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Standardization versus Adaptation of International Marketing Strategy: An Empirical Investigation
Abstract
An issue debated frequently in the international marketing literature centers on whether a business should pursue a strategy that is standardized across national markets or adapted to individual national markets. Of the two aspects relating to standardization of marketing strategy across national markets-(1) standardization of the pattern of resource allocation across marketing mix variables integral to a business's marketing strategy and (2) standardization of the strategy content with respect to individual marketing mix variables-the latter has been the subject of numerous conceptual articles. However, there is a relative dearth of empirical studies on both issues. To partially fill this void, this study addresses empirically the question of the standardization of the pattern of resource allocation among marketing mix variables across national markets. The question is addressed by examining whether competitive strategy and industry structure variables affect market share and business profits similarly or dissimilarly across Western markets, that is, the U. S., U. K., Canada, and Western Europe. The results reveal that with few exceptions, the effects of competitive strategy and market structure variables generalize across these markets. The study findings provide insights into both the merits of standardizing the strategic resource mix across Western markets and the competitive strategy and market structure variables that are major explanators of business performance across Western markets.
... The international marketing literature has dealt extensively with questions related to the cross-national standardization and adaptation of marketing elements and processes for firms (Dow, 2006;Szymanski et al., 1993;Zou & Cavusgil, 2002), but has rarely addressed these in conjunction with sustainable business model innovations. This indicates a need to advance the conceptualization of sustainability within an international marketing context by introducing the notion of sustainable international business model innovations and examining its standardization versus adaptation requirements. ...
... Given these conditions across markets, firm strategy and implementation adaptation are required (Dow, 2006;Szymanski et al., 1993;Zou & Cavusgil, 2002). Even though some Asian and European countries have enacted nationwide CE laws and regulations, they are rarely similar between countries. ...
... Based on the informal and formal institutional differences that exist across countries (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983;Ioannou & Serafeim, 2012;North, 1991;Scott, 1995), there are many liabilities of foreignness and country of origin issues that international SMEs and MNEs should address when using cross-national CE applications (Johansson et al., 1985;Zaheer, 1995). This creates conditions in which the firm must decide whether to standardize or adapt its activities in the global marketplace (Dow, 2006;Szymanski et al., 1993;Zou & Cavusgil, 2002). As an example of the impact of international resource design, clear distinctions exist globally among external stakeholders such as customers (Kirchherr et al., 2018;Prahalad, 2004;Prahalad & Hammond, 2002). ...
The global imperative has increased in recent years for international firms to respond to major threats such as unintended environmental, social, and economic problems arising from ecological destruction, population growth, and economic activity. To respond to this confluence that has created an emerging existential crisis, we identify that a globalizing circular economy (CE) is required and subsequently define a new construct: sustainable international business model innovations. In doing so, we introduce circular inputs, sharing platforms, product as a service, product use extension, and resource recovery as business models that contain the potential to reply to these grand challenges. Based on CE principles, the innovations and designs introduced are contrasted with the traditional linear economic model and are presented as actionable standardization/adaptation alternatives for companies responding to differing informal and formal international institutions. Based on the theoretical underpinnings of the resource-based, dynamic capabilities, and international business model innovation perspectives, we introduce an integrative framework that is accompanied by a series of detailed research questions to provide future research opportunities for the domain. This conceptual approach holds that international resource design influences marketing capabilities adaptation which, in turn, impacts international performance and offers a foundation from which to build the literature.
... Coincidentally, business performance is operational- ized most often as market share (only five models specified financial performance as the criterion), and regression is used most often to capture the effect of order of entry on market share. Therefore, the regression coefficient capturing the change in market share when the business is the market pioneer or a unit closer to being the market pioneer is the criterion variable in the meta-analysis (Capon, Farley, and Hoenig 1990;Szymanski and Busch 1987;Szymanski, Bharadwaj, and Varadarajan 1993a).4 ...
... The consensual drivers of business performance were identified through a review of the meta-analyses conducted by Capon, Farley, and Hoenig (1990) and Szymanski, Bharadwaj, and Varadarajan (1993a). The authors indepen- dently reviewed over 200 performance models to identify the subsequent, consensual drivers of business performance: market growth rate, product line breath, product customiza- 8 We are grateful to a 1M reviewer for suggesting this possibili- ty, as well as the explanation of market age in referenceto the pos- itive interaction between order of entry and marketgrowth rate. ...
... Market growth rate (-): Aaker and Day (1986), Buzzell and Gale (1987), Szymanski, Bharadwaj, and Varadarajan (1993b) End-user and immediate consumer purchase frequency (+/-): Kalwani and Narayandas (1995), Porter (1983) Market evolution/served market instability (-): Bauron (1981), Kerin, Varadarajan, and Peterson (1992) Technological change (-): Leiberman and Montgomery (1988), Porter (1983) Consumer versus industrial markets (+): Kerin, Varadarajan, and Peterson (1992), Rumelt (1987) Marketing new products to existing buyers allows firms to capitalize on positive halo ef- fects. Sharing facilities allows a firm to take advantage of known employee skills to pro- duce superior products. ...
One stream of research for order of entry effects focuses on the possibility that the order of entry exerts a direct impact on business performance. A second stream of research, the contingency perspective, debates the merits of whether the order of entry, in combination with other market strategy and marketplace variables, is what actually drives business performance. The findings from studies focusing on possible direct effects offer only mixed evidence in favor of a pioneering advantage. The contingency perspective, however, has not been subjected to systematic, empirical scrutiny. Against this backdrop, the authors conduct a meta-analysis of the pioneering-market share findings and an examination of the contingency perspective of order of entry effects. The findings from the meta-analysis reveal that, on average, earlier entry is associated with greater market share. The findings from the contingency analysis, however, offer evidence suggesting that the contingency perspective is the more valid perspective for capturing the association between order of entry and market share. The authors discuss the theoretical and managerial implications of their findings and several directions for further research.
... Nevertheless, deciding on the best international marketing strategy is not a straightforward decision. Some authors (Özsomer and Simonin, 2004;Ryans et al., 2003;Szymanski et al., 1993) argue that implementing standardized strategies in the 4Ps marketing mix enhances a firm's performance. This comes from factors such as cost savings through economies of scale in production, R&D or marketing, the global uniformity of its corporate image, ease of planning and control, reduction in time to market of new product launches and lowering of costs with stocks (Özsomer and Prussia, 2000;Özsomer and Simonin, 2004;Vrontis, 2003). ...
