfthreat information (Mandel & Smeesters, 2008). As experiential purchases provide increased happiness and satisfaction, affluent consumers engage in reactive compensatory consumption using the experiential purchase as a selection-ignoring strategy (Gilovich & Gallo, 2020;S. Kim & Gal, 2014;Van Boven & Gilovich, 2003). Therefore, when threatened, more affluent consumers prefer experiential purchases to overcome any incongruence induced by upward reference group comparisons. ...
... While existing literature on the WEIRD population illustrates that participants engage in both conspicuous material consumption (Lee & Shrum, 2012;Rucker & Galinsky, 2013;Zheng et al., 2018a) and experiential purchases (Batra & Ghoshal, 2017;H. Kim & Jang, 2020;S. Kim & Gal, 2014), we add to the literature by providing preliminary evidence that the Western population prefers experiential choices as the primary means of conspicuous consumption when undertaking upward reference group comparison. ...
This article investigates the effect of reference group comparison on compensatory consumption for bottom-of-the-pyramid (BOP) consumers. While existing research reveals a relationship between upward social comparisons and compensatory consumption, there has been minimal focus on how BOP consumers react to such comparisons. By conducting multiple studies targeting low-income but educated employees of different organizations, this research demonstrates that BOP consumers engage in conspicuous consumption behavior; in particular, they prefer conspicuous material goods when undergoing reference group comparisons (both upward and downward), which is a marked contrast from their more affluent peers and the western population. Furthermore, while incidental envy explains the underlying mechanism of the relationship between upward reference group comparison and conspicuous material consumption, anxiety is the mediator between downward reference group comparison and conspicuous material consumption for BOP consumers. Overall, this research significantly contributes to the BOP and compensatory consumption literature and has managerial implications for marketers serving BOP markets.
... Research has indicated that discrepancy between where one actually is and where one would like to be in intelligence encourages individuals to seek a "brain training program". Such programmes have proven to reduce the discrepancy that individuals face and boost their intelligence [39]. Similarly, subjects who were confident about their intelligence selected an object associated with intelligence (like a fountain pen) over an object unrelated to intelligence (like a candy) [40]. ...
In the ever-growing exploration of using neural implants beyond therapeutic contexts, researchers are turning their focus to the intriguing connection between the pursuit of perfection and the desire to embrace these technologies. Applying self-discrepancy theory, this study integrates the mediating influence of dissatisfaction with imperfection, while introducing free will and fatalistic determinism as enthralling moderators. Engaging 402 digitally native higher education students from Austria, Spain, Netherlands, and Portugal, the results illuminate a positive link between the quest for perfection and the inclination to adopt neural implants, with dissatisfaction with imperfection acting as a pivotal mediator. Moreover, the findings unveil nuances in the mediation effect based on one’s belief in free will and fatalistic determinism, highlighting a more pronounced association for those with a robust belief in free will compared to their counterparts with a diminished belief in fatalistic determinism. These outcomes not only enrich the literature on psychological predictors but also provide insights into the intricate motivations and mechanisms shaping individuals’ readiness to embrace neural implants. The implications extend to those championing the concept of a human-machine hybrid and to those voicing concerns about the trajectory of neural implant technologies.
... Research has indicated that discrepancy between where one actually is and where one would like to be in intelligence encourages individuals to seek a "brain training program". Such programmes have proven to reduce the discrepancy that individuals face and boost their intelligence [39]. Similarly, subjects who were confident about their intelligence selected an object associated with intelligence (like a fountain pen) over an object unrelated to intelligence (like a candy) [40]. ...
In the ever-growing exploration of using neural implants beyond therapeutic contexts, researchers are turning their focus to the intriguing connection between the pursuit of perfection and the desire to embrace these technologies. Applying self-discrepancy theory, this study integrates the mediating influence of dissatisfaction with imperfection, while introducing free will and fatalistic determinism as enthralling moderators. Engaging 402 digitally native higher education students from Austria, Spain, Netherlands, and Portugal, the results illuminate a positive link between the quest for perfection and the inclination to adopt neural implants, with dissatisfaction with imperfection acting as a pivotal mediator. Moreover, the findings unveil nuances in the mediation effect based on one’s belief in free will and fatalistic determinism, highlighting a more pronounced association for those with a robust belief in free will compared to their counterparts with a diminished belief in fatalistic determinism. These outcomes not only enrich the literature on psychological predictors but also provide insights into the intricate motivations and mechanisms shaping individuals’ readiness to embrace neural implants. The implications extend to those championing the concept of a human-machine hybrid and to those voicing concerns about the trajectory of neural implant technologies.
... For consumers facing perceived scarcity, luxury goods serve as tools to reduce self-discrepancies by conveying a sense of wealth, thereby offering security and reassurance and becoming prevalent forms of compensatory consumption to alleviate perceived scarcity discomfort. [18,25,26]. ...
Perceived scarcity can significantly shape consumer behavior, particularly regarding luxury consumption during economic downturns. This study examines how perceived scarcity influences the preference for luxury goods and assesses the mediating role of perceived control in this relationship. Employing a multi-method approach that combines questionnaire surveys and bias adjustment techniques, this research captures the complex interplay between scarcity cues, perceived control, and consumption behaviors. The findings indicate that when consumers experience scarcity, they are more inclined to seek out luxury goods as a means to restore a sense of psychological balance. Perceived control emerges as a key mediating factor, helping explain why scarcity leads to a heightened interest in luxury products. This mediation suggests that consumers turn to luxury items not solely due to external constraints, but also as a way to reassert control over their circumstances. By integrating compensatory control theory and considering variations in locus of control and perceived economic mobility, this study provides a nuanced understanding of the psychological mechanisms underpinning luxury consumption in resource-constrained contexts. These insights advance theoretical perspectives on scarcity effects and offer practical implications for marketers and policymakers aiming to engage consumers responsibly and effectively in challenging economic environments.
... Based on the theory of compensatory consumption behavior, lonely consumers driven by the desire for social connection may directly seek social interactions to alleviate their loneliness (Kim and Gal, 2014). Rippé et al. (2018) confirmed this, showing that consumers experiencing social and emotional loneliness actively seek social experiences, such as visiting brick-and-mortar . ...
Introduction
With the advancement of the social economy, sports consumption has shifted from traditional material-based purchases to experiential sports consumption, emphasizing psychological engagement and emotional fulfillment. However, the psychological mechanisms behind experiential sports consumption remain underexplored, especially in the context of social exclusion.
Methods
This study is grounded in social exclusion theory, constructing a conceptual model where social exclusion is the independent variable, experiential sports consumption intention is the dependent variable, and loneliness and the need for social connection serve as mediators. A survey was conducted with 415 valid responses, and data were analyzed using structural equation modeling and the Bootstrap method to examine the relationships among the variables.
Results
The findings indicate that social exclusion significantly and positively predicts the intention to engage in experiential sports consumption. It also has a significant positive effect on loneliness and the need for social connection. However, loneliness does not mediate the relationship between social exclusion and experiential sports consumption intention, while the need for social connection does. Furthermore, a chain mediation effect exists between loneliness and the need for social connection in the relationship between social exclusion and experiential sports consumption intention.
Discussion
These results suggest that sports organizations and enterprises should design socially engaging activities that strengthen social connections and alleviate feelings of exclusion. This study enriches the theoretical understanding of social exclusion and its impact on experiential sports consumption, providing practical insights for enhancing social inclusion through sports.
... Approach motivation implies that individuals are driven to achieve goals by approaching and resolving problems, which is typically stimulated when people believe that the discrepancy-related goal is attainable and desirable. Contrarily, avoidance motivation suggests that individuals are motivated to alleviate negative emotions by evading problems, which is stimulated when people believe that the discrepancy-related goal is unattainable or lowly desirable (Diel, Grelle, and Hofmann 2021;Goor, Keinan, and Ordabayeva 2021;Higgins et al. 2001;Kim and Gal 2014;Mandel et al. 2017). ...
Extensive research has examined the implications of the Sense of Feeling Old (SOFO) among older adults, revealing that it often diminishes their consumption of innovative or novel products. However, recent studies indicate that SOFO is not exclusive to the elderly; young people also encounter this phenomenon when exposed to aging‐related cues. Despite this, the influence of SOFO on young people's consumption behavior remains underexplored. This paper addresses this gap by investigating how SOFO influences young people's experiential creation consumption. Through five experimental studies across diverse cultural settings, we demonstrate that SOFO heightens young people's openness to learning, which subsequently enhances their preference for experiential creation. However, these effects are moderated by contingent self‐worth of youthfulness and perceived attainability of youthfulness, with individuals exhibiting low levels in these dimensions showing attenuated responses. Beyond contributing to the literature on SOFO and experiential creation consumption, this research offers practical insights for marketers, suggesting that inducing SOFO can be an effective strategy for promoting experiential creation consumption among young people.
... For example, motivation for self-improvement can be implicated by situational variables, including past shortcomings or failures [6], upcoming challenges [7], and feelings of guilt [1], as well as reminders of resource scarcity [8]. The choice to pursue self-improvement is also influenced by factors within consumers, such as the availability of psychological resources [9][10], self-construction, and culture [11]. In our current work, we expand this literature in a novel way, examining how two different levels of singleness affect consumers' preference for self-improvement products. ...
