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The Importance of a Sport-Specific Stimulus for Training Agility
Abstract
THE PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE IS TO REVIEW RECENT EVIDENCE TO HELP GUIDE THE TRAINING OF AGILITY. AGILITY SKILL USUALLY INVOLVES REACTING TO A STIMULUS BEFORE PERFORMING A MOVEMENT WITH A CHANGE OF DIRECTION OR VELOCITY. RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THAT BETTER PERFORMERS CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM LOWER SKILLED ATHLETES BY THE ABILITY TO QUICKLY AND ACCURATELY REACT TO OPPONENT’S MOVEMENTS, BUT NOT TO A GENERIC STIMULUS SUCH AS A FLASHING LIGHT. THEREFORE, TRAINING FOR AGILITY SHOULD INCLUDE A PERCEPTUAL AND DECISION-MAKING COMPONENT INVOLVING REACTING TO MOVEMENTS OF OTHERS, AND THIS MAY BE ACCOMPLISHED WITH EVASIVE DRILLS OR SMALL-SIDED GAMES.
... Accordingly, practitioners should design representative learning environments that facilitate effective transfer of physical capacity gains to on-field agility performances. For example, for practitioners who are limited with time for S&C and isolated agility training, one possible solution is to integrate agility drills into technique/tactical training sessions, or working collaboratively with the skills coach to help design sports-specific attacking agility drills and scenarios to promote agility, sports technique, and tactical development (77,103). One such example is advising and designing small-sided games and attacking versus defending scenarios to provide the representative environments and constraints for agility development Attacking Agility Actions VOLUME 00 | NUMBER 00 | MARCH 2022 (77,103). ...
... For example, for practitioners who are limited with time for S&C and isolated agility training, one possible solution is to integrate agility drills into technique/tactical training sessions, or working collaboratively with the skills coach to help design sports-specific attacking agility drills and scenarios to promote agility, sports technique, and tactical development (77,103). One such example is advising and designing small-sided games and attacking versus defending scenarios to provide the representative environments and constraints for agility development Attacking Agility Actions VOLUME 00 | NUMBER 00 | MARCH 2022 (77,103). Additionally, integrating agility drills into warm-ups before technique or tactical skills training is also another opportunity to provide an agility stimulus, develop movement solutions, and modify athletes' technique (31), which is in line with the guidelines presented in Tables 1-3. ...
... Additionally, integrating agility drills into warm-ups before technique or tactical skills training is also another opportunity to provide an agility stimulus, develop movement solutions, and modify athletes' technique (31), which is in line with the guidelines presented in Tables 1-3. However, it is beyond the scope of this article to discuss agility programming and drill design, and thus, practitioners are encouraged to read the following literature for further information (24,31,77,80,81,103). ...
Attacking agility actions, such as side steps, shuffle steps, crossover cutting, split steps, spins, decelerations, and sharp turns, are important maneuvers in invasion team sports, often linked with decisive match winning moments. Generally, the aims of these actions are to (a) evade and create separation from an opponent, (b) generate high exit velocities and momentums, or (c) facilitate a sharp redirection. However, these actions are also inciting movements associated with lower-limb injury. Given the importance of agility actions for sports performance and potential injury risk, in this review, we discuss the importance and contextual applications of attacking agility actions, while providing coaching and technique guidelines to best optimize the performance-injury risk conflict
... Importantly, in sport, athletes do not react to flashing lights, arrows, or colored cones; instead, they scan and process visual and kinematic cues regarding the environment, sport, and other athletes when performing MDS actions (110,152). Although a popular method, and arguably warranted in instances when diversifying training to improve player motivation, the use of an unanticipated stimulus in the form of the above-mentioned has been criticized because they are not truly sport-specific stimuli (101,110,152). ...
... Importantly, in sport, athletes do not react to flashing lights, arrows, or colored cones; instead, they scan and process visual and kinematic cues regarding the environment, sport, and other athletes when performing MDS actions (110,152). Although a popular method, and arguably warranted in instances when diversifying training to improve player motivation, the use of an unanticipated stimulus in the form of the above-mentioned has been criticized because they are not truly sport-specific stimuli (101,110,152). Furthermore, researchers have shown these types of "reactive agility" exercises (i.e., flashing lights or arrows) do not differentiate skillful performers (152)(153)(154) and, in fact, may even be a more complex and hazardous task compared with reacting to 2D video footage (76). ...
... Although a popular method, and arguably warranted in instances when diversifying training to improve player motivation, the use of an unanticipated stimulus in the form of the above-mentioned has been criticized because they are not truly sport-specific stimuli (101,110,152). Furthermore, researchers have shown these types of "reactive agility" exercises (i.e., flashing lights or arrows) do not differentiate skillful performers (152)(153)(154) and, in fact, may even be a more complex and hazardous task compared with reacting to 2D video footage (76). ...
Multidirectional speed (MDS) can be defined as the competency and capacity to accelerate, decelerate, change direction, and maintain speed in multiple directions and movements, within the context of sport-specific scenarios."The components of MDS are linear speed, change of direction speed, curvilinear speed, contextual speed, and agility. A MDS development framework is provided for the practitioner who considers the complexities of the growing athlete within a progressive sequence of skill learning and adaptation. Practical examples for each MDS component are provided and discussed within weekly microcycle examples that represent different stages of development for the youth athlete.
... As such, the ability to perform COD movements is governed by task-specific physiological and mechanical parameters that distinguish it from other athletic capabilities (30,67,95,98). Accordingly, several authors have identified COD ability and agility to be discrete qualities (6,94,97). ...
... Consequently, what differentiates COD from agility is the absence of cognitive components, such as perception-action coupling and decision making, associated with the task (74,75). Given these capabilities are distinct, it follows that the development of COD versus agility will require somewhat different methods (36,67,75,79,94,95,97). ...
... Hence, this task has an innate requirement for higher levels of force-generation. It has been recognized that COD assessment include movements and maneuvers specific to the sport in question (34,38,80,95,97) (discussed later). ...
... This indicates that the athlete's role influences agility technique and that both attacking and defending athletes likely need to be treated separately. In contrast, typical training and testing methods whereby the athlete must respond to a stimulus to move left or right are almost always focused on attacking or defending in isolation (Gabbett et al., 2011;Green et al., 2011;Henry et al., 2011;Jeffriess et al., 2015;Scanlan et al., 2016;Serpell et al., 2010;Young & Farrow, 2013). Consequently, these methods prevent the athlete from developing or assessing the opposing skill. ...
... The use of agility tests that artificially constrain the athlete to pre-determined COD angles or techniques fails to replicate the variation seen in-game. Most testing procedures limit the athlete to direction changes of fewer than 90 degrees (Gabbett et al., 2011;Green et al., 2011;Henry et al., 2011;Jeffriess et al., 2015;Scanlan et al., 2016;Serpell et al., 2010;Young & Farrow, 2013). As such, typical test procedures are likely not specific to AF demands. ...
Agility is essential to success in Australian football (AF). However, the nature of agility events in competition is currently unknown. This study analysed in-game 1v1 agility events to identify the movement and cognitive demands of agility in elite AF. The study described the technique, the angle of change of direction (COD), and the approach speed. Cognitive demands were inferred by recording inter-athlete position and deceptive manoeuvres. Findings revealed sidestepping to be commonly used for both attacking and defending athletes. However, attacking athletes were substantially more likely to use the sidestep technique than their defending counterparts (74% vs 39% of the time). Analysis of movement speeds indicated a preference for submaximal approaches. Further, the movement technique was varied, with the angle of directional change particularly diverse. Overall, the notational analysis indicates a need for agility training and testing that reflects in-game agility demands. To achieve this, training and testing must allow for submaximal movement speeds, context-specific techniques, and the use of deceptive manoeuvres. Field-based or subjective assessment methods are proposed as viable testing alternatives. Further, the effectiveness of recorded deceptive actions suggests that athletes should be provided with training opportunities to practice fake disposals and fake CODs.
... That is, to be able to complete a direction change, responding rapidly and accordingly to relevant stimuli (39). Focusing on agility as our end goal should enable this process to be broadly applicable to many sports, athletes, and coaches. ...
... Our top-down reasoning is identified in Figure 1, with our thought process of how we arrived at this, detailed and evidenced in the following sections. (39). Decision making is arguably best developed through sport practice and competition, so we will focus our attention on CoDS; however, we will include reactive drills such as partner tag and mirroring for example. ...
Typically, a coach may follow a process in which they first identify the key performance indicators of their sport, determine the physical attributes that map back to them, and then distribute the development of those capacities over the allocated timeframe. Furthermore, effective training plans are based on a theoretical or biological basis for how we move and adapt to exercise stimuli, coupled with an understanding of how these are best sequenced, such that one stimulus and subsequent adaptation can potentiate the next. Thus, reverse or backward engineering, when appropriately converged with the plans of those devised around nutrition, conditioning, technical, and tactical training for example likely gives athletes the best chance of attaining their performance goals. The aim of this paper is to describe the application of reverse engineering, exampling it within the context of developing an athlete who can demonstrate a high level of agility.
... The ability to accelerate and decelerate during periods of speed, with or without a COD, seems to be decisive in multiple game situations (3). However, COD speed should be considered as a skill in its own right and, although being an important component of agility, should not be equated with it (47,49). Throughout this article, the acronym COD will be adopted, because any change of direction implies some amount of speed (even if marginal); it is then a matter of quantity of speed, varying from negligible to maximum. ...
... Conducting 2 to 3 SSG training sessions per week might be effective in triggering improvements in specific skills and moderate to large improvements in team sport-related physical fitness such as speed, agility, jumping, and repeated sprint performance (7). Although evasion drills and SSG can be highly sport specific, it is acknowledged that athletes with relatively little training history may benefit from some planned COD speed training to learn basic COD techniques (47). Preparation for competition is optimized when a holistic approach is integrated in the planning cycles. ...
Agility is a key and complex concept within team sports performance. Because of its multidimensional nature, agility benefits from perceptual and cognitive skills as well as physical capacity (e.g., ability to exert acceleration, deceleration, and changes of direction). Agility should be integrated in different and complementary ways in team sports training. From more analytical to more ecological tasks, there is a need to comprehend the respective adaptations and identify how to integrate such a spectrum and, eventually, combine them in the training process and manage it accordingly to the player's needs. Based on this premise, the purpose of this article is to present alternative methods and recommendations that may help to develop agility in field-based invasion sports. The main concepts pertaining to agility and associated capacities will be explored. Afterward, a proposal for a more analytical approach based on the use of cones and ladders will be introduced, as well as approaches based on small-sided games. Finally, an integration of agility training and a combination of approaches will be presented using soccer as an example.
... Our results may be explained by the fact this test should involve highly specific training that recognizes the specific demands of the sport to be improved (Sheppard et al., 2006). Young and Farrow argue that the better performance in this test is associated to quick and accurate reaction to opponent's movements (Young & Farrow, 2013). In a previous study, Young and Rogers (2014) found better results in reactive agility after small-sided game and change-of-direction training, than in present study. ...
... The change-of-direction training experienced a no effect, while small-sided game training group experienced a moderate effect (−3.8%) on reactive agility. Together, these results demonstrate the importance of training agility through reacting to unexpected movements to others, more than generic stimulus such as flashing light patterns (Young & Farrow, 2013). However, the use of LED equipment plus regular practice seems to be more beneficial than the absence of generic stimulus on reactive agility. ...
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a BATAK Pro™ training program in
combination with regular sport-specific training as compared with sport-specific training
alone on motor performance among young athletes. Twenty-two athletes (aged 11–16
years), were recruited and randomly assigned to either an active control group or
BATAK training group. The BATAK training program consisted of 2-3 sets of 4-5
exercises, biweekly for 12-weeks. The assessment of motor performance included
upper limb movement speed, agility, reactive agility, acceleration, sprinting, and YBalance test. Within-group analyses revealed performance increases in the 10-m sprint
test (-2.6%), and in Y-Balance test variables, specifically in anterior direction (4.0-
5.4%), posteromedial direction (6.6-8.0%) and in posterolateral direction (10.7-14.6%)
in the BATAK group. This study reports for the first time that the use of LED lighting
devices in addition to sport-specific training promotes increases in motor skills,
particularly in dynamic stability. More studies are needed to confirm whether the
training-induced benefits of this novel performance tool are significantly better as
compared to other approaches, and whether these results can be translated into onfield performance outcomes, not only in terms of critical motor development but also in
a meaningful increase of creative actions.
... Several studies have used simple light stimuli [12][13][14]. However, using light stimuli was found to require limited perceptual abilities required to complete the task [15]. Moreover, perceptual cues that elite performers could recognize cannot be used by a light stimulus [16]. ...
... Better response movement time in elite players compared to sub-elite and amateur is most likely due to elite player's ability to anticipate the intended movement direction from the opponent, and to predict earlier their change of direction and hence complete the sprint component of the test with greater speed [47]. On the contrary, light or arrow based stimuli do not provide the opportunity for the use of perceptual or anticipatory skills because the light is off before the reaction [15]. Although perceptual or anticipatory ability was not investigated in this study, these results provide an insight into the potential benefit of effective anticipation, which could lead to advantages in decisive moments of the match. ...
The ability to differentiate the elite from nonelite athletes is not clearly defined. We investigated level differences in speed, change of direction speed (CODS), and reactive agility in a group of trained adolescent soccer players. A total of 75 adolescent male soccer players (aged 14-19 years) were recruited. The players were grouped based on the level of play to elite, sub-elite, and amateur players. Players were tested for 5-, 10-and 20-m sprints, CODS, and reactive agility tests (RAT). Elite players had faster reaction movement time during RAT with live opponent stimuli (p ≤ 0.01) compared to sub-elite and amateur players. Moreover, elite players showed a faster time during light stimuli (p ≤ 0.01) but only compared to amateur players. The times for 5-m and 10-m sprint groups did not differ (p > 0.05). The results demonstrated that the skilled players (elite and sub-elite) performed better in reactive agility tests, speed, and COD speed compared to amateur players. Additionally, we can conclude that total and reaction time in the agility test with live opponent stimuli can be a significant factor that differentiates between adolescent soccer players considering their level.