... This is clearly a new contribution to the field because, instead of considering a single marketing standardization/adaptation strategy (Venaik and Midgley, 2019;Westjohn and Magnusson, 2017), we were able to contemplate the impact of each one of the 4Ps adaptation strategies (Ryans et al., 2003;Köstner, 2015, 2016). Although there is no consensus on the direct impact that each of these strategies (adaptation or standardization) has on performance (Aaker et al., 2001;Kanwar, 1993;Özsomer and Simonin, 2004;Ryans et al., 2003;Szymanski et al., 1993;Westjohn and Magnusson, 2017), this study helps to fill in some blank spaces by exploring the way these strategies exert an impact on the servitization-profitability relationship. Interestingly, different marketing mix adaptation strategies show opposing impacts on that relationship, meaning that decisions about marketing mix adaptation/standardization are not straightforward. ...
Purpose
Building on contingency theory, this paper aims to investigate the extent to which the “4Ps international adaptation strategy” and internationalization intensity shape the servitization–profitability relationship.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors use primary (survey) and secondary (archival) data to perform multiple regression analysis.
Findings
The results indicate a positive relationship between servitization and profitability, and international intensity strengthens this association. The effects, however, are not consistent across the 4Ps – the price international adaptation strategy strengthens the positive relationship between servitization and profitability, while product and place international adaptation strategies weaken that relationship.
Practical implications
The findings have implications for the role of international intensity and the 4Ps in the marketing servitization context.
Originality/value
The study provides guidance for small firms in realizing higher performance by leveraging the 4Ps in the servitization context. Counter to expectations, placement and product lead to lower performance with increasing servitization, whereas price strengthens this relationship. The study adds to the international industrial management and marketing literature, providing evidence that contingency factors such as international marketing mix adaptation/standardization strategies moderate the servitization–profitability relationship.
... Nevertheless, deciding on the best international marketing strategy is not a straightforward decision. Some authors (Özsomer and Simonin, 2004;Ryans et al., 2003;Szymanski et al., 1993) argue that implementing standardized strategies in the 4Ps marketing mix enhances a firm's performance. This comes from factors such as cost savings through economies of scale in production, R&D or marketing, the global uniformity of its corporate image, ease of planning and control, reduction in time to market of new product launches and lowering of costs with stocks (Özsomer and Prussia, 2000;Özsomer and Simonin, 2004;Vrontis, 2003). ...
... This is clearly a new contribution to the field because, instead of considering a single marketing standardization/adaptation strategy (Venaik and Midgley, 2019;Westjohn and Magnusson, 2017), we were able to contemplate the impact of each one of the 4Ps adaptation strategies (Ryans et al., 2003;Köstner, 2015, 2016). Although there is no consensus on the direct impact that each of these strategies (adaptation or standardization) has on performance (Aaker et al., 2001;Kanwar, 1993;Özsomer and Simonin, 2004;Ryans et al., 2003;Szymanski et al., 1993;Westjohn and Magnusson, 2017), this study helps to fill in some blank spaces by exploring the way these strategies exert an impact on the servitization-profitability relationship. Interestingly, different marketing mix adaptation strategies show opposing impacts on that relationship, meaning that decisions about marketing mix adaptation/standardization are not straightforward. ...
Purpose-Building on contingency theory, this paper aims to investigate the extent to which the "4Ps international adaptation strategy" and internationalization intensity shape the servitization-profitability relationship. Design/methodology/approach-The authors use primary (survey) and secondary (archival) data to perform multiple regression analysis. Findings-The results indicate a positive relationship between servitization and profitability, and international intensity strengthens this association. The effects, however, are not consistent across the 4Ps-the price international adaptation strategy strengthens the positive relationship between servitization and profitability, while product and place international adaptation strategies weaken that relationship. Practical implications-The findings have implications for the role of international intensity and the 4Ps in the marketing servitization context. Originality/value-The study provides guidance for small firms in realizing higher performance by leveraging the 4Ps in the servitization context. Counter to expectations, placement and product lead to lower performance with increasing servitization, whereas price strengthens this relationship. The study adds to the international industrial management and marketing literature, providing evidence that contingency factors such as international marketing mix adaptation/standardization strategies moderate the servitization-profitability relationship.
... To augment the argument put forth earlier, we also draw upon a considerable amount of research on the debate about the performance implications of standardization vs. adaption. Although a serious endeavor has been made to link standardization/adaptation variables to firm performance, primarily in the export marketing literature over five decades, consensus has not yet been achieved (Cavusgil & Zou, 1994;Douglas & Wind, 1987;Morgan, Kaleka, & Katsikeas, 2004;Szymanski, Bharadwaj, & Varadarajan, 1993;Wills, Samli, & Jacobs, 1991;Yip, 1989;Zou & Stan, 1998). On the one hand, some studies found that standardization of marketing mix elements can enhance export performance, given the economic benefits derived from economies of scale and scope, along with the ease of coordinating firm activities across markets (Douglas & Wind, 1987;Johansson & Yip, 1994;Kotabe & Omura, 1989;O'Donnell & Jeong, 2000;€ Ozsomer & Simonin, 2004;Szymanski et al., 1993). ...
... Although a serious endeavor has been made to link standardization/adaptation variables to firm performance, primarily in the export marketing literature over five decades, consensus has not yet been achieved (Cavusgil & Zou, 1994;Douglas & Wind, 1987;Morgan, Kaleka, & Katsikeas, 2004;Szymanski, Bharadwaj, & Varadarajan, 1993;Wills, Samli, & Jacobs, 1991;Yip, 1989;Zou & Stan, 1998). On the one hand, some studies found that standardization of marketing mix elements can enhance export performance, given the economic benefits derived from economies of scale and scope, along with the ease of coordinating firm activities across markets (Douglas & Wind, 1987;Johansson & Yip, 1994;Kotabe & Omura, 1989;O'Donnell & Jeong, 2000;€ Ozsomer & Simonin, 2004;Szymanski et al., 1993). However, the standardized marketing strategy approach can also lead to suboptimal performance when it is not well-suited to the host market (Jain, 1989;Levitt, 1983;Yip, 2003). ...