As China's economy shifts from high-speed development to high-quality development, people pay more and more attention to their own improvement in all aspects. Judging from the current consumption trend of China's people compared with the consumption development process of developed countries, self-improvement products have a broad market space in China. At the same time, with the continuous development of China's economy and the continuous improvement of people's living standards, demographic problems such as late marriage and late childbearing, unmarried and infertile have gradually become prominent, resulting in an increasing number of single groups. Therefore, in recent years, merchants have begun to focus on markets such as healthy eating, kitchen furniture, and single packages for single groups. In contrast, self-improvement products can increase the single group to change their self-identity and obtain substantial and long-term benefits. However, there are few studies that have explored the impact of singles on self-improvement products. Therefore, this paper studies the influencing mechanism of single groups on self-improvement product preferences from an empirical perspective, collects data from young people in Chongqing by combining online and offline methods, analyzes the influencing factors and consumer group characteristics by using relevant models, and puts forward corresponding suggestions for the marketing strategies of government, enterprises and self-improvement products.
... According to research (Kim & Gal, 2014), consumers who possess a greater degree of self-acceptance demonstrate a more favourable self-image. As a result, it is probable that they will select more favourable brand options, a factor that is anticipated to impact the GBPI. ...
In addition to concentrating on making a profit, industries are quickly investigating and investigating new methods, generating novel ideas, and formulating new schemes for remaining competitive in the marketplace in order to achieve sustainable growth. Eudaimonism is a philosophical approach that develops the idea of well-being, this study examines the impact of green brand knowledge (GBK) & perceived green brand credibility (PGBC) on green brand purchasing intention (GBPI). Furthermore, this study examines the influence of two intermediary factors (expected self-acceptance and expected social contribution) on this phenomenon. Using PLS-SEM and a sample of 380 Delhi metropolitan respondents, the suggested model is examined. Online survey was conducted and responses were obtained. The results shows that GBK and PGBC directly influence GBPI and indirectly influence GBPI through expected eudaimonic wellbeing. This paper offers valuable insights for marketers and managers seeking to improve company efficiency via effective advertising tactics and brand management practices.
... Self-threat is a discomfort state; people experiencing self-threat are motivated to take various actions to deal with it (Choi et al., 2019;Reich et al., 2022) and restore their positive self-views (Kim & Gal, 2014;Lockwood et al., 2004). For example, research by Zheng et al. (2018) suggests that engaging in some compensatory consumptions, such as purchasing luxury goods, can mitigate the experiences of threat derived from social comparison. ...
Nowadays, consumers increasingly use mobile apps such as Strava, Fitbit app, Nike Training Club, Duolingo, and WeChat Reading to facilitate goal pursuits in exercising, dieting, studying, working, and learning new skills. These apps not only offer support for users to work toward their goals but also embed features like performance rankings and social profiles to enhance community building and user engagement. These features frequently expose users to social comparisons of their performance in goal‐related tasks (e.g., performance ranking) and other performance‐related dimensions (e.g., age, gender, financial status). Prior research offers limited insights into how these performance and performance‐related comparisons jointly influence consumers’ goal‐pursuit motivation. To address this gap, across four experiments involving one incentive‐compatible study, we find that in the upward performance comparison (the comparison target has superior performance), the comparison target being inferior (vs. superior) on the performance‐related dimension enhances consumers’ self‐threat, which increases consumers’ goal‐pursuit motivation. In the downward performance comparison (the comparison target has inferior performance), the comparison target being superior (vs. inferior) on the performance‐related dimension enhances consumers’ self‐efficacy, which increases their goal‐pursuit motivation.
... This type of behavior has historically been termed "compensatory consumption" meaning that people behave in a manner (e.g. choose travel), to compensate for discrepancies between their desired state of being (Kim and Gal, 2014). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the state of the literature related to the psychophysiological effects of travel, to identify gaps in the literature and to propose a vision to guide research between now and 2050.
Design/methodology/approach
The study was guided by a systematic literature review which started with more than 2,100 papers. The extant review and its findings are written in a conceptual nature with the concluding propositions, for the year 2050, guided by the systematic review and the authors’ personal knowledge.
Findings
It was found that research related to the psychophysiological effects of travel has greatly progressed over the past two decades. Findings include evidence that travel reduces both perceived and actual stresses and that taking more vacations has the ability to make people healthier. The study also revealed that travel can have negative effects on physiological health. The overall results led to a call for research on the psychophysiological benefits of travel between now and 2050.
Research limitations/implications
The systematic review of literature was limited to studies conducted in English and to studies that included the words “travel” or “tourism” and “benefits”, stress, “health” and “wellness”. Results provide a discussion of theories that should guide the research agenda.
Practical implications
The review and proposed vision for research provide a detailed guide for researchers to follow. Should the proposed research come to fruition, tourism practitioners globally will have results to aid in engineering tourism experiences that could provide health benefits to visitors.
Social implications
The proposed vision could have profound social implications, as the understanding of the positive and negative effects of travel should make travel experiences healthier for all. The study also proposes a call for research to determine ways to make the benefits of travel available to both the “haves” and “have nots” so that the benefits of travel can be more inclusive.
Originality/value
The main contribution of this manuscript is that it proposes 11 propositions for research between now and 2050 based on a thorough review of gaps related to the psychophysiological benefits of travel. The resultant propositions provide a clear and unique call for research in this area of inquiry.
... This poses a massive potential for extending the remediation role of selfcompassion against self-threats and studying its moderating role in shaping compensatory consumption tendencies. A previous research study by Kim and Gal (2014) found that selfacceptance played a role in denouncing self-discrepancies and decreasing maladaptive compensatory consumption. In addition, non-governmental organizations and consumer advocacy groups could run awareness and social marketing campaigns to intervene in a vicious cycle of pursuing compensatory consumption. ...
Purpose
This study aims to develop and validate a measure for conspicuous compensatory consumption. Compensatory consumption phenomenon is gaining increased significance in consumer behavior literature. In a symbolic-rich culture, the use of possessions creates a perfect venue for self-construction and self-repairing to make up for one’s psychological deficiencies and inadequacies.
Design/methodology/approach
A mixed research design of qualitative and quantitative methodologies is adopted by using elicitation techniques, interviews and survey data. Extensive development and validation procedures are used. A series of studies, encompassing a total sample of 1,782, are reported.
Findings
The current study offers a valid and reliable measure for conspicuous compensatory consumption by chronologically following the stages of the scale development process. Compensatory consumption had a negative influence on subjective happiness and a positive influence on negative affect and satisfaction with life. Respondents with high materialism scores had significantly higher compensatory tendencies than the low materialism group. The low self-compassionate group had significantly higher compensatory tendencies than the high self-compassionate group.
Originality/value
The current study provides theoretical contributions to consumer behavior research by providing a valid and reliable measure for conspicuous compensatory consumption. Contrary to past scales that followed a mood-alleviation perspective where therapeutic shopping is used to regulate negative emotions, this scale is novel in adopting a self-completion approach where products are pursued for a tactical effort to offset threatened self-concepts.
... Furthermore, studies for the social comparison perspective have extended from personal attributes (Gerber, 2020;Gibbons & Buunk, 1999;Wheeler & Miyake, 1992;Wood, 1989) to consumer behaviors (Jani & Han, 2013;Richins, 1995). These studies in the marketing research developed around the different customer buying preferences, such as green/sustainable buying behavior (Antonides, 2017;Kumar & Ghodeswar, 2015;Kumar et al., 2014;Usmani and Ejaz, 2020), preferences for luxury goods (Lee & Watkins, 2016;Mandel et al., 2006;Pillai & Nair, 2021;Zhang & Kim, 2013), compulsive buying (Attiq and Azam, 2015;Islam et al., 2018;Pahlevan et al., 2022), co-consumption behaviors (Gerber et al., 2018;Sukoco et al., 2016;Wei et al., 2012Wei et al., , 2021, and compensatory consumption (Chowdhury & Swaminathan, 2023;Kim & Gal, 2014;Koles, et al., 2018;Rucker & Galinsky, 2008). ...
Social comparison theory provides valuable insights into how individuals assess themselves by comparing various facets of their lives to others. This theory offers a framework that helps in understanding the motivations behind self‐evaluation and improvement, as well as shaping consumer behaviors. The extensive body of research related to the theory has resulted in numerous publications across various domains, hindering a comprehensive overview of the research field and constraining its progress. Our multi‐disciplinary study addresses the fragmented scholarly landscape through a hierarchical bibliometric analysis, unveiling key authors, themes, and connections, and emphasizing its current state and future potential, particularly in the marketing domain. Our research indicates that interest in social comparison theory has surged, driven by social media's impact on body image and self‐esteem. Our findings also highlight the significance of themes such as body image, envy, social media, motivation, and life satisfaction, revealing the multifaceted expansion of the theory across various fields.