... However, these tests apply flashing lights or numbers on a screen as a stimulus to which the athletes have to respond to. Conversely, such nonspecific stimuli are considered inappropriate because they do not allow athletes to deploy their anticipation skills (28). To date, there seems to be no agility test that incorporates soccer-specific movements of a tester as a stimulus, which would increase the test's ecological validity (3,19). ...
... Moreover, in a recent review (19), reliability of agility tests applying a live tester did not seem to be lower compared with tests using nonspecific stimuli such as flashing lights. Regarding the type of stimulus, the application of a live tester is recommended by several authors (19,28) despite its limitations, because this approach offers specific body kinematic cues to which athletes can respond to. ...
Altmann, S, Neumann, R, Ringhof, S, Rumpf, MC, and Woll, A. Soccer-specific agility: reliability of a newly developed test and correlates of rerformance. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2020—The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability of a newly developed soccer-specific agility test and to determine the correlation of different performance parameters with overall agility performance as measured by the total time. Twenty-two amateur soccer players (age, 25.1 ± 4.0 years) completed a newly developed agility test on 2 separate occasions. The test required the players to conduct 2 changes of direction, one in a preplanned manner and one in response to a stimulus that was provided by a live tester who performed different soccer-specific passing movements. Regarding reliability, very large Pearson's r and intraclass correlation coefficient values were obtained for the total time and the movement time, with moderate and large-to-very large values being evident for the response time and the decision-making time, respectively. The usefulness to detect moderate performance changes was rated as “good” for the total time, the response time, and the movement time. The decision-making time was rated as “OK.” The movement time showed a very large relationship with overall agility performance as measured by the total time, while the response time and the decision-making time showed small to moderate relationships. In conclusion, the newly developed soccer-specific agility test is a reliable tool to assess the agility performance of soccer players and can be used by coaches and researchers to detect moderate performance changes. Because physical aspects, represented by the movement time, showed the greatest influence on total agility performance, they are advised to be included in soccer-specific agility training programs of amateur players.
... Coordination: coordination was measured using a customdesigned foot-eye coordination task specifically developed for adolescent athletes. The task involved following a visually guided LED sequence on a footwork panel, emphasizing both accuracy and response time (30). The total coordination score was computed as a composite of the number of correct responses and time taken. ...
Background
Sprint performance plays a crucial role in competitive sports, particularly among adolescent athletes. Training methodologies such as Functional Training (FT), Traditional Training (TT), and a Combined Training (CT) approach have been widely implemented to improve sprinting ability, agility, and coordination. However, the comparative effectiveness of these methods remains inconclusive. This study aims to evaluate the differential impact of FT, TT, and CT on key physiological and skill-related performance variables in adolescent sprinters.
Methods
A total of 52 national-level adolescent sprinters (aged 15–18 years) were randomly assigned to four groups: Functional Training Group (FTG, n = 13), Traditional Training Group (TTG, n = 13), Combined Training Group (CTG, n = 13), and Control Group (CG, n = 13). The intervention lasted for 8 weeks, with training sessions conducted 6 days a week. Sprint performance, agility, coordination, VO₂ max, muscular strength, and body fat percentage were assessed pre- and post-intervention. A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to analyze within- and between-group differences, with significance set at p < 0.05.
Results
Combined Training Group demonstrated the most significant improvements across all performance variables, including VO₂ max (+4.32%), muscular strength (+8.93%), and sprinting ability (−4.71%). FTG showed substantial gains in agility (−2.16%) and coordination (+4.40%), whereas TTG exhibited moderate improvements in strength (+1.43%) and sprint time (−2.18%). The CG group showed no significant changes. Statistical analysis confirmed a significant main effect of training interventions ( F = 72.34, p < 0.001, η ² p = 0.81), highlighting the superior efficacy of CTG.
Discussion
The findings suggest that a combined approach integrating FT and TT yields optimal improvements in sprint performance by enhancing both neuromuscular coordination and force production. While FT alone is effective in refining agility and coordination, TT primarily contributes to strength gains. The absence of structured training in the CG reinforces the necessity of targeted interventions for performance enhancement. These results provide valuable insights for coaches and sports scientists in designing sprint training programs for adolescent athletes. Future studies could explore the long-term effects of combined FT and TT interventions across different age groups and genders to assess their generalizability.
... Next, the consolidated research data were divided into five distinct training method subgroups according to previous research [21]. Specifically, training methods were classified as: reaction training (RT), which involves training activities with inherent reactions to particular stimuli (e.g., small-sided games [SSG], visual feedback training) [22]-this type of training is particularly effective in enhancing players' cognitive abilities (open-skill); plyometric training (PT), which involves exercises that utilize the stretchshortening cycle to enhance muscle responsiveness and power through rapid stretching and contraction (e.g., box jumps, depth jumps) [23]; strength and balance training (SBT), which involves muscle strengthening and stability training (e.g., resistance band exercises, stability ball workouts) [24]; speed training (SpT), which involves sprinting or specific linear running exercises (e.g., short sprints, interval training) [25]; and stretching training (StrT), which involves flexibility training that elongates muscles, tendons, and ligaments (e.g., static stretching, dynamic stretching) [26]. PT, SBT, SpT, and StrT are particularly effective in enhancing players' physical abilities (closed-skill). ...
Background
Open-skill and closed-skill agility attributes are pivotal for achieving success in basketball. However, systematic synthesis of evidence regarding the effectiveness of different basketball-specific training methods on agility performance is lacking among basketball players in the literature. Consequently, this systematic review with meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of prominent training methods in improving open-skill and closed-skill agility in basketball players.
Methods
Using keywords related to ‘basketball’, ‘agility’, and ‘training’, we searched for experimental studies in PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost databases that were published in the last decade (between January 2013 and September 2023). The included training methods were categorized into five groups, including reaction training (RT), speed training (SpT), strength and balance training (SBT), plyometric training (PT), and stretching training (StrT). The effects of training methods were summarized using standardized mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals in R software.
Results
A total of 29 studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising 42 separate effects. Studies only assessed the effects of different training methods on closed-skill agility performance, with no open-skill agility assessments used. Improvements in closed-skill agility were apparent between pre-and post-training intervention with most training methods including a large effect for RT [SMD = 0.86, 95% CI (0.53, 1.19)], medium effects for PT [SMD = 0.62, 95%CI (0.38, 0.86)] and SBT [SMD = 0.59, 95%CI (0.13, 1.05)], and a small effect for SpT [SMD = 0.43, 95%CI (0.13, 0.74)]. While no effect for StrT [SMD = 0, 95%CI (-0.98, 0.98)] was apparent, only one study examined this training method.
Conclusions
RT appears to be the most effective method for developing closed-skill agility among basketball players, particularly when implemented in small-sided games. SBT and PT also appear impactful in developing closed-skill agility to similar extents. SpT appears to benefit closed-skill agility to a minor extent with limited research examining the effectiveness of StrT on agility among basketball players. Surprisingly, no studies have incorporated open-skill agility tests when assessing the effectiveness of training methods, which is essential to address in future research. Outcomes from this review provide guidance to basketball coaches and performance staff for selecting training methods that optimize closed-skill agility performance in their players.
... Latihan yang dilakukan dengan pendekatan yang terstruktur dan berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip ilmiah memiliki kemungkinan lebih besar untuk mencapai hasil yang optimal. Menurut Young & Farrow (2013), latihan yang dilakukan secara terprogram dan terencana dengan stimulus yang tepat, sesuai dengan karakteristik olahraga tertentu, dapat meningkatkan kemampuan gerak spesifik ataupun daya tahan secara keseluruhan. Dalam hal ini, futsal sebagai olahraga yang membutuhkan daya tahan aerobik, sangat cocok dengan penerapan kedua jenis latihan tersebut. ...
Penelitian ini dilatar belakangi oleh kurangnya daya tahan pada pemain futsal zero eight sehingga kemampuan bermainnya menurun seperti sering kehilangan bola dan salah passing. Tujuan penelitian ini yaitu untuk mengetahui ada atau tidak pengaruh latihan interval training dan latihan fartlek terhadap peningkatan kemampuan VO2max pemain futsal zero eight Kabupaten Bima Tahun 2022. Rancangan penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian eksperimen “Two-Group Pretest-posttest Design”. Instrumen penelitian menggunakan tes lari multi tahap (MFT) yang pengukurannya menggunakan blanko tes dan blanko norma. Metode pengumpulan data terdiri dari observasi, tes perbuatan dan dokumentasi. Teknik analisis data menggunakan T-test secara statistik parametric dengan menggunakan program SPSS. Berdasarkan pair 1 diperoleh bahwa nilai pretest-posttest pada kelompok A sebesar 0,000 < 0,05 dan pair 2 diperoleh nilai pretest-posttest pada kelompok B sebesar 0,002 < 0,05. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa ada pengaruh latihan interval dan latihan fartlek terhadap peningkatan VO2max pemain futsal zero eight Kabupaten Bima tahun 2022.
... This is because game sports have characteristics in their implementation, where players are required to make frequent transitions during matches, such as when facing matches that require fast body movements over short distances and body movements with low intensity, but over long periods (Bortnik et al., 2022). Broadly speaking, agility can be defined as the result of a response to a stimulus obtained from changes in the speed or direction of body movement (Young & Farrow, 2013). Implied by this definition, it can be interpreted that agility consists of a series of decision-making processes and results that can be seen from the changes in direction that occur. ...
The aim of this study was to analyze and compare whether body mass index (BMI) is related to the physical performance abilities of elite male handball players. In this case, the physical performance that was analyzed was power and agility. Data were collected from male handball players Semarang City who participated in top-level handball competitions (N: 14, age: 23.6 years, body mass: 67.7 kg, height: 173.5 cm, BMI: 22.9 kg/m2). The physical parameters analyzed were BMI, power, and agility. Pearson's correlations were calculated for BMI with power and agility, and significant correlations were found between BMI and power (p < 0.05), as well as BMI and agility (p < 0.01). Significant correlations were also found between power and agility (p < 0.01). Linear regression was also calculated for BMI with power and agility, and the results showed that BMI was linearly related to power and agility (t: 87.689, p: 0.00). The coefficients between BMI and power (p < 0.20) and between BMI and agility (p < 0.02) were also significant. Our findings suggest that BMI (body mass index) is associated with better power and partially higher agility in male handball players. This study provides valuable insights for coaches and athletes to improve power and agility exercises in their training performance and achieve better results in their physical performances in elite handball.
... Subsequently, the proportion of basic and specific tests shifts towards the latter. Research on this topic indicates that in the training process of young basketball players who have achieved a high level of skill, 70% of the time spent assessing coordination preparedness should be dedicated to specific tests [21,22]. ...
Background and Study Aim. Coordination skills are an important indicator of success for young athletes in team sports. Therefore, the methods used to monitor these skills should include reliable and valid tests of coordination. The purpose of this study is to identify ways to improve the monitoring of coordination abilities in young basketball players aged 13–14 years. Material and Methods. Basketball players aged 13–14 years participated in the study (n=35, training experience – 3–5 years). Twelve tests were used to assess the level of technical and tactical preparedness of the athletes. The reliability of these tests was evaluated by determining the correlation coefficients between the results of the first test and subsequent tests. The criteria for the informativeness of the tests were based on the experts' rank assessments of the coordination and technical preparedness of young basketball players. A 10-point scale was used for the expert assessment of players' technical skills, with each indicator evaluated from 1 to 10 points. Results. The data obtained indicate that all selected tests demonstrated reliability with correlation coefficients above r = 0.5. Tests assessing muscle effort, adjusting motor activity, sense of rhythm, spatial orientation, and reaction speed showed reliability coefficients sufficient for both individual and group assessments (r > 0.70). Slightly lower reliability coefficients were observed in the time taken to perform individual motor tasks. The validity of the tests was evaluated based on ratings of coordination and technical readiness, as well as overall test battery ratings. In most cases, the validity was not lower than r = 0.3, with some tests exceeding r = 0.5. The correlation coefficient between grades and the total rank score based on the coordination test battery ranged from r = 0.5 to 0.7. The coefficient of concordance showed a high level of agreement among experts regarding the effectiveness of the technical and tactical actions of young basketball players. Conclusions. The conducted study demonstrated the importance of developing and monitoring the coordination abilities of young basketball players during adolescence. The use of several homogeneous tests to assess each individual coordination ability allows for a more reliable evaluation. The need to identify specific types of coordination skills that play a key role in competitive basketball activities has been emphasized. Additionally, the use of a latent indicator in evaluating the coordination abilities of young basketball players will contribute to optimizing a differentiated approach in the training process.
... Agility refers to the ability of an individual to move or change direction quickly and accurately. This skill requires a combination of physical and cognitive skills (e.g., perceptual and decision-making) (Chelladurai, 1976;Ellis et al., 2000;Chelladurai & Yuhasz, 1977;Sheppard et al., 2006;Young et al., 2001Young et al., , 2002Young & Farrow, 2006). Agility typically involves a set of coordinated and rapid movements when altering the directions of physical performance, such as running, jumping, balancing, throwing in PA, and other daily tasks (Gorla et al., 2003;McKinlay et al., 1987). ...
Individuals with Intellectual disabilities (ID) demonstrate a lower level of cardiovascular fitness than their normal counterparts, which starts at an early age and deteriorates with age. A poor level of physical fitness among individuals with ID, suggesting the need to improve their cardiovascular endurance, body composition, muscular endurance, strength, and motor coordination. This review aimed to elucidate findings on selected fitness testing used among individuals with ID and their physical fitness status. Literature was searched systematically based on PRISMA guidelines, using Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest databases. Twelve studies were included in the final analysis. There were randomised-controlled studies that investigated the measurement for fitness battery used among children, youth and athletes with ID. There are six main fitness batteries were reported to be used among ID people. Five studies reported to use Eurofit special battery, 3 studies using SAMU Dis fit, 1 study using Brockport, 1 study using Fullerton battery, while another 1 study using combination of Eurofit with Canadian Standard test and 1 study using others physical performance battery. Most of the batteries potentially to assess health and skill related fitness for special group population. The physical fitness tests also may be differ due to the differences in age factors, as a result from differ in capabilities and requirements in their daily functioning. Considering the health conditions of individual with ID, it is important to design and develop the fitness battery accordingly to provide appropriate recommendation to improve their overall wellbeing and health.