The performance outcomes of retail internationalization have attracted considerable scholarly interest, but studies have offered differing perspectives and findings on this relationship. In an effort to fill this gap on the topic, we posit that the relationship between the degree of retail internationalization and performance exhibits an S-curve shape. Using a sample of 18 international retailers with operations on six continents for the period 2001–2015, we find evidence of the S-curve dynamic where international retailers tend to experience declining performance after initial expansion beyond the home market, improving performance with continued expansion, and declining performance with further international expansion. We also examine two moderating variables on this relationship—foreign market growth and store format diversification. Our findings show that foreign market growth reinforces the hypothesized S-curve relationship while store format diversification reverses it. We offer theoretical and managerial implications based on the results of our study.
... The first, and perhaps the most important dimension of a multinational corporation 1 (MNC)'s worldwide marketing strategy is related to the standardization or adaptation of marketing programs, such as product offering, promotional mix, price, and channel structure, across different countries (Jain, 1989;Keegan, 2000;Laroche et al., 2001;Levitt, 1983;Ohmae, 1989;Samiee and Roth, 1992;Szymanski, Bharadwaj and Varadarajan, 1993;Yip, 2003;Zou and Cavusgil, 1996). The second dimension of a worldwide marketing strategy focuses on configuration and coordination of a firm's value chain activities across countries (Craig and Douglas, 2000;Hout, Porter and Rudden, 1982;Porter, 1986Porter, , 1990Roth, Schweiger and Morrison, 1991). ...
... Standardization/Adaptation refers to the use of basically the same (standardization) or different (adaptation) product or service, advertising, distribution channels, and other elements of the marketing mix across countries (e.g., Kotler, 2000;Levitt, 1983;Bharadwaj and Varadarajan, 1993;Zou and Cavusgil, 2002). MNCs following a standardization strategy believe that world markets are being homogenized by advances in communication and transportation technology (Jain, 1989;Levitt, 1983). ...
The study and practice of marketing have broadened considerably, from an emphasis on marketing as a functional management issue, to a wider focus on the strategic role of marketing in overall corporate strategy (e.g., Kotler, 2000; Sudharshan, 1995). This broadening of the marketing concept, to include strategic as well as operational decisions, has resulted in an overlap between marketing and strategic management. Managers around the globe are recognizing the increasing importance for the firm to develop marketing strategies to compete effectively in worldwide markets. The emergence of a more open world economy, the globalization of consumers’ tastes, and the development of a worldwide commercial web all have increased the interdependency and interconnections of markets across the globe. In such a global environment, firms should develop their marketing strategy around three key-dimensions (Zou and Cavusgil, 2002): (1) standardization-adaptation, (2) configuration-coordination, and (3) strategic integration. Following Sudharshan (1995), we define a firm’s marketing strategy as the development of and decisions about a firm’s relationships with its key stakeholders, its offerings, resource allocation, and timing.
... A burning question for traditional web service providers is how to transition their web services to the mobile context. Two strategies can be used during the service transition process: the standardization strategy, which postulates using unified and standardized services across different contexts, and the adaptation strategy, which stresses that services should be varied and adapted to specific contexts (Chai et al. 2005;Szymanski et al. 1993;Tarasi et al. 2013;Theodosiou et al. 2003). Within our research context, the standardization strategy may pay attention to the consistency between web and mobile services, while the adaptation strategy suggests adjusting the mobile services according to the unique features of the mobile context. ...
... Specifically, two strategies may be used in the service transition process: standardization versus adaptation strategies (Szymanski et al. 1993;Theodosiou et al. 2003). The standardization strategy emphasizes using a unified approach across different contexts, while the adaptation strategy stresses using different approaches in different contexts to capture the unique features of particular contexts. ...
【Full-text available on request】This study investigates the standardization-adaptation paradox during the web-mobile service transition. Specifically, according to the expectation confirmation theory and the desire confirmation theory, the study proposes that user perceptions of the adaptability to the mobile context and of the consistency between the web and mobile services can shape their satisfaction with mobile services. This, in turn, can affect the intention to adopt mobile services. Furthermore, the study also highlights that males and females prefer different strategies (standardization or adaptation), such that perceived adaptability has a stronger impact on satisfaction for males than for females, while perceived consistency has a stronger impact on satisfaction for females than for males. A structural equation modeling analysis was conducted on data collected in China from a survey with 235 responses, and the results confirmed all of the hypotheses of the proposed research model. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed.
... The role of marketing strategy is essentially to create market imperfections in given market segments that allow the firm to achieve some degree of superiority relative to rivals. Numerous scholars have pointed to marketing competence as providing a means to obtain superior performance in general (e.g., Burke 1984; Pelham and Wilson 1995) and in international markets (e.g., Cavusgil and Zou 1994; Szymanski, Bharadwaj and Varadarajan 1993). Hence, we hypothesize that, among firms that target their offerings to foreign markets, H2: International marketing competence is a significant antecedent of international performance. ...
... Another critical factor in the environment of business is technology, which reflects the application of technical advances and science to the production of goods and services and is a basis for innovation and sustainable competitive advantage (Hout, Porter and Rudden 1982; Miles and Snow 1978; Szymanski, Bharadwaj and Varadarajan 1993). Recent rapid progress in technology is changing the global economy and increasing the role of knowledge in both production and consumption of goods. ...
... Levitt (1983) contends that world-class competitors offer products akin to those sold domestically or in major export markets, advocating for globally standardized products that are efficient, reliable, and low-priced. The standardization versus localization debate is ongoing, with researchers like Szymanski et al. (1993) calling for a nuanced understanding of competitive strategy variables and their performance impacts across different national markets. ...