... Additionally, buying study materials or participating in extracurricular activities can help students improve themselves. Kim and Gal (2014) proposed that through adaptive consumption, consumers are able to improve themselves in terms of their self-deficits. Han et al. (2015) suggested that identity threats related to approach motivation activate problem-focusing coping strategies. ...
Experiences of negative self-discrepancies can give rise to threats to one’s identity, thus increasing or decreasing approach behaviors directed toward the primed identity. Although previous researchers have investigated how consumers cope with such discrepancies through identity-relevant compensatory consumption, such research has usually focused on individual identities in isolation. That is, scholars have often overlooked the facts that consumers exhibit more than one identity and that these multiple identities can interact. The current research investigates how and why consumers seek help from alternative identities when attempting to overcome self-discrepancies by focusing on two aspects of the multiple-identity perspective: identity importance and identity complexity. The results of three empirical studies reveal that consumers are more likely to seek assistance from another identity (i.e., to employ an across-domain compensatory strategy) when they perceive the threatened identity as being of low importance. Self-avoidance motivation mediates this effect. Furthermore, perceiving one’s identity structure as complex (i.e., a high level of identity complexity) can enhance avoidance motivation, especially with regard to less important identities, and subsequently cause people to become more likely to focus on across-domain compensation. This research introduces a multiple-identity perspective into the literature on compensatory consumption, illustrates the interaction effect of identity importance and identity complexity on consumer behavior, and emphasizes the significance of interactions among various identities in this context; the implications of this research for marketing research and practice are also discussed.
... However, the connections between a product and a self-domain can also be made explicit, particularly through marketing tactics. Examples include compensating for intelligence threats with a pen marketed as a "Brain Pen" (Kim and Gal, 2014) or compensating for competence threats with a game with the slogan "A Skillful Board Game" (Lisjak et al., 2015). ...
Purpose
Studies have shown that within-domain compensatory consumption can successfully repair the damaged self, but other research indicates that it can undermine self-control because such consumption causes self-threat rumination that impairs self-regulatory resources. This paper aims to identify a boundary condition that reconciles and explains these contradictory findings.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conducted three experiments to show that within-domain compensatory consumption undermines self-control, but only in some situations. They test a boundary condition (i.e. type of connections between within-domain products and self-threat domain) for the effects of such consumption on self-threat rumination and self-control.
Findings
This paper demonstrates that within-domain (but not across-domain) compensatory consumption induces rumination and reduces subsequent self-control, but only when the product’s connection to the self-threat domain is made explicit through brand names or slogans. When the connection is merely implicit, rumination and self-control deficits are not observed.
Practical implications
Consumers may seek certain products to bolster threatened aspects of their self-concept. Marketing tactics that explicitly highlight connections to such self-aspects can lower a consumer’s self-control resulting in stronger purchase intent, while at the same time hindering the possibility of self-concept repair. Managers need to be wary of ethical concerns.
Originality/value
This research qualifies the existing findings by presenting “type of product connection” as a key determinant of within-domain compensatory consumption’s impact on self-control. Researchers need to be conscious of the type of products (explicitly vs implicitly connected to the self-threat domain) they use in compensatory consumption studies, because this may influence their findings.
... Ludzie odczuwający braki w aspekcie poczucia własnej wartości przyjmują różne strategie radzenia sobie, np. spożywanie dużych ilości alkoholu, objadanie się, nałogowe robienie zakupów; mogą także doświadczyć innych uzależnień, w których dominuje poczucie winy (Kim, Gal, 2014). Jednostce o niskim poziomie samoakceptacji z trudnością będzie przychodziło radzenie sobie z relacjami o negatywnej charakterystyce (Nisa, Siri, 2019, za: Pastimo, Muslikah, 2022, w efekcie czego mogą pojawić się takie zachowania jak wycofywanie się z życia lub wrogość. ...
People with increased perfectionism have greater interpersonal difficulties. It can also be concluded that low self-acceptance may be associated with difficulties in relationships with others. The aim of the study was to investigate how self-acceptance explains closeness in interpersonal relationships and the level of positive relationships with others. It also focused on how closeness in relationships and the quality of relationships with others is explained by self-acceptance and some sub-dimensions of perfectionism. The sample consisted of 219 adults aged 18–64 (M = 32.63; SD = 12.96) who completed the Perfectionism Scale (BTPS), the Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWBS) and the Unidimensional Relationship Closeness Scale (URCS). The statistical methods included correlation and regression analyses. Self-acceptance explains the intensity of positive relationships with others as opposed to closeness in relationships. In terms of perfectionism, positive relationships with others were explained by self-acceptance, self-esteem conditioning and action doubt. The results are a prelude to further research on the relationship between perfectionism, self-acceptance and interpersonal relationships.
... This view is consistent with the theory of social identity, which postulates that a customer's desire for identity, a brand's mass prestige, hedonic rewards, and distinctiveness increase a brand's passion and the intent to purchase (Gilal et al., 2022;Homburg et al., 2015;Swimberghe et al., 2014). Kim and Gal (2014) and Mandel et al. (2017) also stated that lower self-esteem in consumers is more likely to involve conspicuous consumption of luxury brands. Status symbol luxury brands are used as a means to compensate for fears of self-threats (Pettit & Sivanathan, 2011;Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010), to reduce negative selfconcepts (Fastoso et al., 2018), to attain social recognition (Neave et al., 2020;O'cass & McEwen, 2004), to signal prestige to others, and to enhance self-esteem (Desmichel & Rucker, 2023;T oth et al., 2022). ...
Consumers prefer brands that provide them with symbolic meaning, and they use them to enhance their self‐esteem and develop their status and personal images. Self‐esteem is an important psychological factor that contributes to an individual's purchase intentions and consumption behavior, but its role in shaping the consumption of masstige brands has not been thoroughly researched. Hence, this research aims: (1) to identify the masstige brands in the smartphone industry of Pakistan using the masstige mean index, and (2) to explore the role of self‐esteem in consumer consumption behavior grounded in terms of masstige, self‐gifting behavior, and brand personality. Moreover, this study uses self‐gifting behavior as the mediator and brand personality as the moderator in the relationship between self‐esteem and masstige purchase intention. The data from study 1 (n = 560) and study 2 (n = 329) were collected using a self‐administered questionnaire and analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results indicate that masstige brand consumption is influenced by self‐esteem; this relationship is mediated by self‐gifting behavior, and brand personality moderates the association. Theoretically, this study contributes to the masstige theory by exploring the role of self‐esteem in masstige consumption in an emerging economy. Practically, this study provides a comprehensive guideline for brand managers to devise effective marketing strategies to build their brands as masstige brands.
... Conspicuous goods Goods bought to presume/show one's identity, status, or relative wealth to others (Veblen, 1967) From an interpersonal comparison perspective, well-being would derive from the "pride effect" that the owner of a good feels after assessing his situation relative to others (Bárcena-Martín et al., 2017). Nonetheless, research also suggests that individuals with low levels of self-esteem are more eager to engage in this type of consumption (Kim & Gal, 2014;Mandel et al., 2017), so a negative relationship could arise in a crosssectional study. ...
The idea that not all types of consumption benefit well-being is not new. However, its recent formalization within the framework of the behavioral and social sciences has led to a rapid expansion of knowledge about the goods that are most effective in increasing happiness. Most evidence has been obtained from the developed world and with a focus on broad categories that ignore meaningful heterogeneities. This paper contributes to this domain by conducting a detailed analysis of the relationship that happiness has with a variety of market goods and with aggregate measures of purchasing power. We do this using the data of Ecuador, a country characterized by a relational-oriented culture, high collectivist values, structural inequalities, and weak political institutions. Throughout the paper, we tested various hypotheses related to this particular context. The results show that consumption is superior to income as a predictor of happiness. Higher levels of happiness can also be seen among people who spend more on relational and time-saving goods; less on health and alcohol; and own a good quality of dwelling. As for basic goods, some seem beneficial in the whole sample analysis, but they exhibit a stronger relationship with happiness among the poor. Additionally, we find that, in most cases, public goods as well as paying taxes correlate negatively with happiness. Moreover, we identify some heterogeneities that shed light on the behavior of the poor and that reflect unequal distribution of household tasks.
... The COVID-19 pandemic is considered the worst virus since World War II and has resulted in cancellations or postponements of travel plans due to high associated risks, causing negative psychological impacts such as frustration, anxiety, and stress . This has led to compensatory consumption, where people engage in compulsive buying, compensatory eating, and retail therapy to offset their negative experiences (Kim & Gal, 2014;Liu et al., 2023). Impulsive behavior plays a significant role in hospitality and tourism consumption and is expected to persist even after the pandemic (Liu et al., 2022;Loo, 2017). ...
... Maintaining consistency between the self and the ideal self is an important intrinsic human motive. Individuals cope with self-threats by resolving discrepancies between the two self-concepts (Smith and Kim, 2007;Dufner et al., 2019), such as through self-enhancing behaviors (Kim and Gal, 2014) and compensatory consumption of conspicuous products (Rucker et al., 2008). These coping strategies reduce selfdiscrepancy by escalating the self to move toward the ideal self. ...