... Wheelchair manoeuvres can include propelling, starting, stopping and changing the direction of the wheelchair, activities that require explosive strength and speed. Agility is defined as rapid wholebody movement, involving changes in speed or direction, in response to specific exercise stimuli [22]. Forms of agility training are always characterised by cues that indicate changes in direction forwards, sideways (right -left), backwards, or turns and twists. ...
One sport for people with disabilities is wheelchair court tennis, where athletes need good agility to move. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the agility training model for wheelchair court tennis athletes. This research is experimental. The population in this study were wheelchair tennis court disability athletes in the Special Region of Yogyakarta totaling 14 athletes (male 10, female 4, aged 19 40 years). Where athletes with various disabilities, including spinal cord injury, single amputee, double amputee, or spina bifida. The sample was divided into two based on ordinal pairing of pretest data, i.e. the experimental group was treated with five agility training models and the control group trained as usual with a coach. The statistical analysis was conducted using the SPSS software, version 21. The results showed that the agility training model for 18 treatments was effective in increasing the agility of wheelchair tennis athletes, with a p value of 0.000 < 0.05. Sport specific training programmes are essential for improving athlete performance. A clear understanding of the nuances of developing athletes with disabilities is essential to developing appropriate programmes and strategies. The results of this study are expected to make a positive contribution to the development of progressive and innovative science, the contribution of the results of this study can add insight into the agility training model for wheelchair tennis athletes.
... l and biological age. Future research should incorporate this assessment when examining similar research questions to ours to consider this influence. We also implemented a generic light stimulus for both our measure of agility and reaction time. Acknowledging the physical and conditional differences between light and human stimuli (Nimphius, 2014;W. Young & Farrow, 2013), the employment of this type of stimuli may explain the arrested development of these qualities in older, more mature participants within our study. We also adopted a cross-sectional approach to our research question. While our results include a comprehensive sample of youth soccer players across all age groups from a junior-elite socce ...
Training and assessment of agility is often prioritised by soccer coaches and practitioners aiming to develop multi-directional speed. Although the importance of agility is advocated throughout childhood and adolescence, limited data evidence agility performance at different stages of adolescence. The purpose of this study was to examine differences in multi-directional speed performance in youth soccer players spanning an entire soccer academy. A total of 86 male junior-elite soccer players volunteered to participate. Anthropometric data were collected, alongside performance data from a battery of physical tests including sprinting, jumping, change of direction, reaction time, and agility. Bayesian models using log-likelihoods from posterior simulations of parameter values displayed linear or curvilinear relationships between both chronological and biological age and performance in all tests other than agility and reaction time. For agility and reaction time tests, performance improved until ~14 years of age or the estimated age of peak height velocity whereby arrested development in performance was observed. Our results demonstrate that while most performance skills improve as chronological or biological age increases, measures of agility and reaction time may not. These findings support the notion that agility performance is complex and multifaceted, eliciting unique, challenging physical demands and non-linear development.
... It involves lateral movements, forward and backward jumps, and crisscross exercises [10]. Agility training in volleyball focuses on improving a player's ability to quickly change direction and respond to directional cues, enhancing their on-court performance by optimizing coordination between the central nervous system and proprioceptive feedback [11,12]. ...
Volleyball is one of the most globally renowned sports in terms of global popularity. The game is a team sport that both men and women can participate in. The gameplay relies heavily on physical activities such as jumping, landing, and quick movements, often causing strain on the musculoskeletal system and leading to injuries. For this reason, agility training is crucial to improving a player's ability to change direction swiftly as and when required by the gameplay. Although it is relatively safer than other team sports, actions like jumping, blocking, and spiking can lead to potential injuries. Properly monitoring the training loads and injury prevention during training should be the major focus in formulating a holistic training methodology in volleyball training. The main goal of this literature study is to evaluate the impact of various training interventions on agility and other performance parameters specific to volleyball players. The range of research approaches and interventions described in this literature review highlights the significance of agility in volleyball training. In many studies, the use of tailored training programs for volleyball has been shown to have positive effects on agility, strength, and jump performance. Although there are limitations to the study design and sample size, the findings from this review necessitate the need for better scientifically informed training programs to reduce injury risk while enhancing player's overall performance potential. To conclude, the current literature review highlights the importance of agility training in volleyball, providing insights into effective training strategies and highlighting the low quality of evidence, suggesting the need for well-structured research on the topic.
... The improvement in agility, as reflected in our study, underscores another dimension of functional fitness. Agility involves not just speed but also balance, coordination, and spatial orientation [36,37], all crucial for daily activities and preventing falls in older adults [38,39]. Donath et al. [40] and Rodrigues et al. [41] emphasised that agility training, as offered through dynamic pilates movements, can significantly reduce the risk of falls, which remains a prevalent concern among the elderly. ...
Background and Study Aim The increasing recognition of pilates as a comprehensive exercise regimen tailored to the needs of the elderly population underscores its growing importance. This shift in emphasis reflects a growing awareness of the potential benefits of pilates for older adults' overall well-being. Study Aim-to investigate the potential benefits of a six-week mat pilates training (MPT) program on the functional fitness of older adults. Material and Methods In total, a group of 30 elderly individuals (i.e., N Male =18 and N Female =12), who regularly frequented a local playground, participated in a quasi-experimental study. The study involved pre-test and post-test assessments and was conducted over a period of six weeks. Participants underwent an MPT program (six days a week for six weeks, 60 minutes per session). Were assessed for various functional fitness parameters: lower-body strength (LBS), upper-body strength (UBS), aerobic endurance (AE), lower-body flexibility (LBF), upper-body flexibility (UBF), agility (AG), and Body Mass Index (BMI). A paired-sample t-test was used for statistical analysis. Results The MPT resulted in significant (p<0.001) improvement in LBS (9.71%), UBS (8.33%), AE (7.11%), LBF (13.48%), UBF (98.78%) and AG (10.52%) post-intervention. However, no significant change was noted in the BMI. Conclusions A MPT program significantly enhances various dimensions of functional fitness in older adults, excluding BMI. The study results have profound implications for older individuals' well-being and quality of life. Given the global trend towards an ageing population, pilates emerges as an essential intervention for promoting active ageing, potentially improving daily functioning, reducing fall risk, and enhancing independence in the elderly.
... The improvement in agility, as reflected in our study, underscores another dimension of functional fitness. Agility involves not just speed but also balance, coordination, and spatial orientation [36,37], all crucial for daily activities and preventing falls in older adults [38,39]. Donath et al. [40] and Rodrigues et al. [41] emphasised that agility training, as offered through dynamic pilates movements, can significantly reduce the risk of falls, which remains a prevalent concern among the elderly. ...
Background and Study Aim. The increasing recognition of pilates as a comprehensive exercise regimen tailored to the needs of the elderly population underscores its growing importance. This shift in emphasis reflects a growing awareness of the potential benefits of pilates for older adults' overall well-being.
Study Aim - to investigate the potential benefits of a six-week mat pilates training (MPT) program on the functional fitness of older adults.
Material and Methods. In total, a group of 30 elderly individuals (i.e., NMale=18 and NFemale=12), who regularly frequented a local playground, participated in a quasi-experimental study. The study involved pre-test and post-test assessments and was conducted over a period of six weeks. Participants underwent an MPT program (six days a week for six weeks, 60 minutes per session). Were assessed for various functional fitness parameters: lower-body strength (LBS), upper-body strength (UBS), aerobic endurance (AE), lower-body flexibility (LBF), upper-body flexibility (UBF), agility (AG), and Body Mass Index (BMI). A paired-sample t-test was used for statistical analysis.
Results. The MPT resulted in significant (p<0.001) improvement in LBS (9.71%), UBS (8.33%), AE (7.11%), LBF (13.48%), UBF (98.78%) and AG (10.52%) post-intervention. However, no significant change was noted in the BMI.
Conclusions. A MPT program significantly enhances various dimensions of functional fitness in older adults, excluding BMI. The study results have profound implications for older individuals’ well-being and quality of life. Given the global trend towards an ageing population, pilates emerges as an essential intervention for promoting active ageing, potentially improving daily functioning, reducing fall risk, and enhancing independence in the elderly.
... Reactive agility, that is change of direction of movement conditioned by a reaction to visual stimulus, comes to the fore in the tennis game (Sheppard and Young, 2006;Young and Farrow, 2013). It allows the tennis player to reach the ball in time and to optimally set up for the stroke. ...
Purpose: The aim of this research is to analyse and to determine the differences between tennis players in younger age categories (U12, U and U16) in certain motor skills.
Methods: A total of 60 tennis players ranked in the rankings of the Croatian Tennis Federation were measured by using 10 tests for assessing explosive strength in jump, speed, agility, and trunk strength. The tennis players were divided into three groups of 20 respondents, depending on the age category in which they compete. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between all age categories were found in indicators of frontal and lateral agility, running speed in the 20-m shuttle run test, and explosive strength in jump and repetitive trunk strength.
Results: The results of the conducted tests indicate a linear development trend for the mentioned skills in relation with the increase of chronological age of the tennis players. Statistically significantly better results were shown between test subjects under 14 years compared to test subjects under 12 years in tests for the assessment of agility (SST,A9-3-6-3-9), in the 20 m sprint test, in tests of explosive strength of lower extremities (CMJ, CMJmax,SJ) and in the test of repetitive trunk strength (TF). Subjects under 16 years achieved significantly better results compared to subjects under 14 years in tests for assessing agility (SST, A9-3-6-3-9), speed (SRT5m, SRT10m, SRT20m) and explosiveness (CMJ, CMJmax, SJ). Players under 16 years recorded significantly better results in all tests for assessing agility (SST,A9-3-6-3-9), speed (SRT5m, SRT10m, SRT20m), explosiveness of the lower extremities (CMJ, CMJmax, SJ) and in the test for assessing repetitive trunk strength (TF). Statistically significant differences were not detected in tests of running speed in the 5-m and 10-m shuttle run tests among U12 and U14 tennis players, nor between U14 and U16 tennis players in the 60-s trunk flexion test. The highest heterogeneity of results in a single age category was determined in the test for assessing isometric trunk strength, and thus tennis players of different age categories do not differ significantly in this skill.
Conclusion: The results of this research point to the development of specific motor skills in accordance with the increase of game demands and chronological age, however, also refer to the problem of muscle imbalance between front and back trunk musculature. Physical conditioning of young tennis players should be multilaterally directed in order to enable injury prevention and adjustment of tennis players to competitive demands.
... This is highlighted in studies showing faster reactions through anticipation of higher standard versus lower standard netball and soccer players (5,33,34). One possible reason for the weak-to-moderate relationship and relatively low common variance among agility test results and Vienna test results is that the laboratory-based test uses general visual stimuli (lights, sounds) instead of sport-specific visual stimuli (movement of a person) (36). ...
Matlák, J, Fridvalszki, M, Kóródi, V, Szamosszegi, G, Pólyán, E, Kovács, B, Kolozs, B, Langmár, G, and Rácz, L. Relationship between cognitive functions and agility performance in elite, young, male soccer players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2023—The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between agility performance and cognitive functions measured under laboratory conditions among elite young soccer players. Twenty-five, elite, young, male soccer players (12.3 ± 0.4 years, 155.4 ± 7.6 cm, 42.6 ± 6.9 kg) completed a battery of field tests, including 5-, 10-, 20-m sprints, change of direction speed (CODS), standing long jump, and an agility test based on a human stimulus. Subjects also completed choice reaction (RT, S3) and reactive stress tolerance (DT, S1) tests on the Vienna Test System. There was a moderate significant relationship ( p < 0.05) found between mean reaction time and mean motor time during the choice reaction task and decision time in the agility test. Decision time also showed a large significant correlation ( p < 0.05) with total time in the agility test. No significant correlation was found between total time in the agility test and variables measured during RT and DT tests. No significant correlations were found between agility test results and results from straight line sprints, CODS, and standing long jump tests. The results of this study suggest that choice reaction time is related to decision-making speed during the agility task used in this study and can have an indirect effect on agility performance in elite young soccer players. Further studies assessing the relationship between different cognitive functions and agility performance in different sports and age categories could help in the identification of determinant cognitive functions in perceptual and decision-making factors of agility.
... The acknowledged importance of perceptual-cognitive skills for soccer performance is also found in the concept of agility, which is broadly defined as a rapid whole body movement with change of direction or velocity in response to a sport/task specific and context sensitive stimulus (Paul et al., 2016;Sheppard & Young, 2006;Young & Farrow, 2013). Agility in soccer encompasses both physical and perceptual elements, with physical components involving change of direction and sprinting, while perceptual elements include reactive agility in response to unpredictable stimuli. ...
In team sports like soccer, the ability to make quick decisions is essential for successful performance. Playersmust perceive and understand the available affordances in their environment to effectively utilize the informationand make accurate decisions on the feld. Visual exploratory actions play a crucial role in acquiring the necessaryinformation, allowing players to anticipate action possibilities and plan their subsequent actions. This study aimed toevaluate the effectiveness of an innovative training protocol based on visual exercises in improving soccer-specifcmotor skills of U12 soccer players. Thirty young male soccer players participated in the study and were randomlyassigned to one of three groups: Technique Group (T-G), Visual-Technique Group (VT-G), and Control Group (C-G).The T-G received technical training, the VT-G received the same training with the addition of visual stimuli, and theC-G received regular in-season training. Pre- and post-test measurements were conducted on soccer-specifc motorskills. The results showed that the VT-G demonstrated signifcant improvements in motor skills compared to the T-Gand C-G. These fndings suggest that incorporating targeted visual training into soccer training programs can enhanceperceptual-cognitive and visual skills, leading to improved agility and overall on-feld performance.Keywords: soccer, agility, visual training, youth sports, motor skills.
... In addition, the rate of adaptive changes in players' bodies, their nature and the degree of adaptation achieved are determined by the type, magnitude and direction of the applied loads. Naturally, the experts divide the load into training and competition, specific and non-specific [5,6]. According to this, the training load includes the amount of exercises that athletes carry out as part of the preparation for a competition. ...