Global branding strategies play a pivotal role in the success of multinational corporations (MNCs) navigating diverse international markets. This paper explores the dynamic interplay between standardization and localization strategies in global branding, examining their impact on brand equity, consumer behavior, and market performance. Standardization, emphasizing uniformity across markets, offers cost efficiencies and reinforces global brand identity but risks overlooking local nuances. In contrast, localization tailors products and marketing to specific cultural contexts, enhancing consumer relevance and competitive advantage but at the expense of operational complexity and brand consistency. Drawing on theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence, the study examines how leading global brands such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, and Unilever strike a balance between standardization and localization to effectively engage local consumers while maintaining global coherence. It highlights the role of cultural dimensions in shaping consumer preferences and purchasing behaviour, influencing brand strategies in diverse global markets. Moreover, the paper discusses the implications of digital transformation on global branding, emphasizing the role of digital platforms in enabling personalized consumer interactions while posing challenges in maintaining brand consistency. The findings underscore the importance of strategic flexibility in international marketing, advocating for a nuanced approach that integrates elements of both standardization and localization based on market characteristics and consumer behaviours. Ultimately, effective global branding hinges on the ability of MNCs to adapt their strategies to local contexts while upholding core brand values, fostering consumer trust, and achieving sustainable growth in the competitive global marketplace.
... The Journal of Management Theory and Practice (JMTP) ISSN: 2716-7089, Volume-3, Issue-1, http://dx.doi.org/10.37231/jmtp.2022 The marketing program's aim is to obtain a protracted commercial advantage (SCA) and increase a as a result of the operating value (Bharadwaj, 1993). The improvement of an intermediate and long financial success is one of the key goals of marketing strategy. ...
The overall goal of this research is to understand on by equating characteristics of starting a business in previous research, its items of creating a bird nest for manufacturers. The 10 characteristics of the new business factors include invention, knowledge, resources, state subsidies, manpower, marketing program, geographical position, swiftlet risks, and Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) farming tools. The majority of entrepreneurs lacked basic management skills when they first begun. Giving up on the process can lead to many of them failing, resulting in further losses. Furthermore, to compete in today's market, a beginning firm needs highly skilled, dedicated personnel as well as innovative management. As a result, the elements that affect the overall performance of this research focuses on new businesses in the Edible Bird's Nest (EBN) industry. In this study, a few ways will be used to offer feedback on whether certain techniques are effective or poor for creating bird nests, as evaluated by a bird nest method entrepreneur. This research helps to a deeper knowledge of the entire new economic features of the Edible Bird's Nest (EBN) Swiftlet Output value Industry. Furthermore, these discoveries will have the effect of expanding Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) output, particularly for export, as well as the ranching industry's economy
... International marketing strategy is a very central concern, particularly for smaller and more resource-limited firms (Jain, 1989;Knight, 2000;Szymanski et al., 1993;Tan & Sousa, 2013). International marketing and market entry processes are costly and complex, suffering from various liabilities and impediments (Johanson & Vahlne, 2009;Knight, 2000;Rana & Elo, 2017;Silva & Elo, 2017). ...
International marketing agility is a crucial dynamic capability in international business. The purpose of this article is to examine who creates it and how exporters and partners leverage diasporic agility. We employ case study research on two diaspora entrepreneurs acting as ambidextrous strategic channel partners and playing a central role in guiding the exporter to new markets. In both cases, the role of the diaspora entrepreneurs as channel partners was decisive in providing multistage agility for the exporter while employing their specific market drive and understanding as a source of competitive advantage. While the exporters concentrated on their core business, the partners sensed, seized, and reconfigured resources to enable market entry and growth under culturally and politico‐economically demanding conditions. The diasporic understanding of the markets was a unique form of this agility and fundamental for the right strategies and an exporter's international marketing. Diaspora channel partners facilitated entry and lowered the cost of international marketing by providing advanced and more locally legitimate knowledge, fostering ambidexterity. We contribute to the conceptualization of the role of diaspora as an international marketing agility actor.
... This yielded a list of 73 studies to be included in the final database. While this inclusion rate may be slightly lower compared to other metaanalyses in Marketing (e.g. about 60% in Szymanski et al., 1993;Szymanski and Henard, 2001;Kirca et al., 2005;Orsingher et al., 2010;Bicakcioglu-Peynirci and Ipek, 2020), we believe that it also provides an empirical evidence on how fragmented the literature is regarding the investigation of NPD teams. Of the 73 studies, the study database included 69 articles that were published in either journals or conference proceedings; one study that was never published, and three work-in-progress manuscripts. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to conduct a meta-analytic review based on a theoretical framework developed for investigating new product development (NPD) teams in the first two decades of the research stream.
Design/methodology/approach
This study contributes to literature by investigating the presence of publication bias and synthesizing correlation effect sizes of 27 factors influencing three NPD team performance dimensions: overall, market-based (e.g. sales, profitability), process-based (e.g. budget adherence, schedule adherence) outcomes. Further, this study presents a path analytical model that uses the aggregate study effects to identify significant drivers of NPD team performance.
Findings
First, examination of extant literature shows no publication bias. Next, analyses show that three internal team dynamic variables have the most significant positive effect on overall NPD team performance: team member job satisfaction, cross-functional integration and superordinate identity. For market-based performance, three goal-related contextual factors exert the most positive influence, namely, goal stability, goal clarity and goal support, in respective order. Further, for process-based performance, cross-functional integration’s strong positive effect is followed by team and goal stability. Moreover, physical distance, interpersonal and task conflict have significant negative effects on NPD team performance. Finally, both market- and process-based NPD team performance are significantly influenced by NPD team’s cohesion, which acts a mediator between two contextual factors: physical distance and team tenure.
Research limitations/implications
This meta-analysis contributes to literature by providing a comprehensive model of NPD team performance predictors, their definitions, along with their corresponding effects in predicting performance. While team cohesion is found to be a strong predictor of both market- and process-based performance, future research can examine if too much cohesion has a detrimental effect, especially on market-based performance.
Practical implications
The results assist managers in shifting their priorities to ensure optimal support of NPD teams. For example, team leadership competence externally has a larger effect on overall performance compared to team leadership for internal team dynamics. Hence, team leaders should make sure that they manage the team’s relationships with external parties (e.g. other functional units) with more caution.
Originality/value
This study provides a guiding framework for analyzing NPD team performance as well as identifies and then addresses many knowledge gaps on NPD team performance.
... There is little agreement as to what makes a company internationally competitive (Zou and Cavusgil 2002). However, several perspectives focus on international marketing strategies, integration of a firm's competitive position across markets, industry and firm drivers, strategic levers and standardization (Birkinshaw, Morrison and Hulland 1995;Raymond and Lim 2002;Szymanski et al. 1993;Yip 1989;Zou and Cavusgil 2002;Taylor 2010;Ko et al. 2012;Zou and Volz 2010). ...