... Previous work has demonstrated that self-acceptance is a functional skill [19], and that perfectionism (not to be confused with striving for excellence) is related to negative health outcomes [19]. Self-acceptance is relevant to happiness and life satisfaction [3] and has several positive outcomes such as longevity [22], a higher likelihood to resolve self-deficits [18], and more experienced harmony in life [13]. Our work highlights a potential to study effects of tabletop role-playing on self-acceptance through embracing flaws in fantasy characters. ...
Tabletop role-playing games are experiencing a peak in popularity and prior work shows that role-playing can be beneficial for mental health. While little research effort has been invested into this area, most studies point towards positive outcomes of playing tabletop role-playing games. This work explores the potential for the acceptance of flaws through role-playing by comparing how novice and expert players approach character creation. The results of this exploratory study show that experienced role-players are more likely to report that they want to play a character with weaknesses and less likely to be interested in playing a flawless character. Additional findings and implications are discussed in the paper.
... Compensatory Consumption (CC) has been described as consumption in response to some kind of underprivilege, suppression or privation (Gronmo, 1988). Whenever people experience adverse circumstances, psychological states, self-threat, or stress, they seek to alter these conditions by exhibiting increased consumption patterns (Kim and Gal, 2014;Kim and Rucker, 2012). They seek to compensate for their feelings of frustration and anger, as well JHTI as the loss of behavioural freedom to buy, by purchasing hedonic products (Lins et al., 2022). ...
Purpose
After each of the COVID-19-induced lockdowns, an unprecedented surge in leisure travel was observed, resulting in tourists flocking to places of tourist interest. This phenomenon was termed revenge travel in popular literature. The purpose of this study is to explore the phenomenon of revenge travel in detail through an academic lens. It examines the psychological and emotional motivations for revenge travel while studying the differences in travel behaviour pre- and post-pandemic.
Design/methodology/approach
The study applies an interpretive phenomenological approach to explore post-pandemic travel behaviour. Data were collected via personal in-depth semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis of the transcripts was conducted to arrive at discussion themes.
Findings
Drawing on the established theories, the findings of the study indicate that lockdown fatigue coupled with mortality salience induced individuals towards leisure travel. This in turn led to mood alleviation and compensation for the deprivation undergone.
Practical implications
The study reveals important insights into post-pandemic preferences of travel destinations (off-beat locations near urban clusters), accommodation options (more travellers choosing home stays and stand-alone properties) and vacation itineraries (a gradual shift towards slow tourism with more focus on immersive experiences). Further, there are indications that hotels may develop “workcations” and “staycations” as a new line of offering.
Originality/value
The study adds to the small body of knowledge on revenge travel. It adopts a phenomenological approach, thereby capturing the “lived experiences” of the participants and providing an in-depth look into the psychological and emotional motivations of revenge travel that have not been explored previously. The study provides insights into the travellers' psychology post a period of withdrawal and restraint.
The article explores life‐role transitions, which refer to the changes in a person's identity, roles, and responsibilities as they progress through different life stages. This study posits nostalgic consumption as a novel coping mechanism for managing life‐role transitions. Across four studies, we discovered that consumers showed a preference for nostalgic products during periods of life‐role transition, with self‐authenticity threat serving as the core mechanism that could be mitigated through the consumption of nostalgic items. Individuals with an independent self‐construal are less influenced by external environments and thus may experience a mitigated impact of life‐role transitions on nostalgic consumption preferences. Theoretically broadening life‐role transition studies and deepening insights into self‐authenticity, this research practically equips marketers with strategies to target consumers during life‐role transitions, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of nostalgic consumption marketing.
The transformation and modernisation of Vietnamese society through the ‘Doi moi’ policy.
Purpose
Generation Z (GenZers) significantly influences sustainability-related issues in emerging economies like India. Literature on sustainability suggests exploring ways to enhance their sustainable behavior, especially for food and clothing products, which have detrimental consequences despite being essential. Mindfulness is often proposed as a factor that could potentially influence sustainability. However, the empirical association between mindfulness and sustainable consumption behavior (SCB) and the underlying pathways remain underexplored. Therefore, this study aims to advance the empirical understanding of how GenZers’ trait mindfulness affects their SCB for food and clothing.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on a time-lagged study involving responses from 519 Indian GenZers (college students aged 18–24 years) the authors examined two models (one for SCB related to food and one for clothing) to explore the direct relationships and mediating factors between trait mindfulness and SCB.
Findings
GenZers with higher levels of trait mindfulness are more likely to influence their SCB for food and clothing. Besides, in both models, self-regulation, self-compassion and prosocialness mediate the association between trait mindfulness and SCB.
Research limitations/implications
Mindfulness and its intervening variables are promising for positively driving SCB for food and clothing. Marketers and policymakers can consider these findings to strategize and encourage sustainable consumption, particularly among GenZers.
Originality/value
This seminal study uses the reperceiving theory to empirically validate the relationship between GenZers’ trait mindfulness and SCB for food and clothing.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to develop a typology of brand haters, depending on their coping processes to the different stressful consumption situations, and associate these hate profiles with their corresponding psychological traits.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper uses a mixed methodology composed of two phases, a qualitative and a quantitative one, conducted simultaneously. The aim of the qualitative study is to define clusters of the antecedents and consequences of brand hate and better understand the coping responses of brand haters. This phase uses the OMIE (Multi-Image Elicitation) tool. During the quantitative phase, a series of multiple correspondence analyses (MCAs) allows characterizing and mapping each segment of brand haters according to their personality traits and the coping processes identified during the qualitative phase.
Findings
Depending on their motives and the consequences of their brand hate, we identified three distinct types of brand haters. First, rational haters are particularly sensitive to the brand’s deceptive nature, leading to deep feelings of disappointment and efforts to avoid the brand. Next, hostile haters express an active form of hate driven by unauthentic brand practices or ideological reasons (e.g. exploitation of children), often with a focus on revenge. Lastly, threatened haters experience both passive and active forms of brand hate, stemming from perceived physical and mental threats that extend beyond individual complaints to broader societal issues. In terms of psychological profiles, our findings suggest that rational haters may exhibit extraverted and sophisticated personalities. Hostile haters, on the other hand, are associated with conscientious personality traits. Finally, threatened haters are characterized as agreeable and creative.
Originality/value
The paper uses a unique approach to map hater profiles with their coping responses and psychological traits. Additionally, the mixed methodology employed in this research contributes to its originality.
Compensatory consumption is a typical strategy used by consumers to alleviate feelings of self‐discrepancy. This phenomenon occurs in multiple contexts, and the related literature has experienced rapid and fragmented growth. This article presents a systematic review of 96 articles on compensatory consumption published in 42 journals over 26 years (from 1997 to 2023). Using the antecedents, decisions, and outcomes (ADO) model, we propose a framework that covers the entire compensatory consumption journey, linking an individual's types of discrepancy with the underlying mechanisms, coping strategies, and compensatory behaviors. We also explore the positive and negative outcomes of compensatory behaviors and the potential for the process to become a continuous compensation cycle. Our findings highlight four significant themes (antecedents, compensation strategies, outcomes, and methodologies) that need to be further investigated in future studies.
Purpose
This research was motivated by the recognition that the use of mobile-based agricultural extension services (AES) applications has become increasingly popular among the bottom of the pyramid segment in recent years. However, users’ adoption is determined not only by their perception of the technology but also by its perceived wealth. In other words, even though a technology may be perceived as advanced, if it does not fit users’ wealth perception benefits, they may not adopt it. Using an extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) perspective, this study aims to explore potential predictors of behavioral intention toward AES such as effort expectancy, performance expectancy, customer wealth (CW), social influence and perceived characteristics of innovation.
Design/methodology/approach
Potential causal connections between key UTAUT factors and users’ intentions to use the services are hypothesized. An integrated theoretical model was developed and tested against the empirical data collected from 336 AES users. A measurement model and structural equation model were tested using AMOS 22.0 and confirmed all 14 hypothesized relationships.
Findings
The results were consistent with the recent literature on mobile technology acceptance, confirming an unmoderated relationship between CW and the adoption of mobile-based AES. This research proposes a mobile AES user adoption model by integrating CW with the unified theory of acceptance and usage of technology (UTAUT).
Originality/value
This study establishes CW as an outcome of various relationships.
This research is an empirical investigation of the interaction effect between self‐deficit and benefit‐appeal message framing upon subsequent environmental sustainability decision‐making. Based on the self‐discrepancy theory, the current research demonstrates that behavioral intentions that encourage environmental sustainability could serve as a means of compensating for the self‐deficit appraisal. Two online experiments empirically test that self‐deficit moderated the effect of benefit‐appeal (self vs. other) on ad evaluation and purchasing intention toward an environmentally sustainable brand. In particular, Study 1 demonstrated that when in a self‐deficit state, self‐benefit appeals are more effective than altruistic other‐benefit appeals in enhancing positive advertising evaluation and purchase intention toward a brand that advocates environmental sustainability. On the other hand, the opposite pattern was captured when self‐deficit was minimized. Study 2 replicated these findings using a different brand, confirming the interaction effect between self‐deficit and benefit appeal, and further investigated whether consumers' positive ad evaluation mediates the interaction effect of benefit appeals and self‐deficit on purchase intention. The findings also offer managerial implications recommending that advertisers and marketers tailor their ad messaging to match consumers' desires and wants.