Background and Study Aim. In the context of training young female volleyball players, understanding the criteria, extent, and impact of exercises with heightened coordination complexity becomes crucial. This study aims to determine the evaluation criteria, scope, and effects of incorporating exercises with elevated coordination demands on the specific athletic readiness of young female volleyball players aged 13–14 years. Material and Methods. The study involved female volleyball players aged 13–14 years (n=24) with an average of 4 years of professional experience. Participants were divided into a control group (n=12) and an experimental group (n=12). Prior to the study, both children and their parents were thoroughly informed about the research procedures, and parental consent was obtained for participation. The coordination exercises were categorized into five groups, each assigned a complexity rating from 1 to 5. The assessment utilized a battery of tests. Results. The findings reveal that coordination training yielded a more pronounced advancement in the development of various coordination abilities among female volleyball players in the experimental group, as compared to those in the control group. A statistically significant enhancement (p<0.05) was evident across all indices of coordination readiness within the experimental group. In contrast, the control group demonstrated notable progress only in 3 out of 10 instances (p<0.05). In the control group, noteworthy increases (p<0.05) were observed in spatial orientation, motor activity restructuring, and response indicators. Female volleyball players in the experimental group exhibited substantial improvement (p<0.05–0.001) across all indicators of technical readiness, including reception, attack hit, serve, and ball pass. Conversely, the control group players showed comparatively less remarkable changes in this aspect of readiness, with significant enhancement (p<0.05) identified in three parameters. Conclusions. The strategic incorporation of exercises with progressively heightened coordination demands emerges as a valuable approach in substantially enhancing the range of coordination abilities among young female volleyball players. Recognizing this factor provides the means to expedite and optimize the mastery of motor skills more effectively.
... Without losing balance it also requires changing the position of the body movement quickly and accurately [5] . It is a specific athletic stimulus of an opponent's movements that is most important for the player's performance and is linked to perceptual and decision-making skills [6] . In badminton players, agility exercises will teach to control the body in response to stimulus. ...
... Pada gambar 3 dan 4. Berdasarkan hasil pengolahan data penelitian terdapat pengaruh yang signifikan dari latihan ladder drill icky shuffle terhadap peningkatan kelincahan pemain futsal SDI Dompu. Peningkatan kelincahan pada pemain futsal SDI Dompu disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor, diantaranya faktor latihan sebagaimana dinyatakan oleh (Young & Farrow, 2013) latihan kelincahan yang dilakukan secara terprogram, terencana dan teratur serta tersusun secara sistematis dengan pemberian stimulus-stimulus yang tepat sesuai dengan karakteristik gerak cabang olahraga tertentu dapat meningkatkan kelincahan gerak spesifik ataupun secara menyeluruh. ...
Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui apakah ada pengaruh latihan ladder drill icky shuffle terhadap peningkatan kelincahan pemain futsal SDI Dompu. Penelitian ini merupakan jenis penelitian kuantitatif dengan menggunakan metode pre-eksperimen. Desain penelitian yang digunakan adalah one-group pretest-posttest design. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah seluruh pemain futsal SDI Dompu yang berjumlah 12 orang. Sampel yang diambil dalam penelitian ini adalah 12 orang yang diperoleh dengan teknik sampling jenuh. Pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini berupa tes dan pengukuran yang terdiri dari tes awal (pretest) dan test akhir (posttest) menggunakan tes shuttle run. Data penelitian dianalisis secara statistik parametrik menggunakan Paired Sampe T-Test yang diawali dengan melakukan uji persyaratan analisis data menggunakan Uji Normalitas Shapiro-Wilk dengan bantuan program komputer SPSS versi 20. Hasil penelitian yang dilakukan bahwa ada pengaruh yang signifikan dari latihan ladder drill icky shuffle terhadap peningkatan kelincahan pemain futsal SDI Dompu. Hal ini ditunjjukkan dari hasil Paired Sample T-Test dengan nilai Sig. (2-tailed) sebesar 0,000 < 0,05
... Although not statistically different from the other methods, This result aligns with findings from previous studies indicating that training methods with greater specificity will have a greater transfer to COD performance. 6,74,76,78 Within this meta-analysis, the agility category included studies of small sided-games and other specific methods of training directly related to the technical aspects of COD in team sports. ...
Background
One of the most sought-after skills for performance in team sports is change of direction. Training the physical qualities of strength, speed, and power has been used to improve change of direction. These qualities of change of direction have been studied extensively for the last 20 years, and their influence is still questioned. Additionally, it is currently unknown how moderating training variables affect COD performance.
Objective
This study examines the impact of strength, power, and speed training on change of direction performance.
Method
Following the PRISMA guidelines, a meta-analysis was conducted. Electronic databases were searched for studies conducted from 1991 to April 2021. All studies identified for inclusion were peer-reviewed and published in English and Spanish and used an athlete population as participants. For all analyses, a significance level is set at p < 0.05.
Results
Sixty-six articles were included in this meta-analysis. Two hundred fifty-one effect sizes were calculated, representing 2056 participants aged between 12 and 25 years. The global effect size (ES) for each quality is reported and Cochran's Q test: Strength (N = 48) ES: 0.844 Q = 77.63 (95%CI: 0.65;1.07); Speed (N = 17) ES: 0.70 Q = 5.69 (CI95% = 0.35;1.05); Power (N = 49) ES: 0.85 Q = 47.58 (CI95% = 0.64;1.06); Agility (N = 57) ES: 1.05 Q = 79.63 (CI95% = 0.86;1.24); Combined training (N = 13) ES: 0.51 Q = 13.79 (CI95% = 0.14;0.93), and the Control Group (N = 67) ES: 0.53 Q = 47.40 (IC95% = −0.12;0.23), all ES were statistically significant except control group. The ANOVA-LIKE presented a statistically significant difference between physical qualities and the control group (Sig = 0.000 Q = 69.18).
Conclusion
The training of strength, speed, power, and agility, are effective training methods for improving change of direction ability. Each of these qualities has one or more moderating variables that influencing its development.
... This indicates that the videos are non-specific and therefore the information provided is very unsuitable for actual use on a tennis court. There is empirical evidence to the importance of sport-specific stimulus for enhancing on-court performance (Warren & Farrow, 2013;Fernandez-Fernandez et al, 2015). Something of particular concern is the very low average score for the demonstration quality of the presented exercises. ...
Background: Social networks are an important and widely used resource for training information for many people. However, the content on these platforms regarding the recommendations for strength and conditioning in relation to tennis has not yet been fully evaluated. We investigated the credibility of Instagram-based information on the strength and conditioning development specifically in relation to tennis. Methods: Three experts with more then ten years of scientific and professional experience in the field of tennis (39.6±7.4 years of age) evaluated the credibility of the Instagram-based content of five selected accounts based on three aspects: information based on scientific knowledge, the practical applicability of information and the demonstration quality of the presented exercises. We calculated the means (AS) and standard deviations (SD) for each criterion. Results: The results of this research indicate a very low level of credibility in relation to the data published on social networks. The information is inaccurate and poorly verified, and as such is not a reliable source and selection for the purpose of strength and conditioning progress in tennis. Conclusion: Only validated training approaches and exercises that leverage players’ fitness abilities might serve as an avenue for strength and conditioning promotion in tennis.
... Pengembangan salah satu komponen latihan dalam olahraga bulutangkis yang dibutuhkan adalah kelincahan (Purnomo, 2010). Kelincahan adalah kemampuan mengubah arah dan posisi tubuh dengan cepat dan tepat tanpa kehilangan keseimbangannya (Young & Farrow, 2013). Dalam bulutangkis kelincahan dibutuhkan untuk mengejar kok ke berbagai arah. ...
Pengembangan metode latihan untuk kelincahan masih dirasa kurang dimaksimalkan dalam PB Hiqua Wijaya Kota Kediri. Maka hal tersebut menjadi dasar penelitian dilakukan untuk meningkatkan kelincahan pada atlet bulutangkis. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah mengetahui perbedaan pengaruh latihan shadow bebas dan latihan shadow kombinasi terhadap kelincahan. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan subyek penelitian atlet putra PB.Hiqua Wijaya Kota Kediri usia 12-14 tahun, penelitian dilakukan sebanyak 18 kali pertemuan, menggunakan instrumen berupa tes kelincahan T-test Agility. Teknik analisis data pada uji hipotesis menggunakan uji t. Hasil penelitian ini adalah (1) Ada pengaruh latihan shadow bebas terdapat peningkatan kelincahan dengan persentase peningkatan sebesar 20,10% (2) Ada pengaruh latihan shadow kombinasi terdapat peningkatan kelincahan dengan persentase peningkatan sebesar 14,29% (3) Tidak terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan antara latihan shadow bebas dengan shadow kombinasi dalam peningkatan kelincahan. Hal ini berdasarkan data yang di peroleh dari nilai t hitung sebesar 1,56 < 1,98 (t tabel) dengan taraf signifikansi 0,05
... Kelincahan adalah seperangkat keterampilan kompleks yang dilakukan oleh seseorang untuk merespons stimulus eksternal dengan perlambatan, perubahan arah, dan reacceleration. Kelincahan dipengaruhi oleh persepsi atlet dan pengambilan kemampuan mengambil keputusan untuk dengan cepat mengubah arah (Young & Farrow, 2013). Kelincahan adalah kemampuan tubuh atau bagian tubuh untuk mengubah arah gerakan secara mendadak dalam kecepatan yang tinggi. ...
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian tersebut latihan kondisi fisik sangatlah diperlukan untuk menunjang prestasi. Selain itu faktor latihan adalah suatu proses berlatih yang sistematis, dilakukan berulang-ulang dan terus menambah beban latihan seperti dari yang mudah menjadi lebih sulit. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui profil kondisi fisik atlet Sepaktakraw MTC Kota Malang. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode survei dengan diskriptif kuantitatif. Analisis data yang digunakan yaitu statistik diskriptif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan daya tahan kardiovaskuler 15 atlet sepaktakraw kurang sekali sebesar 80 persen, kelincahan dengan kategori sedang sebesar 53,33 persen, dan kelentukan dengan kategori kurang sebesar 40 persen. Dari hasil tersebut, profil kondisi fisik atlet sepaktakraw MTC Kota Malang dikategorikan kurang.
... Latihan kelincahan itu sendiri memiliki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut: bentuk latihan harus ada gerakan mengubah posisi dan arah badan dengan kecepatan tinggi, rangsangan terhadap pusat syaraf sangat menentukan keberhasilan latihan kelincahan, karena koordinasi sangat penting sebagai unsur kelincahan dan adanya rintangan-rintangan untuk mempersulit gerakan (Horicka et al., 2014). Kelincahan adalah kemampuan untuk bergerak, berhenti dan mengubah kecepatan serta mengubah arah dengan cepat dan tepat, kemampuan seseorang untuk dapat mengubah arah dengan cepat dan tepat pada waktu bergerak tanpa kehilangan keseimbangan (Young & Farrow, 2013). Memiliki kelincahan yang baik bagi seorang pesilat sangat menguntungkan karena seorang pesilat akan mampu melakukan serangan, hindaran maupun melakukan keduanya sekaligus dengan baik. ...
Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengkaji dan memperoleh informasi kemampuan kondisi fisik peserta kegiatan ekstrakurikuler penak silat Perisai Diri di SMA Negeri 1 Tumpang Kabupaten Malang. Rancangan penelitian ini berupa survei bentuk deskriptif menggunaan metode observasi dengan jumlah subjek peneliti 30 peserta. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa tes kekuatan otot perut modus adalah 14 peserta pada kriteria sedang, tes kekuatan otot lengan modus adalah 29 peserta pada kriteria kurang, tes kekuatan otot lengan modus adalah 16 peserta pada kriteria kurang, tes kelincahan modus adalah 15 peserta yaitu pada kriteria sedang, tes daya tahan jantung paru modus adalah 23 peserta yaitu pada kriteria buruk sekali. Berdasarkan penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa kemampuan kondisi fisik kekuatan otot perut dominan berada pada kriteria sedang, kemampuan kondisi fisik kekuatan otot lengan dominan berada pada kriteria kurang, kemampuan kondisi fisik kekuatan otot tungkai dominan berada pada kriteria kurang, kemampuan kondisi fisik kelincaha dominan berada pada kriteria sedang, kemampuan kondisi fisik kekuatan otot perut dominan berada pada kriteria buruk sekali, untuk mendapatkan kriteria baik perlu melakukan latihan yang lebih intensif lagi.
... Finally, if implementing an agility test in basketball players, the type of stimuli being used should be considered. In football codes, a sport-specific stimulus has been shown to be an important component when assessing agility [163] with players competing at higher levels often performing better than players competing at lower levels in Australian rules football [164,165] and rugby league [166,167]. Throughout the literature, timing light systems [113,118], light-up cone systems [49,85], and humans who initiate movement [4,21,60] were the stimuli identified in agility tests used to assess adult male basketball players. ...
Background
As basketball match-play requires players to possess a wide range of physical characteristics, many tests have been introduced in the literature to identify talent and quantify fitness in various samples of players. However, a synthesis of the literature to identify the most frequently used tests, outcome variables, and normative values for basketball-related physical characteristics in adult male basketball players is yet to be conducted.
Objective
The primary objectives of this systematic review are to (1) identify tests and outcome variables used to assess physical characteristics in adult male basketball players across all competition levels, (2) report a summary of anthropometric, muscular power, linear speed, change-of-direction speed, agility, strength, anaerobic capacity, and aerobic capacity in adult male basketball players based on playing position and competition level, and (3) introduce a framework outlining recommended testing approaches to quantify physical characteristics in adult male basketball players.
Methods
A systematic review of MEDLINE, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines to identify relevant studies. To be eligible for inclusion, studies were required to: (1) be original research articles; (2) be published in a peer-reviewed journal; (3) have full-text versions available in the English language; and (4) include the primary aim of reporting tests used and/or the physical characteristics of adult (i.e., ≥ 18 years of age) male basketball players. Additionally, data from the top 10 draft picks who participated in the National Basketball Association combined from 2011–12 to 2020–21 were extracted from the official league website to highlight the physical characteristics of elite 19- to 24-year-old basketball players.
Results
A total of 1684 studies were identified, with 375 being duplicates. Consequently, the titles and abstracts of 1309 studies were screened and 231 studies were eligible for full-text review. The reference list of each study was searched, with a further 59 studies identified as eligible for review. After full-text screening, 137 studies identified tests, while 114 studies reported physical characteristics in adult male basketball players.