... 19-54, abr./jun 2019 27 nos diferentes mercados em que a empresa atua. Também contribui para a redução dos custos de produção e para a formulação e implementação de um único plano de marketing ( Keegan, 2005;Szymanski, Bharadwaj & Varadarajan, 1993). Porém, essa postura impossibilita atender a necessidades mais específicas do mercado ( Zou e Cavusgil, 2002). ...
Objetivo: Este estudo investiga os antecedentes do processo de internacionalizao de franquias brasileiras, relacionando-os com a estratgia de marketing internacional, com base na adaptao ou padronizao do composto de marketing.Mtodo: A partir da reviso terica, um modelo proposto, englobando os antecedentes da internacionalizao internos e externos empresa, a estratgia de marketing internacional e o grau de internacionalizao da empresa. A investigao emprica baseou-se em estudo de caso mltiplo com trs grandes empresas do setor de vesturio.Relevncia: Ressalta-se a importncia da gesto internacional da marca como ativo que pode ajudar o processo de internacionalizao, bem como o papel dos parceiros/franqueados na construo e gesto da imagem da marca no exterior.Resultados: Os resultados mostram que os antecedentes mais importantes no processo de internacionalizao das franquias pesquisadas pertencem ao nvel da empresa (tamanho, recursos e capacitaes, marca forte, orientao e experincia internacional), com destaque para a marca como importante ativo. As estratgias de marketing internacional empregadas buscam manter o posicionamento da marca padronizado, com adaptao de alguns elementos do composto de marketing s caractersticas e necessidades dos mercados-destino e centralizar as decises estratgicas para manter uma imagem de marca consistente, o que se designa como estratgia de marketing semiglobal.Contribuies tericas: Este estudo contribui para o conhecimento sobre os fatores que influenciam a deciso de internacionalizar e as estratgias de marketing internacional utilizadas por redes de franquias brasileiras no exterior, contemplando tambm recomendaes para redes que desejam se internacionalizar.
... A common concern for companies that advertise their corporate brands across multiple markets is the decision of whether to standardize or to adapt communication programs across markets ( Jain, 1989;Szymanski et al., 1993;Tan and Sousa, 2013). Most academic work concerning this dilemma centers on the standardization and adaptation of product advertising campaigns, such as copy, visuals and themes (Harris, 1994;Liu et al., 2016;Papavassiliou and Stathakopoulos, 1997). ...
Purpose
Increasing consumer skepticism of corporate behavior has led companies to actively manage and advertise their corporate brands. However, it remains unclear how receptive consumers across different markets are to such efforts. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate differences and similarities between corporate and product advertising by examining consumer ad involvement (AI) levels (a motivational state activated by the personal relevance of stimuli) and its antecedents and consequences for these ad types across two markets with varying degrees of economic development.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a 2 (ad type: corporate vs product) × 2 (market type: developed vs emerging) between-subject experimental design, the study was conducted in two markets with varying degrees of economic development, specifically, the USA ( n =285) and Pakistan ( n =311).
Findings
Results show that consumer involvement with corporate ads varies for developed (USA: high) and emerging (Pakistan: low) markets but that it remains the same for product ads across markets. Developed market consumers tend to be as involved with corporate ads as they are with product ads, whereas emerging market consumers are more involved with product ads than with corporate ads. Aside from differences in involvement levels, the findings demonstrate substantial similarities in the antecedents and consequences of consumer involvement for both ad (corporate vs product) and market (developed vs emerging) types.
Practical implications
With advertising and communication campaigns increasingly being standardized across different markets, this study demonstrates that corporate messages do not function similar as product messages across markets. For effective corporate campaigns, ad designs should fit with the motivation levels of the target consumers across markets.
Originality/value
This study demonstrates the differences and similarities between corporate and product AI across a developed and an emerging market.
... The continuous introduction of new products is considered a key to gaining a competitive advantage (Yalcinkaya et al., 2007). In fact, a firm's success can be directly related to the degree of new product innovations (Szymanski, Bharadwaj, & Varadarajan, 1993). From generating of a new idea to launching a new product, exploitation and exploration competencies are a central theme of firm innovation competency (Atuahene-Gima, 2005;Yalcinkaya et al., 2007). ...
... Corstjens and Lal (2012) indicate that despite offering great value propositions, companies are not able to always create/replicate success across the developed and emerging markets. Further, Szymanski et al. (1993) find that the effects of competitive strategy and market structure generalize across most of the Western cultures; indicating that it may be possible for companies to standardize across Western cultures, but not across cultures that are noticeably different from the Western cultures. Therefore, it is important to consider the experience of firms across developed and emerging markets to better understanding the concept of ser- vice experience. ...
... Market share was chosen be-cause of its wide use as an indicator of performance among consumer product marketers (e.g., Smith and Park 1992), as- sociation with a business's relative size in its served market (e.g., Buzzell and Gale 1987), and consistent use in other in- ternational marketing studies of business performance (e.g. Ryans 1988;Szymanski, Bharadwaj, and Varadarajan 1993). Although market share differs from typical measures of communication effectiveness (e.g., brand awareness, brand attitude), the images reported are a function of the firm's entire marketing program-not just their advertising (Park, Jaworski, and MacInnis 1986) and, therefore, better accounts for the entire marketing program's performance. ...
Developing and managing brand image is an important part of a firm's marketing program. However, little research has been done (1) on linking the use of brand image strategies to product performance or (2) on managing brand images in global markets. The author examines the brand image-performance linkage for consumer goods in two categories marketed internationally. He also develops a conceptual framework that identifies various cultural and socioeconomic environmental characteristics of foreign markets that are hypothesized to affect brand image performance. Results from a 10 country/60 region study indicate that cultural power distance, cultural individualism, and regional socioeconomics affect the performance of functional (problem prevention and solving), social (group membership and symbolic), and sensory (novelty, variety, and sensory gratification) brand image strategies. The author then discusses the implications for managers marketing brands internationally and the directions for further research.
... Based on the concept of path dependencies it contributes to the evolutionary character of standardization by linking it to subsequent marketing decisions. Furthermore, it was clarified that standardization contributes to resource allocation aspects (Szymanski, Bharadwaj and Varadarajan, 1993;Navarro et al., 2010) due to its positive influence on slack resources after adaptation. Those slack resources directly enhance the price formation capability but do not influence the price adaptive capability. ...