This research explores the impact of discriminatory brand advertisements on groups experiencing discrimination, employing the transactional theory of stress and coping. The findings reveal that
discriminatory-offensive advertisements induce stress, quantified via
galvanic skin response, predominantly in highly discriminated groups.
This stress subsequently catalyzes motivational approach tendencies
over time, as evidenced by electroencephalogram measurements. The
study strongly advises marketers to recognize the negative psychological
impact of discriminatory advertisements. It underscores the ethical implications and societal detriment, advocating for policy interventions to
curb such advertisements.
Powerlessness is a prevalent experience in everyday life. Although research has indicated that consumption can restore a sense of power, it remains unclear how people cope with powerlessness when regaining power is impossible. We propose that in such circumstances nostalgia consumption can act as a coping strategy, and examine if so, then how and when powerlessness increases consumer preference for nostalgic products. Across eight studies (including three supplementary studies), we found that consumers preferred nostalgic products when they felt powerless more than when they felt powerful. Uncertainty about the future acted as the underlying mechanism, one that consumers could alleviate by consuming nostalgic products. When high-status and nostalgic products were both available and regaining power was therefore possible, consumers with higher self-acceptance still preferred nostalgic products, whereas ones with lower self-acceptance preferred high-status products.
Purpose
The purpose of this research is to explore the effect of goal type of user-generated content (UGC) on consumers' intention of within-domain and across-domain compensatory consumption in closed social media platforms, the mediating effect of self-threat, self-enhancement and self-protection motivation and the moderating effect of self-efficacy.
Design/methodology/approach
Four between-subject experiments were conducted to verify the hypotheses presented in this research. Study 1a had a sample size of 60 respondents and examined the effect of goal type of UGC on compensatory consumption. Study1b replicated the effect by using a sample size of 60 respondents. Study 2 had a sample size of 70 respondents and verified the mediating role of self-threat, self-enhancement motivation and self-protection motivation. Study 3 examined self-efficacy as a critical moderator by using a sample of 255 participants.
Findings
Study 1a and Study 1b demonstrate that UGC with an attainment goal (vs maintenance goal) is more easily produced within-domain and across-domain compensatory consumption. Study 2 verifies that the effect of goal type of UGC on within-domain compensatory consumption is serially mediated by self-threat and self-enhancement motivation, and the effect of goal type of UGC on across-domain compensatory consumption is serially mediated by self-threat and self-protection motivation. Study 3 demonstrates that self-efficacy not only moderates the effects of self-threat on within-domain or across-domain compensatory consumption respectively, but also moderates the whole mediating path structure.
Originality/value
This research extends the understanding of UGC and addresses the inconclusive evidence of the impact of goal type of UGC on consumer compensatory behavior in the context of closed social media platforms. The authors identify the moderating role of self-efficacy, which explains why consumers adopt different compensatory strategies.
In the last two years, consumers have experienced massive changes in consumption – whether due to shifts in habits; the changing information landscape; challenges to their identity, or new economic experiences of scarcity or abundance. What can we expect from these experiences? How are the world's leading thinkers applying both foundational knowledge and novel insights as we seek to understand consumer psychology in a constantly changing landscape? And how can informed readers both contribute to and evaluate our knowledge? This handbook offers a critical overview of both fundamental topics in consumer psychology and those that are of prominence in the contemporary marketplace, beginning with an examination of individual psychology and broadening to topics related to wider cultural and marketplace systems. The Cambridge Handbook of Consumer Psychology, 2nd edition, will act as a valuable guide for teachers and graduate and undergraduate students in psychology, marketing, management, economics, sociology, and anthropology.
Recognition of the value of acceptance of the self, others, and the flux of human experience, has philosophical and religious roots that date back thousands of years. The past two decades have witnessed a swell of interest in acceptance, as evidenced by an increase in acceptance-based therapeutic interventions, and a growing appreciation of the paradoxical nature of acceptance and personal change and the role of experiential avoidance in psychopathology. In this article we review historical and contemporary descriptions and definitions of acceptance, measures of acceptance, the relation between acceptance and change, and the role of acceptance in psychopathology and psychotherapy. Our central objective is to delineate a rich conceptual scheme that encompasses the diverse ways in which acceptance has been explicated in classical and contemporary writings, and to highlight the need for further validation of this useful and popular construct.
This research introduces the distinction between compensatory consumption that is engaged in after, as opposed to before, one experiences a self-threat (termed reactive vs. proactive compensatory consumption). Five experiments document the phenomenon of proactive compensatory consumption as well as corresponding boundary conditions for its effect. Furthermore, whereas both reactive and proactive compensatory consumption are associated with seeking products that symbolically relate to an experienced or potential threat, we demonstrate that reactive compensatory consumption is more likely to be associated with the use of products for the purpose of distraction. We examine how and when these different forms of compensatory consumption affect consumers’ preferences versus actual consumption behavior. Implications for delineating reactive versus proactive compensatory consumption in the literature, as well as the use of consumption for the purpose of symbolic self-completion versus distraction, are discussed.
The self-control literature is premised on the notion of myopia (shortsightedness or present-biased preferences) and assumes that choosing vices generates regret. An alternative perspective suggests that consumers often suffer from a reverse self-control problem-namely, excessive farsightedness and overcontrol, or "hyperopia." This research examines whether consumers can foresee the detrimental long-term consequences of hyperopia. Five studies demonstrate that anticipating long-term regret relaxes self-control and motivates consumers to counteract their righteousness. Consumers are more likely to select indulgences and luxuries when they judge the longer-term regrets of others, anticipate their own regret in the distant future, and reflect on their regret regarding an actual decision made in the more distant past. The article concludes with two field experiments that examine the effect of anticipatory regret on real consumer purchases at a shopping mall and during Thanksgiving. These experiments demonstrate that anticipating long-term regret leads consumers to buy pleasurable products rather than practical necessities and to spend more on shopping. The implications for marketers and consumers are discussed.
A case is made for the substitutability of self-esteem regulation mechanisms such as cognitive dissonance reduction, self-affirmation, and social comparison. For example, a threat to self via cognitive dissonance might be reduced by a favorable social comparison outcome. To explain substitution, it is suggested that self-esteem regulation mechanisms inevitably produce affect and that affect mediates the completion of various self-esteem regulation processes. Substitution can be understood in terms of the transfer of affect from the initial mechanism to the substitute mechanism. To be effective, this transfer must take place without awareness. Also discussed is the substitution of self-esteem regulation mechanisms across different self-domains versus within a single self-domain. Current theory suggests that substitution might be more effective within domain; that is, it is better to bolster the aspect of self that has been threatened. It is suggested here, however, that substitution across self-domain might be relatively resilient and easier to accomplish.
The objective of this systematic review of studies using self-affirmation manipulations was to identify research gaps and provide information to guide future research. We describe study characteristics, categories of manipulations, and report effects on various dependent variables. Our search strategies yielded 47 eligible articles (69 studies). Manipulations varied by affirmation domain (values or personal characteristics), attainment (participant- or investigator-identified), and procedure (scale, essay, feedback, etc.). Most dependent variables were cognitive. Strong effects of self-affirmation were found for attitudes and persuasion/bias, but future work is needed for variables with mixed results including risk cognitions, intentions, and behavior. Suggestions and considerations for future research involving self-affirmation manipulations are discussed.
Two studies examined the relationship between the content of a self-threat and the attractiveness of available self-affirmations (C. M. Steele, 1988). After self-threat was induced by means of a cognitive dissonance procedure, participants' choices for affirmations were examined in order to explore whether the attractiveness of a given affirmation depends on its relevance to the threatened domain of the self-concept. The authors hypothesized that when faced with a threat to a specific self-conception or standard, individuals may forego affirmations within the threatened self-concept domain in favor of affirmations of unrelated, compensatory domains. Both studies supported this hypothesis and further suggested that such selective self-affirmation can lead individuals to modify their self-concepts by identifying with self-aspects that justify dissonant behavior and by disidentifying with the standards that such behavior violates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this article the construct of generalized expectancies for internal vs external control of reinforcement is used as a model to present a brief on the importance of broad theory and training in theory construction and evaluation in psychology. Specifically, the extraordinary heuristic value of this construct is attributed to 4 characteristics: the nature of the definition, the careful imbedding of the construct in a theoretical context, the use of a broad behavior theory in construction of a measure of individual differences, and the programmatic nature of the original research as well as the format of the early publications. Reevaluation of the characteristic criteria for publication of research studies and for the evaluation of promotion or advancement for psychologists involved in research activities is also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research concerned with self-acceptance has contributed very little to the understanding of the concept. The research evidence is inadequate because investigators have neglected several crucial psychometric and methodological principles. The absence of data concerning the generality of self-acceptance and the implications of the difference between a phenomenological approach to self-acceptance and a behavioristic approach makes interpretation of research results even more difficult. From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2HE04C. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Prior research has shown that exerting self-control can lead to increased aggression. In the present research, we find that exerting self-control is associated with angry behavior more broadly. In particular, using a “matched-choice paradigm,” we find that after exerting self-control people exhibit increased preference for anger-themed content, greater interest in faces exhibiting anger, greater endorsement of anger-framed appeals, and greater irritation to others’ attempts to control their behavior. We speculate on the possible mechanisms underlying these effects and discuss the theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of this research.