Conclusions
Physical characteristics reported indicate a wide range of abilities are present across playing competitions. The tests and outcome variables reported in the literature highlight the multitude of tests currently being used. Because there are no accepted international standards for physical assessment of basketball players, establishing normative data is challenging. Therefore, future testing should involve repeatable protocols that are standardised and provide outcomes that can be monitored across time. Recommendations for testing batteries in adult male basketball players are provided so improved interpretation of data can occur.
... Additionally, the range of stimuli presented in the analysed studies encompasses both sports-specific and artificial cues. Previous studies have demonstrated mediating effects of stimulus-response compatibility in baseball players (Nakamoto & Mori, 2008) and that stimulus specificity has implications in training agility and athletic performance (Young & Farrow, 2013). As stimulus artificiality may affect cortical processes and behavioural outcomes, these results point to the importance of utilizing sport-specific stimuli within the realm of exercise neuroscience research, which could be accomplished through the incorporation of real-world sport equipment and adherence to competition guidelines in the experimental set-up. ...
The contribution of cortical processes to adaptive motor behavior is of great interest in the field of exercise neuroscience. Next to established criteria of objectivity, reliability and validity, ecological validity refers to the concerns of whether measurements and behavior in research settings are representative of the real-world. Since exercise neuroscience investigations using mobile electroencephalography are oftentimes conducted in laboratory settings under controlled environments, methodological approaches may interfere with the idea of ecological validity. This review utilizes an original ecological validity tool to assess the degree of ecological validity in current exercise neuroscience research. A systematic literature search was conducted to identify articles investigating cortical dynamics during goal-directed sports movement. To assess ecological validity, five elements (environment, stimulus, response, body and mind) were assessed on a continuum of artificiality-naturality and simplicity-complexity. 47 studies were included in the present review. Results indicate lowest average ratings for the element of environment. The elements stimulus, body and mind had mediocre ratings, and the element of response had the highest overall ratings. In terms of the type of sport, studies that assessed closed-skill indoor sports had the highest ratings, while closed-skill outdoor sports had the lowest overall rating. Our findings identify specific elements that are lacking in ecological validity and areas of improvement in current exercise neuroscience literature. Future studies may potentially increase ecological validity by moving from reductionist, artificial environments towards complex, natural environments, and incorporating real-world sport elements such as adaptive responses and competition.
... While providing first insights into factors contributing to agility performance, a drawback of these studies is that the applied agility tests use numbers on a screen or flashing lights as a stimulus to which the players are required to respond to. In particular, research has shown that such non-specific stimuli do not allow players to deploy their anticipation skills but rather force them to simply react [18]. Practically speaking, while higher-level athletes are able to make use of anticipatory kinematic cues during a sport-specific scenario, a light is simply either on or off, thereby only assessing the athletes' speed of information processing [6]. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of physical and perceptual-cognitive factors with agility performance in amateur soccer players. Fifteen male amateur soccer players (age, 24.5 ± 1.9 years) completed a linear-sprint test with splits at 5 m, 10 m, and 30 m, a change-of-direction test of 12 m with 2 pre-planned directional changes of 45° at 2 m and 7 m, and a soccer-specific agility test with same movement pattern as the change-of-direction test but with the inclusion of a human stimulus performing passing movements. Additionally, the perceptual-cognitive deficit (agility performance minus change-of-direction performance) was calculated. In relation to agility performance, linear-sprint performance showed large relationships, which were higher with increasing sprint distance (5 m, r = 0.57; 10 m, r = 0.59; 30 m, r = 0.69), change-of-direction performance a very large relationship (r = 0.77), and the perceptual-cognitive deficit a large relationship (r = 0.55). The findings of this study highlight the relatively high contribution of both physical (i.e., linear-sprint and change-of-direction performance) and perceptual-cognitive factors (i.e., perceptual-cognitive deficit) in relation to soccer-specific agility performance at an amateur level. Consequently, such elements might be recommended to be included in training programs aimed at improving agility performance at this playing level. Moreover, the here introduced perceptual-cognitive deficit allows for a convenient and likewise thorough analysis of agility performance. Future studies should investigate the effects of both physically and perceptual-cognitive oriented training interventions on agility performance, which is considered a key element for success in soccer.
... These decision-making processes require perceptual-cognitive factors (i.e., visual scanning, knowledge of situations, pattern recognition, and anticipation) to be coupled with a motor response that will produce a whole-body movement (176). As such, although the aforementioned preplanned qualities (i.e., acceleration, deceleration, COD, and curvilinear speed) discussed in this text are considered essential elements to develop within a soccer strength and conditioning program, it is the interaction of perceptive, cognitive, and motor control capabilities with the ability to apply effective movement that wholly contributes to MDS performance (93)(94)(95)209). ...
This review provides a definition for multidirectional speed (MDS) and evaluates its technical and mechanical underpinnings. This review explores each component of MDS while considering unique aspects of youth physiology and epidemiology. With a theoretical understanding of MDS, practitioners will be more informed on the planning and periodization of MDS training methods in soccer. MDS comprises linear speed, change of direction speed, curvilinear speed, contextual speed, and agility, which each have distinct physiological, biomechanical, and neurocognitive distinctions that can either be differentiated or harmonized to optimize training.
... Agilitas (kelincahan) ialah produk dari kombinasi yang kompleks dari kecepatan, koordinasi, kelentukan, dan power sebagaimana didemostrasikan di olahraga senam, senam, Gulat, sepakbola, futsal, bulutangkis, dan figure skating (Fort-Vanmeerhaeghe, Romero-Rodriguez, Lloyd, Kushner, & Myer, 2016;Horicka, Hianik, & Šimonek, 2014;Young & Farrow, 2013). Kelincahan merupakan kemampuan untuk bergerak gerak, berhenti dan mengubah kecepatan serta mengubah arah dengan cepat dan tepat. ...
This study aims to determine and assess the level of cardiovascular endurance and agility of futsal extracurricular members. The research design used a quantitative descriptive survey method which was conducted on futsal extracurricular members at SMP Negeri 9 Malang. Based on the results of data analysis, it can be concluded that the level of cardiovascular endurance (VO2max) of futsal extracurricular members at SMP Negeri 9 Malang is an average of 30.23 ml / kg / minute in the classification is very low, while the average agility level is 20.33 seconds. in very poor classification. Abstrak: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui dan mengkaji tingkat daya tahan kardiovaskular dan kelincahan peserta ekstrakurikuler futsal. Rancangan penelitian menggunakan deskriptif kuantitatif dengan metode survei yang dilakukan kepada peserta ekstrakurikuler futsal SMP Negeri 9 Malang. Berdasarkan hasil analisis data, dapat disimpulkan bahwa tingkat daya tahan kardiovaskular (VO2max) peserta ekstrakurikuler futsal di SMP Negeri 9 Malang yaitu rata-rata 30,23 ml/kg/menit dalam klasifikasi sangat kurang, sedangkan tingkat kelincahan rata-rata 20,33 detik dalam klasifikasi kurang sekali.
... kinematics have been observed between pre-planned and unplanned (generic stimuli) cutting [154,155]. However, it is worth noting that the use of generic stimuli for the unplanned cutting tasks (i.e.., flashing light/arrow) have been criticised because they are not a sport-specific stimulus and lack ecological validity [10,156,157]. Further insight is required into biomechanical determinants of performance and surrogates of ACL injury risk in cuts and turns of different angles, actions, and unplanned tasks utilising a sportspecific stimulus. ...
Background
Most cutting biomechanical studies investigate performance and knee joint load determinants independently. This is surprising because cutting is an important action linked to performance and non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between cutting biomechanics and cutting performance (completion time, ground contact time [GCT], exit velocity) and surrogates of non-contact ACL injury risk (knee abduction [KAM] and internal rotation [KIRM] moments) during 90° cutting.
Design
Mixed, cross-sectional study following an associative design. 61 males from multidirectional sports performed six 90° pre-planned cutting trials, whereby lower-limb and trunk kinetics and kinematics were evaluated using three-dimensional (3D) motion and ground reaction force analysis over the penultimate (PFC) and final foot contact (FFC). Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlations were used to explore the relationships between biomechanical variables and cutting performance and injury risk variables. Stepwise regression analysis was also performed.
Results
Faster cutting performance was associated ( p ≤ 0.05) with greater centre of mass (COM) velocities at key instances of the cut ( r or ρ = 0.533–0.752), greater peak and mean propulsive forces ( r or ρ = 0.449–0.651), shorter FFC GCTs ( r or ρ = 0.569–0.581), greater FFC and PFC braking forces ( r = 0.430–0.551), smaller hip and knee flexion range of motion ( r or ρ = 0.406–0.670), greater knee flexion moments (KFMs) ( r = 0.482), and greater internal foot progression angles ( r = − 0.411). Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that exit velocity, peak resultant propulsive force, PFC mean horizontal braking force, and initial foot progression angle together could explain 64% ( r = 0.801, adjusted 61.6%, p = 0.048) of the variation in completion time. Greater peak KAMs were associated with greater COM velocities at key instances of the cut ( r or ρ = − 0.491 to − 0.551), greater peak knee abduction angles (KAA) ( r = − 0.468), and greater FFC braking forces ( r = 0.434–0.497). Incidentally, faster completion times were associated with greater peak KAMs ( r = − 0.412) and KIRMs ( r = 0.539). Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that FFC mean vertical braking force and peak KAA together could explain 43% ( r = 0.652, adjusted 40.6%, p < 0.001) of the variation peak KAM.
Conclusion
Techniques and mechanics associated with faster cutting (i.e. faster COM velocities, greater FFC braking forces in short GCTs, greater KFMs, smaller hip and knee flexion, and greater internal foot progression angles) are in direct conflict with safer cutting mechanics (i.e. reduced knee joint loading, thus ACL injury risk), and support the “performance-injury conflict” concept during cutting. Practitioners should be conscious of this conflict when instructing cutting techniques to optimise performance while minimising knee joint loading, and should, therefore, ensure that their athletes have the physical capacity (i.e. neuromuscular control, co-contraction, and rapid force production) to tolerate and support the knee joint loading during cutting.
... Kelincahan adalah kemampuan seseorang mengubah arah gerak dengan cepat dan tanpa kehilangan keseimbangan (Horicka, Hianik, & Šimonek, 2014;Ozmen & Aydogmus, 2016). Kelincahan adalah suatu kemampuan tubuh dalam mengubah arah gerak dengan cepat yang dilakukan bersamaan dengan gerakan lainnya (Spiteri, Newton, & Nimphius, 2015;Young & Farrow, 2013). Kelincahan merupakan aktivitas gerak yang membutuhkan kecepatan dalam mengubah posisi tubuh dan bagian-bagiannya (Sudarsono, Saichudin, & Andiana, 2020;Zahrina, 2021). ...
This development research aims to develop learning of physical fitness agility elements based on interactive multimedia in SMP Negeri 4 Malang. Using the Research and Development (R&D) model with Lee & Owen. Using a small group trial subject of 20 students and a large group trial subject of 60 students consisting of class VII and class VIII. Based on the results of data analysis obtained from learning experts with a percentage of 93%, physical fitness experts with a percentage of 91%, media experts with a percentage of 90%, small group trials 89%, and large group trials 89%. Based on the analysis of the data that has been obtained, it is concluded that the development product is suitable for use in the learning process. Abstrak: Penelitian pengembangan ini bertujuan mengembangkan pembelajaran kebugaran jasmani unsur kelincahan berbasis multimedia interaktif di SMP Negeri 4 Malang. Menggunakan model Reseach and Development (R&D) dengan Lee & Owen. Menggunakan subjek uji coba kelompok kecil 20 siswa dan subjek uji coba kelompok besar 60 siswa terdiri dari kelas VII dan kelas VIII. Berdasarkan hasil analisis data yang diperoleh dari ahli pembelajaran dengan persentase 93%, ahli kebugaran jasmani dengan persentase 91%, ahli media dengan persentase 90%, uji coba kelompok kecil 89%, dan uji coba kelompok besar 89%. Berdasarkan analisis data yang telah diperoleh, disimpulkan bahwa produk pengembangan layak digunakan dalam proses pembelajaran.
... In addition, the COD requirements vary for different playing positions and sports. 98,99 There are examples from running studies, where in-lab movements are different from real life movements and there is more variability in game situations, which requires repeated measurements to establish typical movement patterns. 29,30,96,100,101 Participant characteristics Previous research suggests that females might be at greater risk of ACL injury during COD tasks, 102 despite the potential confounding of other physical factors, such as muscle strength. ...
Change of direction movement is common in sports and the ability to perform this complex movement efficiently is related to athlete's performance. Wearable devices have been used to evaluate aspects of change of direction movement, but so far there are no clear recommendations on specific metrics to be used.
The aims of this scoping review were to evaluate the reliability and validity of inertial measurement unit sensors to provide information on change of direction movement and to summarize the available evidence on inertial measurement units in analyzing change of direction movement in sports.
A systematic search was employed in MEDLINE (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO host), SPORTDiscus (EBSCO host), EMBASE and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and Web of Science to identify eligible studies. A complementary grey literature search was employed to locate non-peer reviewed studies. The risk of bias of the studies evaluating validity and/or reliability was evaluated using the AXIS tool.
The initial search identified 15,165 studies. After duplicate removal and full-text screening 49 studies met the inclusion criteria, with 11 studies evaluating validity and/or reliability.
There are promising results on the validity and reliability, but the number of studies is still small and the quality of the studies is limited. Most of the studies were conducted with pre-planned movements and participants were usually adult males. Varying sensor locations limits the ability to generalize these findings. Inertial measurement units (IMU) can be used to detect change of direction (COD) movements and COD heading angles with acceptable validity, but IMU measured or derived kinetic or kinematic variables present inconsistency and over-estimation.
Studies can be improved with larger sample sizes and agreement on the metrics used and sensor placement. Future research should include more on-field studies.
... When assessing agility performance, however, versions of the Y-sprint drill are often implemented to maintain high sprint velocity and mimic the "cut" action, commonly observed during team and invasion sports [12,[20][21][22]. Moreover, it is suggested that the presence of a stimulus may influence the physical demands elicited during a test [10,[22][23][24]. Therefore, sufficient consideration should be given to both mechanical and conditional demands when selecting suitable COD and agility tests [15]. ...