International pricing decisions are one of the most paramount decisions managers face. By linking international marketing and competitive dynamics this paper reveals a relationship between product and price standardization at international market entry and defensive price reactions after market entry based on the concept of path dependencies. The empirical evaluation of a structural model shows that standardization positively influences slack resources after adaptation and in addition price formation capabilities. Our results show a negative impact of price adaptive capabilities on price reaction.
... Mais significativamente, talvez por causa da intensidade e importância do debate, a literatura na década de 1980 e 1990 começou a tratar padronização e adaptação como opções para alternativas fixas em estratégia de marketing internacional. Os títulos de vários artigos publicados durante esse período (por exemplo, Samiee & Roth, 1992;Solberg, 2002;Szymanski et al., 1993) sugerem que a comunidade acadêmica tem aceitado o próprio conceito de estratégia de marketing internacional como um equilíbrio entre estratégias de padronização vs adaptação do mix de marketing (produto, promoção, ponto e preço) e que a escolha de tal estratégia varia de um mercado para outro. ...
Este artigo discute como a estratégia, estrutura, processo e transferência de recursos de
marketing pode impactar o desempenho estratégico de subsidiárias de multinacionais em um país emergente, como é o caso do Brasil. Para atingir estes objetivos, foi realizada a revisão da literatura para identificar resultados de pesquisas anteriores (Lim, Acito, & Rusetski, 2006; Townsend, Yeniyurt, Deligonul, & Cavusgil, 2004; Xu, Cavusgil, & White, 2006; Yaprak, Xu, & Cavusgil, 2011; Zou & Cavusgil, 2002). Foi realizado um survey com 109 subsidiárias estrangeiras localizadas em todo o Brasil. O processo de coleta de dados foi realizado on-line e por telefone. Em seguida, realizou-se uma análise de clusters pelo método K-means. Como resultados, foram caracterizados três grupos de subsidiárias com base na configuração de suas atividades de marketing internacional. Denominada de "Subsidiárias com centros de marketing no país emergente" - Cluster 1; Cluster 2, denominada de "Subsidiárias com atividades de marketing globais", como o seu processo de comercialização está mais integrada do que os outros; e Cluster 3, denominado de "Subsidiárias com atividades locais de marketing." Em comparação com os outros dois grupos, Cluster 3 tem uma estratégia de mix de marketing específico para o mercado brasileiro. Como contribuições, apresenta-se uma tipologia multidimensional para o estudo do marketing internacional onde as diferentes maneiras de organizar o marketing internacional têm impacto no desempenho estratégico das empresas e a melhoria na discussão sobre o marketing em mercados emergentes.
... The use of global marketing is often criticized. But Szymanski, Bharadwaj, and Varadarajan (1993), using the PIMS data base, found that performance relationships to marketing resource allocations were similar for businesses operating in the United States, Canada, or Western Europe, suggesting that it is possible to use a standardized approach in serving multiple national markets. Yip (1997) found extensive use of global marketing for certain elements of the marketing mix, particularly branding. ...
Global strategic management is the application of strategic management in global markets, most often through the organizational form of multinational enterprises (MNEs). An effective global strategy is essential to a geographically widespread MNE facing equally multinational competitors in a globalizing industry. Globalization has become one of the identifying concepts of the post-industrial economy, describing the increasing integration of national and regional economics and the domination of the world economy by massive MNEs. The term also describes the convergence of individual tastes at the expense of local cultures, worldwide political domination by a small number of industrialized states and the international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are seen as their tools, the integration of capital markets, the increasing ubiquity of communication and information around the world, and the spread of technology to the farthest reaches of the globe. In such times, the global strategies of multinational enterprise naturally are of great concern to business and business academics, but also to governments, NGOs, and people who - individually and collectively - buy from, work for, fear, distrust, desire, court, sue, and otherwise interact with these companies. It seems that concern for global strategy is a particularly timely issue for management scholars, a chance to provide new insights on the principal actors in the global economy.
... Some authors (Clemons & Thatcher, 2008) support the view that it is standardization because the use of the same brand elements in all markets builds a unique image resulting in a greater sales volume, i.e. larger market share. On the other hand, there are other authors (Navarro, Losada, Ruzo & Diez, 2010;Szymanski, Bharadwaj & Varadarajan, 1993) who claim that the brands adapted to local conditions have a larger market share because they meet the needs and desires of the local population better. Adaptation to local markets takes into account consumer desires and requirements (in one or more aspects), consumers find exactly what they need more easily so they are more willing to buy that product. ...
In this paper we analyze the antecedents and consequences of brand adaptation/standardization (A/S) strategies in case of developing country. To explore this impact we ground on Structure-Conduct-Performance paradigm (SCP) where structure (analyzed through domestic product acceptance and market structure) drives conduct (strategic choices regarding A/S of brand management elements), which in turn drives performance (viewed through market share and costs). Our results indicate that A/S is not equally applicable to all elements of brand management strategy. Rather, domestic products acceptance in a foreign market and market structure have different effects on the level of A/S of brand’s product, pricing, distribution and promotion strategies. While market structure complexity increases importance of adaptation of all elements, greater domestic product acceptance allows for product and promotion strategies to remain standardized. Subsequently, A/S of each element of the brand strategy differently influences brand market share in a foreign market and brand management costs. As a result, we learn that adaptation of pricing and promotion strategies will drive brand’s market share. However, adaptation of promotion strategy will also increase brand management costs, while distribution strategy adaptation, although having no effect on brand’s market share, will have an impact on decrease of brand management costs.
Keywords: adaptation/standardization, international markets, brand strategy, SCP, emerging market.
... Srivastava et al. (1998) analyzed how marketing would be affected by central economic planning. In terms of analysis of marketing efficiency, there is a broad marketing literature concerning the effects of advertising on sales, advertising expenditures, and profits, and extensive published research on the relationship between strategic management variables, market share, and profit ( Szymanski et al., 1993;Capon et al., 1990). Hozier and Schatzberg (2000) analyzed correlation between the termination of advertising companies and their stock returns. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to determine relation between marketing expenses and bank’s financial position. Factor and cluster analyses were applied to unify different financial variables into financial clusters. Each cluster has specific long-term and short-term financial position and is allocated to appropriate rating position of new rating system. Using rating positions, it is possible to determine whether overall bank position is fragile or stable, and which financial position is vulnerable. Comparing marketing expenses with financial positions, it is possible to evaluate how effectively banks manage their financial resources, and what impact marketing activity has on the financial position.