Nineteen obese females applying for treatment for binge eating were administered a semistructured interview assessing the presence or absence of food restrictions, thoughts, feelings and physical sensations associated with binges, typical precipitants to binges, and factors identified as useful in avoiding binge eating. Both negative mood and abstinence violations emerged as important precipitants. The results also suggested that these precipitants constitute separate, independent pathways to binge eating. Implications of these findings with respect to restraint theory are discussed.
Low self-esteem is usually considered unhealthy, but according to rational-emotive behavior therapy, any level of self-esteem reflects a dysfunctional habit of globally evaluating one's worth; it would be preferable to accept oneself unconditionally. This hypothesis was tested by examining several correlates of scores on a novel questionnaire measure of unconditional self-acceptance (USA). In a nonclinical adult sample, statistically controlling for self-esteem, USA was inversely correlated with anxiety symptoms and with narcissism, positively correlated with state mood after imaginal exposure to negative events. Other predicted associations of USA (with depression, happiness, and self-deception) either were not evident or became nonsignificant when self-esteem was taken into account. Discussion centered on the conceptual and operational distinctions between self-esteem and self-acceptance.
Research on self-esteem has focused almost exclusively on level of trait self-esteem to the neglect of other potentially more important aspects such as the contingencies on which self-esteem is based. Over a century ago, W. James (1890) argued that self-esteem rises and falls around its typical level in response to successes and failures in domains on which one has staked self-worth. We present a model of global self-esteem that builds on James' insights and emphasizes contingencies of self-worth. This model can help to (a) point the way to understanding how self-esteem is implicated in affect, cognition, and self-regulation of behavior, (b) suggest how and when self-esteem is implicated in social problems; (c) resolve debates about the nature and functioning of self-esteem; (d) resolve paradoxes in related literatures, such as why people who are stigmatized do not necessarily have low self-esteem and why self-esteem does not decline with age; and (e) suggest how self-esteem is causally related to depression. In addition, this perspective raises questions about how contingencies of self-worth are acquired and how they change, whether they are primarily a resource or a vulnerability, and whether some people have noncontingent self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
Drawing on the motivated cognition literature, we examine how self-affirmation processes influence self-justification needs and escalation decisions. Study 1 found that individuals with a larger pool of affirmational resources (high self-esteem) reduced their escalation compared to those with fewer affirmational resources (low self-esteem). Study 2 extended these findings by demonstrating that individuals also de-escalated their commitments when they were provided an opportunity to affirm on an important value. Finally, Study 3 found that affirming on traits that were of low relevance (e.g., creativity) to an initial decision reduced escalation, but affirming on decision-relevant traits (e.g., decision-making ability) ironically increased escalation. Across three studies, using three instantiations of self-affirmations and two measures of escalation, the results highlight the potential benefits and costs of using self-affirmation as a vehicle to de-escalate commitment.
Dysthymia is a depressive mood disorder characterized by chronic and persistent but mild depression. It is often difficult to be distinguished from major depression, specifically in its partially remitted state because "loss of interest" or "apathy" tends to prevail both in dysthymia, and remitted depression. Apathy may also occur in various psychiatric and neurological disorders, including schizophrenia, stroke, Parkinson's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, Huntington's disease, and dementias such as Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal dementia. It is symptomatologically important that apathy is related to, but different from, major depression from the viewpoint of its causes and treatment. Antidepressants, especially noradrenergic agents, are useful for depression-related apathy. However, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may be less effective for apathy in depressed elderly patients and have even been reported to worsen apathy. Dopaminergic agonists seem to be effective for apathy. Acetylcholine esterase inhibitors, methylphenidate, atypical antipsychotics, nicergoline, and cilostazol are another choice. Medication choice should be determined according to the background and underlying etiology of the targeting disease.
The present research shows that when a confidently held self-view (e.g., "I am an exciting person") is temporarily cast in doubt, individuals are motivated to choose products that bolster their original self-view (e.g., choosing brands with exciting brand personalities). The findings across three studies suggest that subtle manipulations can temporarily "shake" one's self-view confidence, resulting in an increased propensity of choosing self-view-bolstering products in a subsequent choice task. The consequences of the "shaken self" for product choices are examined in different self-domains. The findings also suggest that the effects of the shaken self are attenuated when individuals have the opportunity to restore their self-view confidence prior to the final choice task. (c) 2008 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
In numerous self-affirmation studies, Claude Steele and colleagues have demonstrated that self-affirmations reduce the need to justify dissonant behavior even when the affirmation is unrelated to the dissonance-evoking action. However, research has not sufficiently examined the impact of reaffirming self-aspects that are related to the dissonance. The authors argue that relevant affirmations of this sort can make salient the standards that are violated in the course of dissonant behavior; thereby increasing dissonance and the need for self justification. In a laboratory study using the induced-compliance paradigm, it was demonstrated that dissonance can be exacerbated by reaffirming standards that are violated in the course of the dissonant behavior. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/68836/2/10.1177_0146167297237002.pdf
This article proposes that supposedly farsighted (hyperopic) choices of virtue over vice evoke increasing regret over time. We demonstrate that greater temporal separation between a choice and its assessment enhances the regret (or anticipated regret) of virtuous decisions (e.g., choosing work over pleasure). We argue that this finding reflects the differential impact of time on the affective determinants of self-control regrets. In particular, we show that greater temporal perspective attenuates emotions of indulgence guilt but accentuates wistful feelings of missing out on the pleasures of life. We examine alternative explanations, including action versus inaction regrets and levels of construal. (c) 2006 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
Restrained and unrestrained subjects were subjected to one of three distress manipulations prior to an ad lib taste task. The physical fear threat (anticipated electric shock) significantly decreased unrestrained subjects' eating and slightly increased restrained subjects' eating. Both ego threats (failure at an easy task or anticipating having to give a speech in front of an evaluative audience) significantly increased restrained subjects' eating but did not significantly suppress unrestrained subjects' eating. This pattern supports the proposition that physical fear differs from more general dysphoria in its effects on eating, perhaps because of the divergent effects of these two types of distress on eating control mechanisms, which in turn differ in restrained and unrestrained eaters.
This article presents a theory of how different types of discrepancies between self-state representa- tions are related to different kinds of emotional vulnerabilities. One domain of the self (actual; ideal; ought) and one standpoint on the self (own; significant other) constitute each type of self-state representation. It is proposed that different types of self-discrepancies represent different types of negative psychological situations that are associated with different kinds of discomfort. Discrepan- cies between the actual/own self-state (i.e., the self-concept) and ideal self-stales (i.e., representations of an individual's beliefs about his or her own or a significant other's hopes, wishes, or aspirations for the individual) signify the absence of positive outcomes, which is associated with dejection-related emotions (e.g., disappointment, dissatisfaction, sadness). In contrast, discrepancies between the ac- tual/own self-state and ought self-states (i.e., representations of an individual's beliefs about his or her own or a significant other's beliefs about the individual's duties, responsibilities, or obligations) signify the presence of negative outcomes, which is associated with agitation-related emotions (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness). Differences in both the relative magnitude and the accessibility of individu- als' available types of self-discrepancies are predicted to be related to differences in the kinds of discomfort people are likely to experience. Correlational and experimental evidence supports the predictions of the model. Differences between serf-discrepancy theory and (a) other theories of in- compatible self-beliefs and (b) actual self negativity (e.g., low self-esteem) are discussed.
The tendency to believe that one's own risk is less than that of others may reduce interest in health-protective behaviors. This article describes 4 attempts to reduce such optimistic biases. In Study 1, New Jersey residents (N = 222) were provided with lists of risk factors for several health problems. This manipulation was strengthened in Study 2 by presenting risk factors in such a way that participants (164 undergraduates) might see their own standing as inferior to that of others. In Study 3, risk factors were presented one at a time, and participants (190 undergraduates) incorporated them into a mental image of a high-risk individual. Finally, 374 undergraduates in Study 4 generated lists of personal attributes that they believed increased their risk. Optimistic biases were found in each study, but none of the manipulations reduced these biases consistently. In contrast, conditions using opposite manipulations often exacerbated the biases.
People are generally unaware of the operation of the system of cognitive mechanisms that ameliorate their experience of negative affect (the psychological immune system), and thus they tend to overestimate the duration of their affective reactions to negative events. This tendency was demonstrated in 6 studies in which participants overestimated the duration of their affective reactions to the dissolution of a romantic relationship, the failure to achieve tenure, an electoral defeat, negative personality feedback, an account of a child's death, and rejection by a prospective employer. Participants failed to distinguish between situations in which their psychological immune systems would and would not be likely to operate and mistakenly predicted overly and equally enduring affective reactions in both instances. The present experiments suggest that people neglect the psychological immune system when making affective forecasts.