Considering the vast physical and neural developments experienced throughout adolescence, the reliability of physical performance may vary in youth populations. This study aimed to examine the reliability of change of direction (COD) and agility tests in youth soccer players. Altogether, 86 youth soccer players, aged 13.6 ± 2.0 years, volunteered to participate. Data were collected from a modified 505 COD test (m505COD) and the Y-sprint drill in both pre-planned (Y-SprintPRE) and reactive (Y-SprintREACT) conditions during 2 sessions, 7 days apart. Anthropometric data including body mass, standing stature, and sitting height were also collected. COD and agility tests demonstrated good reliability (ICC = 0.81–0.91; CV = 1.2–2.0; d = 0.00–0.31; p < 0.01) for our entire sample. However, we observed a small negative relationship between age and intersession differences for the Y-SprintPRE (r = −0.28; p = 0.04), and moderate negative relationships between both age (r = −0.41; p < 0.01), and maturity offset (r = −0.39; p < 0.01) for the Y-SprintREACT. Although the COD and agility tests adopted within this study possess good intersession reliability, we observed greater intersession differences for younger and less mature individuals. We suggest that while COD and agility tests may provide meaningful objective data for monitoring the development of youth soccer players, these tests should be used with caution when evaluating younger, more immature athletes.
Elections to Local Self-Governing Institutions are getting much public attention and witnessing more political participation all over India. Most of the time, voter turnout in local body elections is much higher than in general elections. In local body elections, how the people think and respond is unpredictable. Though the decentralization of power envisions non-partisan grassroots democracy, elections to these bodies are highly competitive and political. In terms of functions, functionaries, and finance, local bodies in Kerala are unique, and all the political parties are seriously trying to capture or retain power in these institutions. After a massive setback in the general election in 2019, the left-front government has seriously reassessed its policies and moved toward politics of populism. The COVID relief measures also helped them to regain their support base. This paper intends to analyze how left parties made a substantive victory in the local body election in 2020andthe subsequent Kerala Legislative Assembly election in 2021.
he asymmetries detected in the different multi-directional sports vary in magnitude depending on the test selected. Furthermore, in the individual analysis of the different tests administered, it was observed that athlete’s lower limb preferences depended on the test. Greater asymmetries were detected in the vertical jump test, the CODD variable, and the change of direction with inertial resistance test in multidirectional sports. The change of direction with inertial resistance test also enabled us to detect asymmetries in actions that approximate the actual sport. Moreover, the results showed that asymmetries have a negative impact on performance of the jump and the change of direction, and on speed in the linear sprint and the capacity to repeat the change of direction.
Last, we were able to observe that iso-inertial training results in greater adaptations in performance and larger reductions in asymmetries than conventional cable-resistance training. We can also affirm that positive adaptations in performance caused by resistance training are not necessarily associated with reduced asymmetries
Schnelligkeit im Allgemeinen und Agilität im Speziellen stellen leistungsbestimmende Faktoren in zahlreichen Mannschaftssportarten dar. Agilität umfasst dabei nicht nur physische Komponenten wie Beschleunigungen und Richtungswechsel, sondern auch kognitive Komponenten wie Wahrnehmung, Antizipation und Entscheidungsfindung. Eine typische Aktion aus dem Mannschaftssport mit einer hohen Anforderung an die Agilität ist das Abfangen eines Steilpasses des Gegenspielers. Zunächst muss der Abwehrspieler diesen Pass möglichst früh wahrnehmen und im besten Fall antizipieren. Anschließend trifft er die Entscheidung, mit einem schnellen Richtungswechsel in Ballrichtung zu beschleunigen und setzt diese Entscheidung motorisch um. Vor allem aufgrund der beschriebenen ablaufenden kognitiven Prozesse in typischen Spielsituationen spielt Agilität nicht nur für die Leistungserbringung eine wichtige Rolle, sondern ebenfalls in der Prävention von Kontakt- und Non-Kontakt-Verletzungen. Vor dem beschriebenen Hintergrund ist das Ziel dieses Beitrags, zunächst eine Begriffsklärung von Agilität sowie eine Abgrenzung zu dem in der Sportpraxis oft verwendeten Begriff der Handlungsschnelligkeit vorzunehmen. Aufbauend auf einer Beschreibung der Bedeutung von Agilität im Mannschaftssport werden anschließend Methoden zur Erfassung sowie zum Training von Agilität dargestellt und diskutiert.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, fonksiyonel antrenmanın adölesan güreşçilerin çeviklik ve dikkat özelliğine etkisinin belirlenmesidir. Çalışmaya 12-16 yaş arasındaki 25 erkek güreşçi gönüllü olarak katılmıştır. Katılımcılar deney (n:12) ve kontrol grubu (n:13) olmak üzere rastgele 2 gruba ayrılmış ve deney grubu 8 haftalık güreş branşına özgü hareketlerden oluşan fonksiyonel antrenman programı uygulamıştır. Antrenman programının uygulanmasından önce ve sonra T çeviklik testi ve reaksiyon zamanı testi (Fitlight Junior TR) yapılmıştır. Veriler normal dağılım gösterdiği için ön-son test değerlerin karşılaştırılmasında Paired Samples T – testi, gruplar arası karşılaştırmasında ise Independent Samples T- testi uygulanmıştır. Verilerin istatistiksel yorumlanmasında anlamlılık düzeyi p<0.05 olarak belirlenmiştir. Çeviklik testinde hem deney hem de kontrol grubunda ön-test son-test karşılaştırmasında anlamlı farklılık bulunmamıştır. Fakat son test karşılaştırmasında deney grubunun kontrol grubuna göre anlamlı düzeyde daha fazla geliştikleri tespit edilmiştir (p<0.05). Reaksiyon zamanı performansında ise sıralı seri mod testi dördüncü seri son-test karşılaştırmasında deney grubu lehine anlamlı farklılık tespit edilmiştir (p<0.05). Rastgele mod testinde gruplar arası anlamlı farklılık bulunmamıştır. Rastgele mod ve tümü açık mod değişkenlerinin tümünde hem deney hem de kontrol grubu, grup içi karşılaştırmalarında anlamlı düzeyde farklılıklar tespit edilmiştir (p<0.05). Sonuç olarak fonksiyonel antrenman çalışmasının kontrol grubuna göre deney grubu güreşçilerin çeviklik özelliğini geliştirdiği, reaksiyon zamanı performansının bazı parametrelerinde seçme ve tepki gösterme süresinin kısaltılmasına olumlu etkisi olduğu görülmektedir. Güreşte yüksek yoğunluktaki maksimum dikkat gerektiren hareketlerin sayısı ve uyarı aralıkları ve yönü dikkate alındığında fonksiyonel antrenman programının antrenman planı içerisinde yer almasının yararlı olacağı değerlendirilmektedir.
Background: Kumite is a category in karate match. It is a one-on-one match that requires complex physical aspects, one of which is physical agility. In a real match, kumite requires movements to shift the direction quickly when a karateka aims to hit his opponent. For that reason, there should be a program and an assessment to improve the physical agility of the karate athletes who compete in kumite category. The document analysis of this research found that there has not been any assessment tool for the agility aspect in kumite, while the existing agility test measuring tool was only designed for sports in general. Purpose: This research aimed to develop the construction of karate agility test for the kumite category. Design/methodology/approach: This is a developmental research which consisted of 3 stages. In the first stage, documents and research journals were analyzed to develop the construction of karate agility test for the kumite category. In the second stage, the Delphi technique was utilized and the experts were asked to assess he construction of karate agility test for the kumite category resulted in the first stage. In the third stage, the results of expert judgment with the Aiken formula were analyzed to test the content validity. The participants in this research were documents and seven experts. Results: It was found in the construction of the Kumite category karate agility test; item one, the content or material got a V value of 0.85; item two, the distance between the cone had a V value of 0.95; item three, the safety of the equipment used has a V value of 0.90; item four, the number of test replications had a V value of 0.90; item five, the clarity of the test procedure had a V value of 0.90; items six, the clarity of the test score had a V value of 0.90. Conclusion: The karate agility test construction for the kumite category had high content validity.
Schnelligkeit ist eine koordinativ-konditionelle Fähigkeit, basierend auf einem komplexen Geflecht aus Leistungsvoraussetzungen, auf Reize schnellstmöglich zu reagieren und/oder Bewegungen mit höchsten Geschwindigkeiten zu realisieren. Aus evolutionärer Sicht war die Fähigkeit zur schnellen Fortbewegung überlebenswichtig. Heute ist die Schnelligkeitsleistung ein zentraler leistungslimitierender Faktor in vielen Sportarten. Das Kapitel liefert einen Überblick über Bedeutung und Erscheinungsformen der Schnelligkeit, über biologische Grundlagen für die Realisierung der Schnelligkeitsleistung sowie über Anpassungsvorgänge, Trainingsmethoden und Belastungsdosierung und stellt schließlich ausgewählte Trainingsbeispiele vor. Die Schnelligkeit kann in ihrer Reinform als primär koordinativ-technisch akzentuierte Fähigkeit charakterisiert werden, während komplexen sportartspezifischen Schnelligkeitsleistungen auch ein konditionell-energetischer Fähigkeitscharakter unterstellt werden kann. Neben neuronalen und tendomuskulären Leistungsvoraussetzungen sind sensorisch-kognitive und psychische sowie anlage-, entwicklungs- und lernbedingte Einflussgrößen in Abhängigkeit der sportartspezifischen Besonderheiten in unterschiedlichem Ausmaß von Bedeutung. Zur Verbesserung der Schnelligkeit existieren zahlreiche Trainingsbereiche und Methoden, die hinsichtlich der angestrebten Anpassungsvorgänge den verschiedenen Erscheinungsformen der Schnelligkeit zugeordnet werden können. Hierzu zählt beispielsweise das Training der elementaren oder komplexen Schnelligkeit. Aus der grenzenlosen Vielfalt an Trainingsformen werden konkrete Trainingsbeispiele vorgestellt.
Introduction: Many sporting activities require both vertical jumping in combination with agility. Yet, both vertical jumping and agility can be executed either bilaterally or unilaterally.Problem Statement and Approach:There exist no literature exploring the association between unilateral agility with vertical jump performance variables.Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine associations and predictive ability between performance measures during unilateral and bilateral vertical countermovement jumpswith unilateral agility measures.Material and Method: Thirty recreationally active adults participated in two non-consecutive sessions. During the first session,participants completed three trials of right-sideunilateral countermovement jumps, left-side unilateral countermovement jumps, and bilateral countermovement jumpsin a randomized order. All jumps were performed akimbo, on force platforms, withthirty seconds of rest between trials. During the second session,participantscompleted two distinct unilateral agilitymaneuvers:single leg up three-back one and single leg cross hops, and were given two trials for each maneuver with thirty seconds rest between trials. The average of all completed trials for all countermovement jumps and agility maneuvers were used for statistical analysis. Spearman'sR correlation were used to find significant associations between completion time for the agility maneuvers and jump height, peak force, relative force, peak power, relative peak power, and landing force for all countermovement jumpconditions. Results:There were significant correlations between the cross hop and up three-back one agility maneuver completion time with countermovement jump height, peak force, peak power, relative peak power, and landing force during both unilateral and bilateral jumps. Conclusions:There appears to be an association between certain performance measures during bilateral and unilateral countermovement jumps and unilateral agility. Peak power and landing force assist in predicting unilateral agility completion time. Therefore, coaches may desire to implement unilateral jumping with individuals necessitating single leg agility to complete their desired exercise or sport activity.
The study examined effects of spatial stimulus–response compatibility on response time and response accuracy in 20 novice combat sport athletes. Two equivalent groups, based on initial reaction time measures, were required to perceive and move quickly and accurately in response to an unspecific visual stimulus presented on a large screen during the two types of perceptual training in eight laboratory sessions. One group reacted by moving the fist toward the stimulus location on the target (direct compatibility condition). Another group was required to move the fist away from target in the opposite direction (indirect compatibility condition). Specifically, the indirect compatibility group achieved faster reaction times than the direct compatibility group during the two posttests containing video-projected attacks of the opponents, and in one of the two posttests containing real opponents’ attacks. Results seem to reveal higher combat performance against real opponents when athletes trained with an indirect stimulus–response compatibility condition.
This study examined the relative contribution of visual, perceptual, and cognitive skills to the development of expertise in soccer. Elite and sub-elite players, ranging in age from 9 to 17 years, were assessed using a multidimensional battery of tests. Four aspects of visual function were measured: static and dynamic visual acuity; stereoscopic depth sensitivity; and peripheral awareness. Perceptual and cognitive skills were assessed via the use of situational probabilities, as well as tests of anticipation and memory recall. Stepwise discriminant analyses revealed that the tests of visual function did not consistently discriminate between skill groups at any age. Tests of anticipatory performance and use of situational probabilities were the best in discriminating across skill groups. Memory recall of structured patterns of play was most predictive of age. As early as age 9, elite soccer players demonstrated superior perceptual and cognitive skills when compared to their sub-elite counterparts. Implications for training perceptual and cognitive skill in sport are discussed.
Purpose:
To compare the agility demands of 4 small-sided games (SSGs) and evaluate the variability in demands for elite Australian Football (AF).
Methods:
Fourteen male elite Australian Football League (AFL) players (mean ± SD; 21.7 ± 3.1 y, 189.6 ± 9.0 cm, 88.7 ± 10.0 kg, 39.4 ± 57.1 games) completed 4 SSGs of 3 × 45-s bouts each with modified designs. Video notational analysis, GPS at 5 Hz, and triaxial accelerometer data expressed the external player loads within games. Three comparisons were made using a paired t test (P < .05), and magnitudes of differences were reported with effect size (ES) statistics.
Results:
Reduced area per player (increased density) produced a small increase in total agility maneuvers (SSG1, 7.2 ± 1.3; SSG2, 8.8 ± 4.1), while a large 2D player load was accumulated (P < .05, ES = 1.22). A reduction in players produced a moderate (ES = 0.60) total number of agility maneuvers (SSG 3, 11.3 ± 6.1; SSG 2, 8.3 ± 3.6); however, a greater variability was found. The implementation of a 2-handed-tag rule resulted in a somewhat trivial decline (P > .05, ES = 0.16) in agility events compared with normal AFL tackling rules (SSG 2, 8.3 ± 3.6; SSG 4, 7.8 ± 2.6).