Design/methodology/approach
Financial statements of Ukrainian banks for last five years are analyzed. Database of financial documents are reviewed. Coefficient, principal components, and hierarchical cluster analyzes are applied to elaborate new rating system. “Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity” and “Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy Test” validate input data. Box-and-whisker plots are used to describe graphically interaction between marketing expenses and bank financial positions.
Findings
The new rating system describes short-term and long-term bank financial positions. In their marketing activity, Ukrainian banks mostly have uneven distribution of marketing expenses in context of financial positions. Such pattern disrupts long-term stability of Ukrainian banking system. Each financial variable has different impact on marketing activity; however, the correlation level is insignificant. In general, Ukrainian banks do not consider financial positions in marketing planning.
Practical implications
New rating system can be used by the National Bank of Ukraine, the main supervisory bank of Ukraine, to determine fragile banks and to predict their bankruptcy. Banks may use findings to analyze their financial positions and to find optimal marketing expenses.
Originality/value
This paper contributes into the scientific literature in novelty of marketing-finance interaction in the Ukrainian banking system. New rating system of Ukrainian banks considers different aspects of bank financial stability: liquidity level, credit risks, deposit portfolio, and bank’s ability to attract additional financial resources on financial markets. Cluster analysis helps to allocate similar financial factors to different clusters and to evaluate financial risks in conjunction. As legal regulations concerning banking market, are also considered, the rating system can be adjusted to different countries. In addition, marketing expenses are analyzed in context of banks’ financial positions.
Keywords: Marketing, Banking, Financial services, Long-term position, Short-term position, Fragility
... A key dilemma in international marketing is the tension between standardization and adaptation of marketing strategy and mix (Ryans et al., 2003;Szymanski et al., 1993;Theodosiou and Leonidou, 2003;Vrontis, 2003;Vrontis and Thrassou, 2007). Proponents of standardization herald cost reduction efficiencies riding the waves of globalisation and market convergence trends, while supporters of adaptation point to a complex reality of lasting variations across country markets requiring the firm's attention and commitments for long-term profitability. ...
Website localization is a key concern in Internet-based cross-border commercial activity. This paper examines the role played by environmental factors on two website localization decisions – whether to launch local sites and to what extent such sites should be localized. Such effort is based on a suggested operationalization of Javalgi & Ramsey’s (2001) framework of four infrastructures that are expected to influence e-commerce growth in foreign markets, including: technological, commercial, socio-cultural and governmental-legal infrastructures. In addition, the role of online market potential estimations is also assessed.
... Third, alignment among structure, strategy, and the environment is particularly challenging for firms operating in global markets. Research has found that marketing resource allocation levels should be standardized across the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Western European markets (Szymanski, Bharadwaj, and Varadarajan 1993), which would support more global organizational structures. However, the question of standardizing marketing strategies is more complex given that culture has been found to moderate the consequences of relationship marketing activities (Hewett and Bearden 2001;Samaha, Beck, and Palmatier 2014). ...
Marketing organization is the interface of the firm with its markets and where the work of marketing gets done. This review of the past 25 years of scholarship on marketing organization examines the individual and integrative roles of four elements of marketing organization—capabilities, configuration (including structure, metrics, and incentives), culture, and the human capital of marketing leadership and talent. The authors indicate that these four elements are mobilized through seven marketing activities (7As) that occur during the marketing strategy process. These activities enable the firm to anticipate market changes, adapt the strategy to stay ahead of competition, align the organization to the strategy and market, activate effective implementation, ensure accountability for results, attract resources, and manage marketing assets. How well the firm manages these seven activities throughout the marketing strategy process determines the performance payoffs from marketing organization. Future ...
... The issue of standardization arises from the desirability and feasibility of the use of a uniform marketing mix (4Ps) across national markets (Szymanski et al., 1993). Advertising has been examined more often than the other elements of this mix. ...
This study explores multinationals’ online standardisation in terms of the similarity between home country and host country sites in logo, colour, layout, textual information, static visuals, and interactive images. We compare the home websites of 64 American brands, chosen from Business Week’s brand ranking, with their websites created in Germany, France, and Spain. The findings suggest that American brands are likely to tailor the specific website components to each market, while maintaining a minimum level of uniformity for the European markets, in logo, colour, and layout. Other components, such as textual information and visual images, tend to be dissimilar across markets.
In response to certain discrepancies prevalent in the debate on global advertising, we have identified important gaps in the global advertising literature. The focus of this inquiry is an investigation of the operational aspects of the standard advertising strategy by multinational companies (MNCs). Specifically, the authors attempt to identify the path to strategic implementation of standard advertising strategy through network analysis, with the determinant factors that play an important role in determining the degree of advertising strategy. The findings suggest that the extent to which multinationals can standardize their international advertising strategies will depend on the level of similarity among the countries in the network. The authors highlight that, given the inconsistency that exists in observation, it is evident that a single distinctive strategy for standard advertising may be followed by MNCs which can be the optimal solution of standardized global advertising for sustenance in the presence of steep competition. The authors discuss and highlight the various implications of the findings for business practitioners. The authors conclude the study by showing the scope for future research along with the limitations of the study.
Although the literature debates the sophistication and contributions of statistical/econometric models to strategic findings, there is a lack of understanding of how different model types contribute to the impact of strategic marketing research. We collected data from 485 studies published in top-tier marketing journals over the last 50 years to assess the influence of core strategy areas, and the moderating roles of models, journals, and estimation approaches on the impact of strategic marketing research, measured in terms of citations of the articles. Using descriptive and regression analyses, we find that strategy research focusing on the “customer” and “other areas” had a relatively greater impact, whereas “sales” had a relatively lesser impact on citations than the “4Ps strategy area.” Linear regression, multivariate analysis, and structural equation models had a significantly higher impact on citations than other models. We also find that linear models and SEM positively and analytical models negatively moderate the relationship between strategy research focusing on “customer” and citations. Further, linear, analytical models and multivariate analyses negatively moderate the relationship between “sales” and citations. While strategy-focused journals positively moderate the relationship between strategic research focusing on “other area” and citations, it has a negative impact on the relationship between strategic research focusing on “sales” and citations. Relationship between strategy research focusing on “customer” and “other areas” and citations respectively is positively moderated by the estimation approach. Our study provides a perspective to the “rigor vs. relevance” debate in strategic marketing research.