Why do people's impulse controls break down during emotional distress? Some theories propose that distress impairs one's motivation or one's ability to exert self-control, and some postulate self-destructive intentions arising from the moods. Contrary to those theories, Three experiments found that believing that one's bad mood was frozen (unchangeable) eliminated the tendency to eat fattening snacks (Experiment 1), seek immediate gratification (Experiment 2), and engage in frivolous procrastination (Experiment 3). The implication is that when people are upset, they indulge immediate impulses to make themselves feel better, which amounts to giving short-term affect regulation priority over other self-regulatory goals.
Three experiments investigated the hypothesis that power increases an action orientation in the power holder, even in contexts where power is not directly experienced. In Experiment 1, participants who possessed structural power in a group task were more likely to take a card in a simulated game of blackjack than those who lacked power. In Experiment 2, participants primed with high power were more likely to act against an annoying stimulus (a fan) in the environment, suggesting that the experience of power leads to the performance of goal-directed behavior. In Experiment 3, priming high power led to action in a social dilemma regardless of whether that action had prosocial or antisocial consequences. The effects of priming power are discussed in relation to the broader literature on conceptual and mind-set priming.
Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.
The authors propose that experiments that utilize mediational analyses as suggested by R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny (1986) are overused and sometimes improperly held up as necessary for a good social psychological paper. The authors argue that when it is easy to manipulate and measure a proposed psychological process that a series of experiments that demonstrates the proposed causal chain is superior. They further argue that when it is easy to manipulate a proposed psychological process but difficult to measure it that designs that examine underlying process by utilizing moderation can be effective. It is only when measurement of a proposed psychological process is easy and manipulation of it is difficult that designs that rely on mediational analyses should be preferred, and even in these situations careful consideration should be given to the limiting factors of such designs.
Antidepressant medication is considered the current standard for severe depression, and cognitive therapy is the most widely investigated psychosocial treatment for depression. However, not all patients want to take medication, and cognitive therapy has not demonstrated consistent efficacy across trials. Moreover, dismantling designs have suggested that behavioral components may account for the efficacy of cognitive therapy. The present study tested the efficacy of behavioral activation by comparing it with cognitive therapy and antidepressant medication in a randomized placebo-controlled design in adults with major depressive disorder (N = 241). In addition, it examined the importance of initial severity as a moderator of treatment outcome. Among more severely depressed patients, behavioral activation was comparable to antidepressant medication, and both significantly outperformed cognitive therapy. The implications of these findings for the evaluation of current treatment guidelines and dissemination are discussed.
Nurses are increasingly using cognitive behaviour therapy as an intervention for psychological problems attached to a variety of clinical conditions. Developing both self-acceptance and self-esteem have been identified as ways to enhance cognitive interventions. However, there are disagreements about the relationship between self-esteem and self-acceptance and their influence on psychological health. The study examined the relationship between these concepts and also the association between the concepts and psychological health. Fifty-eight participants with a diagnosis of severe and enduring mental health problems were assessed recording levels of self-esteem, self-acceptance, depression, anxiety and psychological well-being. The results revealed that, in comparison with the general population, the sample were more likely to have lower self-acceptance and self-esteem, and higher levels of anxiety, depression and psychological ill health. The concepts of self-esteem and self-acceptance were found to be similar but not synonymous. Self-esteem was more closely associated with affect, with higher levels of self-esteem being indicative of lower levels of depression. Self-acceptance appeared to be more closely associated with general psychological well-being and to be more helpful when undertaking clinical work for general psychological problems.
Five studies investigated the cognitive and emotional processes by which self-compassionate people deal with unpleasant life events. In the various studies, participants reported on negative events in their daily lives, responded to hypothetical scenarios, reacted to interpersonal feedback, rated their or others' videotaped performances in an awkward situation, and reflected on negative personal experiences. Results from Study 1 showed that self-compassion predicted emotional and cognitive reactions to negative events in everyday life, and Study 2 found that self-compassion buffered people against negative self-feelings when imagining distressing social events. In Study 3, self-compassion moderated negative emotions after receiving ambivalent feedback, particularly for participants who were low in self-esteem. Study 4 found that low-self-compassionate people undervalued their videotaped performances relative to observers. Study 5 experimentally induced a self-compassionate perspective and found that self-compassion leads people to acknowledge their role in negative events without feeling overwhelmed with negative emotions. In general, these studies suggest that self-compassion attenuates people's reactions to negative events in ways that are distinct from and, in some cases, more beneficial than self-esteem.
After having made a purchase decision, consumers often revisit their choice and ponder forgone alternatives. This tendency can lower satisfaction with the selected alternative, especially when choices are difficult. We introduce the concept of “choice closure”—defined as the psychological process by which consumers come to perceive a decision to be final—and show that specific physical acts that are metaphorically associated with the concept of closure (such as covering or turning a page on the rejected alternatives) trigger choice closure in the context of difficult choices. Four studies show that performing acts of closure inhibits consumers’ propensity to reconsider their decision process and to engage in unfavorable comparisons between the chosen and the forgone options, resulting in greater satisfaction with the outcome of choices made from large sets. These findings suggest that subtle cues, which do not alter the actual choice context, can improve satisfaction with a difficult decision.
This research proposes that consumers’ preference for supersized food and drinks may have roots in the status-signaling value of larger options. An initial experiment found that consumers view larger-sized options within a set as having greater status. Because low-power consumers desire status, we manipulated power to test our core propositions. Whether induced in the lab or in the field, states of powerlessness led individuals to disproportionately choose larger food options from an assortment. Furthermore, this preference for larger-sized options was enhanced when consumption was public, reversed when the size-to-status relationship was negative (i.e., smaller was equated with greater status), and mediated by consumers’ need for status. This research demonstrates that choosing a product on the basis of its relative size allows consumers to signal status, illustrates the consequences of such a choice for consumers’ food consumption, and highlights the central role of a product category’s size-to-status relationship in driving consumer choice.
Three studies were undertaken to develop andvalidate a shortened measure of irrational thinkingbased on Bernard's version of the General Attitude andBelief Scale (GABS). In experiment 1 the responses of 356 participants were analyzed to derive 26items from the 55 items of the GABS to form theshortened General Attitude and Belief Scale (SGABS).Experiment 2 established that correlations between the subscales of the GABS and the SGABS (completed3 days apart by 90 participants) ranged from .60 to .77.In experiment 3, moderately significant test-retestcorrelations (.65 to .87) were found between subscale scores obtained from the SGABS, administered 3days apartto 36 participants. Although a moderate butsignificant correlation (r = .41) was found between theSGABS and the Beck Depression Inventory, a significantly higher correlation (r = .77) was found betweenthe SGABS and the Irrational Belief Scale. It wasconcluded that the SGABS provided a brief method ofassessing multidimensional aspects of irrationalthinking with substantial test-retest reliability andconstruct validity.
Self-affirmation processes are being activated by information that threatens the perceived adequacy or integrity of the self and as running their course until this perception is restored through explanation, rationalization, and/or action. The purpose of these constant explanations (and rationalizations) is to maintain a phenomenal experience of the self-self-conceptions and images as adaptively and morally adequate—that is, as competent, good, coherent, unitary, stable, capable of free choice, capable of controlling important outcomes, and so on. The research reported in this chapter focuses on the way people cope with the implications of threat to their self-regard rather than on the way they cope with the threat itself. This chapter analyzes the way coping processes restore self-regard rather than the way they address the provoking threat itself.
Everyday items are imbued with subtle yet pervasive gender associations. For instance, sour dairy products and products with rounded edges tend to be perceived as relatively feminine, whereas meat and products with sharp edges tend to be perceived as relatively masculine. In a series of studies, we find that men are more likely to choose gender-congruent options (masculine foods and angular-shaped items) when they have unconstrained time and attentional resources than when these resources are constrained. In contrast, women’s choices tend to not be affected by time or attentional resource availability. Our findings suggest that men experience a conflict between their relatively intrinsic preferences and gender norms and that they tend to forgo their intrinsic preferences to conform to a masculine gender identity (when they have sufficient resources to incorporate gender norm information in their choices). Women, on the other hand, appear to be less concerned with making gender-congruent choices.
Two studies demonstrate that self-image maintenance processes affect the acceptance of personally relevant health messages. Participants who completed a self-affirmation were less defensive and more accepting of health information. In Study 1, female participants (high vs. low relevance) read an article linking caffeine consumption to breast cancer. High-relevance women rejected the information more than did low-relevance women; however, affirmed high-relevance women accepted the information and intended to change their behavior accordingly. In Study 2, sexually active participants viewed an AIDS educational video; affirmed participants saw themselves at greater risk for HIV and purchased condoms more often than did nonaffirmed participants. Results suggest that health messages can threaten an individual’s self-image and that self-affirming techniques can increase the effectiveness of health information and lead to positive health behaviors.