Conclusions:
SSG characteristics can influence agility-training demand, which can vary considerably for individuals. Coaches should carefully consider SSG design to maximize the potential to develop agility for all players.
EFFECTIVE MOVEMENT IS A KEY ELEMENT OF ELITE SPORTS PERFORMANCE IN A RANGE OF SPORTS, AND AGILITY TRAINING HAS BECOME AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT IN MANY SPORTS PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMS. TRADITIONALLY, AGILITY TRAINING HAS FOCUSED ON THE EXECUTION OF CLOSED DRILLS THAT ALLOW FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF EFFECTIVE MOVEMENT PATTERS BUT MAY NOT OPTIMALLY TRANSFER DIRECTLY TO ENHANCED SPORTS PERFORMANCE. THIS ARTICLE AIMS TO EXAMINE THE NATURE OF REACTIVE AGILITY AND PROVIDE A THEORETICAL SUPPORT FOR THE APPLICATION OF REACTIVE AGILITY EXERCISES AND ALSO SUGGESTS METHODS OF DELIVERING THESE EXERCISES TO MAXIMIZE THE TRANSFER TO ENHANCED SPORTS PERFORMANCE.
To study the validity of a video-based reactive agility test in Australian footballers.
15 higher performance, 15 lower performance, and 12 nonfootballers completed a light-based reactive agility test (LRAT), a video-based reactive agility test (VRAT), and a planned test (PLAN).
With skill groups pooled, agility time in PLAN (1346 ± 66 ms) was significantly faster (P = .001) than both reactive tests (VRAT = 1550 ± 102 ms; LRAT = 1572 ± 97 ms). In addition, decision time was significantly faster (P = .001; d = 0.8) in LRAT (278 ± 36 ms) than VRAT (311 ± 47 ms). The correlation in agility time between the two reactive tests (r = .75) was higher than between the planned and reactive tests (r = .41-.68). Higher performance players had faster agility and movement times on VRAT (agility, 130 ± 24 ms, d = 1.27, P = .004; movement, 69 ± 73 ms, d = 0.88, P = .1) and LRAT (agility, 95 ± 86 ms, d = 0.99, P = .08; movement, 79 ± 74 ms; d = 0.9; P = .08) than the nonfootballers. In addition, higher (55 ± 39 ms, d = 0.87, P = .05) and lower (40 ± 57 ms, d = 0.74, P = .18) performance groups exhibited somewhat faster agility time than nonfootballers on PLAN. Furthermore, higher performance players were somewhat faster than lower performance for agility time on the VRAT (63 ± 85 ms, d = 0.82, P = .16) and decision time on the LRAT (20 ± 39 ms, d = 0.66, P = .21), but there was little difference in PLAN agility time between these groups (15 ± 150 ms, d = 0.24, P = .8).
Differences in decision-making speed indicate that the sport-specific nature of the VRAT is not duplicated by a light-based stimulus. In addition, the VRAT is somewhat better able to discriminate different groups of Australian footballers than the LRAT. Collectively, this indicates that a video-based test is a more valid assessment tool for examining agility in Australian footballers.
Small-sided games (SSGs) are played on reduced pitch areas, often using modified rules and involving a smaller number of players than traditional football. These games are less structured than traditional fitness training methods but are very popular training drills for players of all ages and levels. At present, there is relatively little information regarding how SSGs can best be used to improve physical capacities and technical or tactical skills in footballers. However, many prescriptive variables controlled by the coach can influence the exercise intensity during SSGs. Coaches usually attempt to change the training stimulus in SSGs through altering the pitch area, player number, coach encouragement, training regimen (continuous vs interval training), rules and the use of goalkeepers. In general, it appears that SSG exercise intensity is increased with the concurrent reduction in player number and increase in relative pitch area per player. However, the inverse relationship between the number of players in each SSG and exercise intensity does not apply to the time-motion characteristics. Consistent coach encouragement can also increase training intensity, but most rule changes do not appear to strongly affect exercise intensity. The variation of exercise intensity measures are lower in smaller game formats (e.g. three vs three) and have acceptable reproducibility when the same game is repeated between different training sessions or within the same session. The variation in exercise intensity during SSGs can also be improved with consistent coach encouragement but it is still more variable than traditional generic training methods. Other studies have also shown that SSGs containing fewer players can exceed match intensity and elicit similar intensities to both long- and short-duration high-intensity interval running. It also appears that fitness and football-specific performance can be improved equally with SSG and generic training drills. Future research is required to examine the optimal periodization strategies of SSGs training for the long-term development of physiological capacity, technical skill and tactical proficiency.
Field testing is a key component to measure player performance in all sports, which provides coaches and strength and conditioning staff information to evaluate player performance and measure desired training effects. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability and construct validity of a rugby union field test protocol based on analysis of the components of the game. Participants were placed in an Academy (n = 17) or Club (n = 11) group determined by current playing level. Trials of 10- and 30-m linear speed (LS), change of direction speed, and reactive agility speed were measured to evaluate the field test protocol's utility in distinguishing players of different playing abilities. Reliability analysis of each field test demonstrated stable values allowing this field test protocol to be used to compare between groups. Furthermore, the Academy players performed significantly (p < 0.05) faster compared to Club players in all LS and agility components. These results suggest that this field test protocol is appropriate to identify rugby union players of varying playing abilities allowing coaches and strength and fitness staff to measure a player's capability to execute critical aspects of the game and may have application in performance evaluation and talent identification. The results from this study suggest that this test battery is an appropriate measure in identifying the varying playing abilities of rugby union players. This enables coaches and fitness staff to assess a player's capability in executing critical aspects of the game and also may have application in performance evaluation and talent identification.
Agility requires change of direction speed (CODS) and also perceptual and decision-making skills and reaction speed. The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable and valid agility test for rugby league, which stressed all those dimensions. Players from a subelite rugby league team were tested twice on a sport-specific reactive agility test (RAT) and CODS test. Data were analyzed for reliability. For validity results from the subelite groups, first test was compared with data from an elite group. The RAT required participants to run toward an unpredictable life-size video of an attacking opponent and react to that video by changing direction. The CODS test required the same movement patterns however direction changes were preplanned. The subelite group's mean time to complete the CODS test and RAT on their first test was 1.67 ± 0.15 and 1.98 ± 0.16 seconds, respectively, and 1.62 ± 0.14 and 1.91 ± 0.17 seconds, respectively, on their second test (results are ± σ). Statistical analyses revealed no significant difference in means (p < 0.05) and good correlation (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.87 and 0.82, respectively). The elite group's mean time to complete the tests was 1.65 ± 0.09 and 1.79 ±0.12 seconds, respectively. Statistical analyses revealed a significant difference in mean RAT time between the elite group and the subelite group (p < 0.05). The RAT was reliable and valid. Performance differences on the RAT were attributed to differences in perceptual skills and/or reaction ability. Testing and training agility should therefore stress those dimensions of agility and not just CODS.
The purpose of the current study was to assess the reliability of a new protocol that examines different components of agility using commercially available timing gates.
Seventeen physically active males completed four trials of a new protocol, which consisted of a number of 10-m sprints. Sprints were completed in a straight line or with a change of direction after 5 m. The change of direction was either planned or reactive, with participants reacting to a visual light stimulus.
There was no systematic bias in any of the measures, although random variation was reduced in the straight acceleration and planned agility when considering only the final pair of trials, with mean coefficients of variation (CV) of 1.6% (95% CI, 1.2% to 2.4%) and 1.1% (0.8% to 1.7%), respectively. Reliability of reactive agility remained consistent throughout with mean CVs of approximately 3%. Analyses revealed a high degree of common variance between acceleration times and both planned (r2 = .93) and reactive (r2 = .83) agility, as well as between the two agility protocols (r2 = .87).
Both planned and reactive agility could be measured reliably. Protocol design and use of a light stimulus in the reactive test emphasize physical abilities comparable with other test measures. Therefore, inclusion of a reactive light stimulus does not appear to require any additional perceptual qualities.
We used a novel methodological approach to examine skill-based differences in anticipation and visual search behaviour during the penalty kick in soccer. Expert and novice goalkeepers were required to move a joystick in response to penalty kicks presented on film. The proportion of penalties saved was assessed, as well as the frequency and time of initiation of joystick corrections. Visual search behaviour was examined using an eye movement registration system. Expert goalkeepers were generally more accurate in predicting the direction of the penalty kick, waited longer before initiating a response and made fewer corrective movements with the joystick. The expert goalkeepers used a more efficient search strategy involving fewer fixations of longer duration to less disparate areas of the display. The novices spent longer fixating on the trunk, arms and hips, whereas the experts found the kicking leg, non-kicking leg and ball areas to be more informative, particularly as the moment of foot-ball contact approached. No differences in visual search behaviour were observed between successful and unsuccessful penalties. The results have implications for improving anticipation skill at penalty kicks.
The purpose of this study was to identify the relationships between leg muscle power and sprinting speed with changes of direction.
the study was designed to describe relationships between physical qualities and a component of sports performance.
testing was conducted in an indoor sports hall and a biomechanics laboratory.
15 male participants were required to be free of injury and have recent experience competing in sports involving sprints with changes of direction.
subjects were timed in 8 m sprints in a straight line and with various changes of direction. They were also tested for bilateral and unilateral leg extensor muscle concentric power output by an isokinetic squat and reactive strength by a drop jump.
The correlations between concentric power and straight sprinting speed were non-significant whereas the relationships between reactive strength and straight speed were statistically significant. Correlations between muscle power and speed while changing direction were generally low and non-significant for concentric leg power with some moderate and significant (p<0.05) coefficients found for reactive strength. The participants who turned faster to one side tended to have a reactive strength dominance in the leg responsible for the push-off action.
The relationships between leg muscle power and change-of-direction speed were not consistent. Reactive strength as measured by the drop jump appears to have some importance for lateral change-of-direction speed, possibly because of similar push-off actions. It was concluded that reactive strength of the leg extensor muscles has some importance in change-of-direction performance but the other technical and perceptual factors than influence agility performance should also be considered.
The ability to detect deceptive movement was examined in skilled and novice rugby players. Participants (14 per group) attempted to predict direction change from video of expert and recreational rugby players changing direction with and without deceptive movement. Confidence associated with judgments was recorded on each trial to seek evidence regarding use of inferential (heuristic-based) and direct-perceptual (invariant-based) judgments. Novices were found to be susceptible to deceptive movement whereas skilled participants were not; however, both skilled and novice participants were more confident on trials containing deceptive movement. The data suggest that the skill-level difference in sensitivity to advance visual information extends to deceptive information. The implications of this finding, and the importance of considering the underlying process of anticipation skill, are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the reliability and validity of a new test of agility, the reactive agility test (RAT), which included anticipation and decision-making components in response to the movements of a tester. Thirty-eight Australian football players took part in the study, categorized into either a higher performance group (HPG) (n=24) or lower performance group (LPG) (n=14) based on playing level from the previous season. All participants undertook testing of a 10m straight sprint (10mSS), a 8-9m change of direction speed test (CODST), and the RAT. Test-retest and inter-tester reliability testing measures were conducted with the LPG. The intra-class correlation (ICC) of the RAT was 0.870, with no significant (p<0.05) difference between the test results obtained on the first and second test sessions using a t-test. A dependent samples t-test revealed no significant (p<0.05) difference between the test results of two different testers with the same population. The HPG were significantly (p=0.001) superior to those of the LPG on the RAT, with no differences observed on any other variable. The RAT is an acceptably reliable test when considering both test-retest reliability, as well as inter-rater reliability. In addition, the test was valid in distinguishing between players of differing performance level in Australian football, while the 10mSS and CODST were not. This result suggests that traditional closed skill sprint and sprint with direction change tests may not adequately distinguish between players of different levels of competition in Australian football.
At present, no agreement on a precise definition of agility within the sports science community exists. The term is applied to a broad range of sport contexts, but with such great inconsistency, it further complicates our understanding of what trainable components may enhance agility. A new definition of agility is proposed: "a rapid whole-body movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus". Agility has relationships with trainable physical qualities such as strength, power and technique, as well as cognitive components such as visual-scanning techniques, visual-scanning speed and anticipation. Agility testing is generally confined to tests of physical components such as change of direction speed, or cognitive components such as anticipation and pattern recognition. New tests of agility that combine physical and cognitive measures are encouraged.
Research focusing on perceptual-cognitive skill in sport is abundant. However, the existing qualitative syntheses of this research lack the quantitative detail necessary to determine the magnitude of differences between groups of varying levels of skills, thereby limiting the theoretical and practical contribution of this body of literature. We present a meta-analytic review focusing on perceptual-cognitive skill in sport (N = 42 studies, 388 effect sizes) with the primary aim of quantifying expertise differences. Effects were calculated for a variety of dependent measures (i.e., response accuracy, response time, number of visual fixations, visual fixation duration, and quiet eye period) using point-biserial correlation. Results indicated that experts are better than nonexperts in picking up perceptual cues, as revealed by measures of response accuracy and response time. Systematic differences in visual search behaviors were also observed, with experts using fewer fixations of longer duration, including prolonged quiet eye periods, compared with non-experts. Several factors (e.g., sport type, research paradigm employed, and stimulus presentation modality) significantly moderated the relationship between level of expertise and perceptual-cognitive skill. Practical and theoretical implications are presented and suggestions for empirical work are provided.
Different coaching methods are often used to improve performance. This study compared the effectiveness of 2 methodologies for speed and agility conditioning for random, intermittent, and dynamic activity sports (e.g., soccer, tennis, hockey, basketball, rugby, and netball) and the necessity for specialized coaching equipment. Two groups were delivered either a programmed method (PC) or a random method (RC) of conditioning with a third group receiving no conditioning (NC). PC participants used the speed, agility, quickness (SAQ) conditioning method, and RC participants played supervised small-sided soccer games. PC was also subdivided into 2 groups where participants either used specialized SAQ equipment or no equipment. A total of 46 (25 males and 21 females) untrained participants received (mean +/- SD) 12.2 +/- 2.1 hours of physical conditioning over 6 weeks between a battery of speed and agility parameter field tests. Two-way analysis of variance results indicated that both conditioning groups showed a significant decrease in body mass and body mass index, although PC achieved significantly greater improvements on acceleration, deceleration, leg power, dynamic balance, and the overall summation of % increases when compared to RC and NC (p < 0.05). PC in the form of SAQ exercises appears to be a superior method for improving speed and agility parameters; however, this study found that specialized SAQ equipment was not a requirement to observe significant improvements. Further research is required to establish whether these benefits transfer to sport-specific tasks as well as to the underlying mechanisms resulting in improved performance.
While studies have investigated speed and change of direction speed in rugby league players, no study has investigated the reactive agility of these athletes. In addition, the relationship among speed, change of direction speed, and reactive agility within the specific context of rugby league has not been determined. With this in mind, the purpose of this study was to investigate a wide range of speed, change of direction speed, and reactive agility tests commonly used by rugby league coaches to determine which, if any tests discriminated higher and lesser skilled players, and to investigate the relationship among speed, change of direction speed, and reactive agility in these athletes. Forty-two rugby league players completed tests of speed (5 m, 10 m, and 20 m sprint), change of direction speed ('L' run, 505 test, and modified 505 test), and reactive agility. The validity of the tests to discriminate higher and lesser skilled competitors was evaluated by testing first grade (N = 12) and second grade (N = 30) players. First grade players had faster speed, and movement and decision times on the reactive agility test than second grade players. No significant differences were detected between first and second grade players for change of direction speed. While movement times on the reactive agility test were significantly related to 10 m and 20 m sprint times and change of direction speed, no significant relationships were detected among measures of decision time and response accuracy during the reactive agility test and measures of linear speed and change of direction speed. These findings question the validity of preplanned change of direction speed tests for discriminating higher and lesser skilled rugby league players, while also highlighting the contribution of perceptual skill to agility in these athletes.
We compared the efficacy of three physical conditioning programmes provided over a 12 week period (24 h in total) on selected anthropometric and physical fitness parameters in female soccer players. Two of the groups received physical conditioning training in accordance with speed, agility and quickness (SAQ); one group used specialized resistance and speed development SAQ equipment (equipment group; n = 12), while the other group used traditional soccer coaching equipment (non-equipment group; n = 12). A third group received their regular fitness sessions (active control group; n = 12). All three interventions decreased (P < 0.001) the participants' body mass index (-3.7%) and fat percentage (-1.7%), and increased their flexibility (+14.7%) and maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max) (+18.4%). The participants in the equipment and non-equipment conditioning groups showed significantly (P < 0.005) greater benefits from their training programme than those in the active control group by performing significantly better on the sprint to fatigue (-11.6% for both the equipment and non-equipment groups versus -6.2% for the active control group), 25 m sprint (-4.4% vs -0.7%), left (-4.5% vs -1.0%) and right (-4.0% vs -1.4%) side agility, and vertical (+18.5% vs +4.8%) and horizontal (+7.7% vs +1.6%) power tests. Some of these differences in improvements in physical fitness between the equipment and non-equipment conditioning groups on the one hand and the active control group on the other hand were probably due to the specificity of the training programmes. It was concluded that SAQ training principles appear to be effective in the physical conditioning of female soccer players. Moreover, these principles can be implemented during whole team training sessions without the need for specialized SAQ equipment. Finally, more research is required to establish the relationship between physical fitness and soccer performance as well as the principles underlying the improvements seen through the implementation of SAQ training programmes.
summary: Agility is an important component of many sports but has not been extensively researched. The various components that contribute to agility performance are discussed and training guidelines are provided. There appears to be limited transfer to agility performance from straight sprint training as well as from general strength training. The principle of training specificity is emphasized to achieve maximum transfer to on-field performance. (C) 2006 National Strength and Conditioning Association
In an attempt to develop a new measure of agility in the horizontal plane, this study examines several tests, including: the Illinois agility test, the 20m dash and two new tests - the Up and Back (UAB) and 505 tests, which both involve a short sprint and a reversal of direction. Eighteen subjects performed the tests in a randomised order. A strobe video and time were used to record the displacement data of the subjects, over set intervals, in the UAB and 505 tests. These data were then smoothed using a least-squares polynomial, and differentiated to produce a velocity and acceleration values. Times were recorded for the completion of the Illinois agility test and the 20m dash. The results for the four tests and the derived velocity and acceleration values were subjected to a correlation matrix. Significant correlations were found between the 505 test and acceleration values, but not with velocity values. The other tests correlated significantly with each other. It is concluded that the UAB test and Illinois Agility test are not purely agility tests because of their significant relationships with the 20m dash. The 505 test, however, has no significant correlation with velocity, but rather with acceleration. Therefore, the 505 test is seen as the test which best isolates agility in the horizontal plane.
provides a brief overview of the existing state of knowledge on motor expertise through discussion of the historical origins of motor expertise research, identification of contemporary areas of research focus, description of the prototypic motor expertise studies, and assessment of the degrees of generalizability possible from the existing knowledge base
examines strategies for improving/modifying paradigmatic approaches to the study of motor expertise by discussing the necessity to recognize the limitations within the use of recipient paradigms, to value situation specificity and ecological validity, and to link studies of motor expertise to contemporary theories of motor control and learning
alternatives to traditional cross-sectional research designs and to "one-off" research studies are described as strategies for improving methodological approaches to the study of motor expertise
[discusses] strategies for improving the measurement of motor expertise, highlighting existing anomalies in the definition of experts, in the formation of control groups, and in the use of uni-dimensional forms of performance measurement (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
SPEED AND AGILITY FOR TENNIS IS A MULTIFACTORIAL CONCEPT AND SO REQUIRES AN APPROACH TO TESTING THAT IS BOTH SPORT SPECIFIC AND MULTIFACETED. BY ASSESSING SPEED, ACCELERATION, CHANGE OF DIRECTION, AND REACTIVE AGILITY, IT IS POSSIBLE TO DIFFERENTIATE THOSE FACTORS IN NEED OF SPECIFIC ATTENTION. A CASE EXAMPLE IS PRESENTED TO ILLUSTRATE THIS. TRAINING METHODS SHOULD BE SPORT SPECIFIC IN NATURE AND INTEGRATE BOTH THE PERCEPTUAL MOTOR AND DECISION-MAKING SKILLS REQUIRED IN TENNIS.
Three experiments examined the relative importance of attributes determined largely by the efficiency of the visual/central nervous system versus cognitive domain-specific skills, in the determination of expertise in soccer. In Experiment 1, expert and intermediate soccer players were assessed on various non-specific abilities including: processing (simple reaction time, peripheral reaction time, visual correction time), optometric (static, dynamic and mesopic acuity), and perimetric parameters (horizontal and vertical peripheral range). In Experiment 2, domain-specific variables were assessed including complex decision speed and accuracy, number of visual fixations, fixation duration, and fixation location in solving game problems. Stimuli were initially presented by slides (Experiment 2) and later by 16 mm film (Experiment 3). Eye movements were recorded and analysed. A stepwise discriminant analysis of both non-specific abilities and soccer-specific skills revealed an average squared canonical correlation=0.84, with the significant step variables all being domain-specific skills. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Young, W, Farrow, D, Pyne, D, McGregor, W, and Handke, T. Validity and reliability of agility tests in junior Australian football players. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3399-3403, 2011-The importance of sport-specific stimuli in reactive agility tests (RATs) compared to other agility tests is not known. The purpose of this research was to determine the validity and reliability of agility tests. Fifty junior Australian football players aged 15-17 years, members of either an elite junior squad (n = 35) or a secondary school team (n = 15), were assessed on a new RAT that involved a change of direction sprint in response to the movements of an attacking player projected in life size on a screen. These players also underwent the planned Australian Football League agility test, and a subgroup (n = 13) underwent a test requiring a change of direction in response to a left or right arrow stimulus. The elite players were significantly better than the school group players on the RAT (2.81 ± 0.08 seconds, 3.07 ± 0.12 seconds; difference 8.5%) but not in the arrow stimulus test or planned agility test. The data were log transformed and the reliability of the new RAT estimated using typical error (TE) expressed as a coefficient of variation. The TE for the RAT was 2.7% (2.0-4.3, 90% confidence interval) or 0.07 seconds (0.5-1.0), with an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.33. For the test using the arrow stimulus, the TE was 3.4% (2.4-6.2), 0.09 (0.06-0.15) seconds, and ICC was 0.10. The sport-specific stimulus provided by the new RAT is a crucial component of an agility test; however, adoption of the new RAT for routine testing is likely to require more accessible equipment and several familiarization trials to improve its reliability.
Agility is an open motor skill; requiring change of direction speed (CODS) and perceptual and decision-making ability. The aim of this study was to determine whether the perceptual and decision-making component of agility can be trained. Fifteen rugby league players were tested on a sport-specific reactive agility test (RAT) and a CODS test. Players were then allocated to a training group (n = 8) or a nontraining group (n = 7). The training group underwent 3 weeks of reactive agility training that was designed to enhance perceptual and decision-making ability. After 3 weeks, all players were tested again. The training group's mean reactive agility time was 1.92 ± 0.17 seconds preintervention and 1.66 ± 0.14 seconds postintervention. The nontraining group's mean reactive agility time was 1.89 ± 0.16 and 1.87 ± 0.15 seconds, respectively. Mean CODS time for the training group was 1.64 ± 0.15 seconds preintervention and 1.66 ± 0.14 seconds postintervention. The nontraining group's mean CODS time was 1.61 ± 0.12 and 1.62 ± 0.12 seconds. Mean perception and response time for the training group, measured on the RAT, was 0.33 ± 0.33 seconds preintervention and 0.04 ± 0.22 seconds postintervention. The nontraining group's values were 0.34 ± 0.20 and 0.27 ± 0.28 seconds, respectively (results are ±σ). Differences in mean reactive agility time and perception and response time from pre to postintervention for the training group were statistically significant, as were differences in those values between the training and nontraining group post intervention. All other comparisons were not. Results from this study suggest that the perceptual and decision-making components of agility are trainable. Coaches should incorporate some open motor skills training in their programs when training agility.
The purpose of this research was to evaluate a reactive agility test by determining the relationships between the total time recorded for the test and various components. A tester used side-step movements to provide a stimulus for the athlete to change direction. By using electronic timing and high speed video analysis of the test, three times were recorded. These were the time taken for the tester to display the stimulus to change direction (tester time), the time taken by the participant to respond to the stimulus (decision time), and the time taken by the participant to change direction and sprint to the left or right (response movement time). Thirty-one semi-professional Australian Rules football players were assessed by analysing the mean of eight trials of the reactive agility test. The greatest correlation with total time was r=0.77 for decision time (p=0.00), with movement time and tester time producing coefficients of 0.59 (p=0.00) and 0.37 (p=0.04), respectively. The coefficient of variation for the mean tester time was 5.1%. It was concluded that perceptual skill as measured by decision time is an important component of the reactive agility test and the tester time should be controlled by using high speed video recordings to isolate its influence.
To determine how unanticipated performance of cutting maneuvers in sport affects the external loads applied to the knee joint and the potential risk for ligament injury.
A 50-Hz VICON motion analysis system was used to determine the lower limb kinematics of 11 healthy male subjects during running and cutting tasks performed under preplanned (PP) and unanticipated (UN) conditions. Subjects performed the UN tasks in response to a light stimulus on a target board. A kinematic model was then used in conjunction with force place data to calculate the three-dimensional loads at the knee joint.
External flexion/extension moments at the knee joint were similar between PP and UN conditions; however, the varus/valgus and internal/external rotation moments during the UN cutting tasks were up to twice the magnitude of the moments measured during the PP condition.
Cutting maneuvers performed without adequate planning may increase the risk of noncontact knee ligament injury due to the increased external varus/valgus and internal/external rotation moments applied to the knee. These results are probably due to the small amount of time to make appropriate postural adjustments before performance of the task, such as the position of the foot on the ground relative to the body center of mass. Subsequently, training for the game situation should involve drills that familiarize players with making unanticipated changes of direction. Practice sessions should also incorporate plyometrics and should focus on better interpretation of visual cues to increase the time available to preplan a movement.
The purpose of this study was to determine if straight sprint training transferred to agility performance tests that involved various change-of-direction complexities and if agility training transferred to straight sprinting speed. Thirty-six males were tested on a 30-m straight sprint and 6 agility tests with 2-5 changes of direction at various angles. The subjects participated in 2 training sessions per week for 6 weeks using 20-40-m straight sprints (speed) or 20-40-m change-of-direction sprints (3-5 changes of 100 degrees) (agility). After the training period, the subjects were retested, and the speed training resulted in significant improvements (p < 0.05) in straight sprinting speed but limited gains in the agility tests. Generally, the more complex the agility task, the less the transfer from the speed training to the agility task. Conversely, the agility training resulted in significant improvements in the change-of-direction tests (p < 0.05) but no significant improvement (p > 0.05) in straight sprint performance. We concluded that straight speed and agility training methods are specific and produce limited transfer to the other. These findings have implications for the design of speed and agility training and testing protocols.
The number of researchers studying perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport is increasing. The intention in this paper is to review the currently accepted framework for studying expert performance and to consider implications for undertaking research work in the area of perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport. The expert performance approach presents a descriptive and inductive approach for the systematic study of expert performance. The nature of expert performance is initially captured in the laboratory using representative tasks that identify reliably superior performance. Process-tracing measures are employed to determine the mechanisms that mediate expert performance on the task. Finally, the specific types of activities that lead to the acquisition and development of these mediating mechanisms are identified. General principles and mechanisms may be discovered and then validated by more traditional experimental designs. The relevance of this approach to the study of perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport is discussed and suggestions for future work highlighted.
We examined differences in visual search behaviors and decision-making skill across different microstates of offensive play in soccer using youth participants (13.0-15.8 years) varying in skill and experience. We used realistic film simulations of offensive play, movement-based response measures, and an eye movement registration technique. Playing experience, skill level, and the unique constraints of the task, expressed by the number of players and relative proportion of offensive and defensive players, determined both the observed search behavior and processing requirements imposed on players in dynamic offensive team simulations. Significant differences in performance were observed between players and nonplayers and across three groups of soccer players who differed in skill level. Implications for talent identification and development are considered.
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