This research investigated the relationship between male self-acceptance and attraction toward traditional and nontraditional women. Undergraduate males of low, medium, or high self-acceptance were exposed to video-taped job interviews of undergraduate women playing traditional and nontraditional roles. A measure of interpersonal attraction was obtained for each model. Analysis of variance on this attraction measure revealed a significant interaction between level of self-acceptance and role model. Further comparisons revealed that the low self-acceptance males were more attracted to the traditional model than to the nontraditional model and less attracted to the nontraditional model than were high or medium self-acceptance males. The high self-acceptance males showed a tendency to be more attracted to the nontraditional than to the traditional model. These results were interpreted as suggesting that prejudice against nontraditional women may, in part, be a result of attempts to counter perceived threats to self-conceptions or self-esteem on the part of low self-acceptance males.
The research in this article examined the consequences of a failed attempt to reduce dissonance through a self-aÅrmation strategy. It was hypothesized that disconfirming participants' aÅrmations would reinstate psychological discomfort and dissonance motivation. In Experiment 1, high-dissonance participants who aÅrmed on a self- relevant value scale and received disconforming feedback about their aÅrmations expressed greater psychological discomfort (Elliot & Devine, 1994) than either aÅrmation-only participants or low-dissonance/aÅrmation disconformed participants. In Experiment 2, disconfirmation of an aÅrmation resulted in increased attitude change. The results of both experiments suggested that a failed attempt to reduce dissonance reinstates psychological discomfort and dissonance motivation. We discuss how the reduction of psychological discomfort may play a role in the success of aÅrmations in reducing dissonance-produced attitude change. Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Festinger's (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance has contributed to our under- standing of human social behavior for nearly 40 years. The simplicity of its maxims combined with a compelling blend of cognition and motivation made it a paradig- matic social psychological enterprise (Jones, 1998). The experience of cognitive dissonance was originally described by Festinger (1957) as resulting from a need for psychological consistency that follows a non-fitting relation among cognitions. Dissonant relationships among cognitions create a state of psychological discomfort that motivates the individual, in a drive-like manner, to reduce the dissonant state. In discussing the temporal sequence of dissonance, from induction to reduction,
This chapter provides an overview of self-affirmation theory. Self-affirmation theory asserts that the overall goal of the self-system is to protect an image of its self-integrity, of its moral and adaptive adequacy. When this image of self-integrity is threatened, people respond in such a way as to restore self-worth. The chapter illustrates how self-affirmation affects not only people's cognitive responses to threatening information and events, but also their physiological adaptations and actual behavior. It examines the ways in which self-affirmations reduce threats to the self at the collective level, such as when people confront threatening information about their groups. It reviews factors that qualify or limit the effectiveness of self-affirmations, including situations where affirmations backfire, and lead to greater defensiveness and discrimination. The chapter discusses the connection of self-affirmations theory to other motivational theories of self-defense and reviews relevant theoretical and empirical advances. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of self-affirmations theory for interpersonal relationships and coping.
Vitality, or the energy available to the self, is a salient and functionally significant indicator of health and motivation. Previous models (e.g., Baumeister & Vohs, 2007) have suggested how such energy can be depleted but have focused less on how it can be maintained or enhanced. In this article, we describe a model of energy and vitality based on self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). We review substantial evidence that, whereas the self-controlling regulation of behavior depletes vitality and energy, the autonomous self-regulation of behavior does not. A growing number of experimental and field studies also suggest that vitality and energy are enhanced by activities that satisfy basic psychological needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Lifestyles focused on extrinsic goals are less conducive to need satisfaction and thus engender less vitality. We conclude that social psychological factors associated with need satisfaction have important implications for health and vitality and for informing interventions.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) includes several main theories and practices, especially the hypotheses that people are both constructivists and destructivists. It holds that they have powerful innate and socially acquired tendencies to often be self-helping and rational but also self-defeating and irrational. REBT largely derives its method of therapy from many clients seen by the author, from hundreds of therapy studies, and from the social psychology literature. This article shows how REBT formulations overlap with some of the findings of social psychology, how these findings can appreciably be used to improve REBT practice, how some of the unique theories and methods of REBT may contribute to the field of social psychology, and how social psychologists can help to research some of the main REBT principles.
The study examined the relationships between perfectionism, unconditional self-acceptance and depression. The non-clinical
sample comprised 134 participants, each of whom completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Unconditional Self-Acceptance
Questionnaire (USAQ), the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Inventory (CES-D) and several measures of perfectionism.
Significant levels of association were found between all measures, and support was provided for the concept of perfectionism
as having a neutral core, distinguishable from its consequences, and for the theory that it is the negative consequences of
perfectionism, rather than perfectionism per se, that lead to depression. Path Analysis provided support for the mediator model proposed by Flett etal. [Flett, G. L., Besser,
A., Davis, R. A., Hewitt, P. L. (2003). Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 21, 119–138], in which unconditional self-acceptance mediates the effect of socially prescribed perfectionism on depression,
and for a more generic model, in which the core construct of perfectionism can have negative consequences, which lead to low
levels of unconditional self-acceptance, and thence to depression. Finally, a distinction was drawn between developmental
and operational models of perfectionism.
Acceptance is integral to several cutting-edge behavior therapies. However, several questions about acceptance remain to be clearly answered. First, what does acceptance look like, and can it be observed and measured? Second, what are the behavioral principles involved in the promotion of acceptance? Third, when is acceptance indicated or contraindicated as a therapeutic goal? The current paper attempts to clarify answers to these questions. The goal is to provide a conceptualization of the what, how, and when of acceptance that is accessible to behavior analysts, both to promote our understanding of acceptance as a behavioral phenomenon and to facilitate its empirical study and therapeutic utility.
Individuals conspicuously consume to signal their wealth. As a variant to this economic explanation, four studies explored individual’s psychological need for self-integrity as a potential motivating force for these consumption decisions. Relying on both field and experimental studies, and employing multiple instantiations of high-status goods and self-threat, we demonstrate that individuals consume status-infused products for their reparative effects on the ego. Individuals under self-threat sought ownership of high-status goods to nurse their psychological wounds (Study 1), and when afforded an alternate route to repair their self-integrity, sought these products less (Study 2). Furthermore, among a representative sample of US consumers, low-income individuals’ lowered self-esteem drove their willingness to spend on high-status goods (Study 3). Finally, these high-status goods serve the purpose of shielding an individual’s ego from future self-threats (Study 4). The compensatory role of high-status goods has important implications for consumer decision-making and public policies aimed at reducing consumer debt.
This research investigated whether the physical act of enclosing an emotionally laden stimulus can help alleviate the associated negative emotions. Four experiments found support for this claim. In Experiments 1a and 1b, emotional negativity was reduced for participants who placed a written recollection of a regretted past decision or unsatisfied strong desire inside an envelope. However, enclosing a stimulus unrelated to the emotional experience did not have the same effect (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, we showed that the effect was not driven by participants simply doing something extra with the materials, and that the effect of physical enclosure was mediated by the psychological closure that participants felt toward the event.
Three experiments examine how power affects consumers' spending propensities. By integrating literatures suggesting that (a) powerlessness is aversive, (b) status is one basis of power, and (c) products can signal status, the authors argue that low power fosters a desire to acquire products associated with status to compensate for lacking power. Supporting this compensatory hypothesis, results show that low power increased consumers' willingness to pay for auction items and consumers' reservation prices in negotiations but only when products were status related. The link between powerlessness and compensatory consumption has broad implications both for consumers' health and well-being and for understanding the psychological state of power. (c) 2008 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
Discusses risk-taking behavior, particularly compulsive gambling, as a significant mental health issue that demands serious attention on the part of mental health practitioners. Pathological gambling is described as an illness in which the individual is driven by an overwhelming and uncontrollable impulse to gamble, an obsession that often involves placing higher priority on gambling than on family, occupation, and personal belongings. Factors associated with gambling pathology are discussed, and 3 phases (winning, losing, and desperation) that are typically associated with the disorder are described. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Apathy and reduced self-awareness are frequent occurring neurobehavioural sequelae following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Apathy, in terms of reduced goal directed activity and lowered motivation, and reduced self-awareness have a negative impact on the rehabilitation process. In this study, 30 patients suffering severe TBI were clinically rated for apathy and monitored for cardiovascular and electrodermal reactivity during baseline, neutral speech and therapeutic interaction. Applying a cut-off score criterion, two thirds of the TBI sample were classified as apathetic. The apathetic patients showed less psychophysiological reactivity from neutral speech to therapeutic interaction, compared to non-apathetic patients. They also reported less perceived emotional discomfort in the therapeutic situation measured with a visual analogue scale. Moreover, reduced self-awareness was associated with low autonomic reactivity. The results suggest that the reduced psychophysiological reactivity in apathetic patients may be a correlate to the lack of emotional responsivity, disengagement, lack of insight and concern about their own situation. Clinically, these results may have implications for psychotherapeutic intervention aimed at improving self-awareness. Recording psychophysiological responses during therapeutic interaction may serve as a method for monitoring emotional involvement during psychotherapy with TBI patients.
Boosting people's sense of self worth in fostering academic progress or preventing undesirable behavior is discussed. The attention to self-esteem has become a communal concern for people who see a favorable opinion of oneself as the psychological source from which all manner of positive outcomes spring. People recognize the importance of self-esteem to their psychological health, and most of them try to enhance it whenever possible. The fact that low self-esteem lies at the root of individual and societal problems and dysfunctions has sustained an ambitious social agenda for decades.