In the modern, global environment, businesses must adopt innovative practices and strategic directions that will give them a long-term competitive advantage, in order to survive and develop. In this context, many traditional approaches and perceptions are increasingly being overcome, placing their place in new, more flexible and more harmonized with the ever-changing business environment.
In recent years, in the context of a holistic approach, strategic supply chain management has been increasingly aligned with other key decision-making areas of the business, such as Marketing. In the context of the modern logistic-marketing management philosophy, customer satisfaction derives from the application of the marketing mix combined with the added value in space and time implied by the adoption of supply chain management practices (the better these two functions are harmonized , the better).
The authors focus on their 1990 model (B&K; see Balasubramanian and Kumar 1990), which indicates that market share, market growth, and their interaction are important predictors of the ratio of advertising and promotional costs to sales (A&P/S). In sharp contrast, Ailawadi, Farris, and Parry's (1994; AFP) subsequent replication attempt asserts that market share and market growth are not good predictors of A&P/S. The authors’ research documents serious problems in AFP's study, including erroneous model estimates caused by incorrect execution of the SAS TSCSREG procedure, pooling data for analysis in ways that cannot be justified statistically, data preparation errors, and inappropriate operationalizations of market share and market growth. With regard to analyses of Profit Impact of Market Strategy and brand-level data reported by AFP, the authors again find that AFP have analyzed data in inappropriate ways, given the conceptual framework of the B&K model. Because these problems provide compelling evidence to disregard AFP's results, the authors conclude that the criticisms advanced by AFP against the B&K model are not valid.
Purpose
Strategic positioning of foreign firms in a host market is vital for their success. By integrating the resource partitioning theory and the resource-based view, this study aims to investigate foreign firms’ strategic positioning (i.e. their choice of generalist or specialist positioning strategy) and its performance implications in the US market.
Design/methodology/approach
The final sample includes 212 foreign companies from 28 countries operating in the US market. Multiple data sources were used to collect data of these foreign companies’ subsidiaries in the USA This study used logistic regression to test its major hypotheses.
Findings
The results of this study suggest that a generalist positioning strategy is positively related to performance in a host market. It is also found that market concentration and local market knowledge moderate this strategic positioning – performance relationship.
Research limitations/implications
For a foreign firm that enters a host market, market concentration (an industry-level factor) in the host market and the firm’s local market knowledge (a firm-specific factor) play prominent roles in the strategic positioning – performance relationship.
Originality/value
This study offers a novel perspective of international business strategy by applying the lens of resource partitioning theory to study the relationships between multinational enterprises’ strategic positioning and performance. This study contributes to the strategy literature in that it examines the performance implications of firms’ strategic positioning (i.e. generalist or specialist positioning).
This chapter aims to assess the relationships between standardization of international strategy and performance. Additionally, it aims to study the relationships of four integration modes with international strategies. A sample of Slovene exporters is used. Managers responded to a structured survey. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied. It was found that integration modes play a role in allowing standardized strategies to be developed and implemented successfully. This study is the first to assess the integration modes → standardization relationships. Its findings are useful to academia and international managers.
We develop a framework to facilitate customer engagement in service (CES) based on the service-dominant (S-D) logic. A novel feature of this framework is its applicability and relevance for firms operating both in developed and emerging markets. First, we conduct a qualitative study involving service managers from multinational companies (MNCs) across the developed and emerging markets to understand the practitioner viewpoints. By integrating the insights from the interviews and the relevant academic literature, this framework explores how interaction orientation and omnichannel model can be used to create positive service experience. We also identify the factors that moderate the service experience, and categorize them as follows: offering-related, value-related, enabler-related, and market-related. Further, we also propose that perceived variation in service experience moderates the influence of service experience on satisfaction and emotional attachment, which ultimately impacts customer engagement (CE). From these factors, we advance research propositions that discuss the creation of positive service experience. One of the study’s key contributions is that MNCs can focus their attention on the moderators to ensure consistency in positive service experience, in an effort to enhance CE.
Extant work in International Business (IB) involves a partial contingency-theoretic perspective: a holistic view of the impact of bundles of contingencies on an outcome variable is missing. We adopt a contingency approach in a study of multinational enterprise (MNE) subsidiary performance in the appropriate context of European transition economies at the beginning of the current millennium.
Methodologically, we introduce abduction as a line of inquiry into IB and Management to develop new theoretical insights, and apply the novel empirical General Interaction Method (GIM) to estimate bundle effects. In so doing, we contribute to the further development of a theoretical and empirical toolkit to revitalize holistic, or configurational, quantitative research in IB and Management.
We find that capability fit is a necessary condition for high MNE subsidiary marketing performance, whilst environment fit is particularly critical for high MNE subsidiary financial performance.
A key limitation is that this is a cross-section study.
This study offers insights as to subsidiary fit into Eastern Europe, indicating fitting entry and establishment modes.
This paper offers a novel holistic approach to IB, both in terms of theoretical and empirical methodology.
In the decades-long debates about whether standardised or adapted strategies are better for global brands, and whether centralised or decentralised international communications planning is more effective, little attention has been given to the perspective of local managers in the subsidiaries of global agencies. This paper reports on the experiences and opinions of account managers and creative directors in Korean subsidiaries, with regard to the international advertising policies of their agencies and clients. The authors find less centralisation than prior research has reported and yet more negative experiences with standardised global advertising. Creativity is a key consideration for the Korean managers, especially for products, be they consumer or industrial, that have universal demand. The perspective of subsidiary managers in multinational corporations should be considered in the advertising planning process in order to avoid conflict which could decrease the effectiveness of global campaigns.
http://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/products/journals/call_for_papers.htm?id=7071
Global pazarlar arasındaki farklılıklar, her ülke pazarına uygun tek tip stratejiler ola-mayacağını, farklı pazarlarda farklı stratejilerinin kullanılabileceğini ortaya koymuştur. Bu açıdan, global ölçekte faaliyet gösteren işletmeler girdikleri ülke pazarlarında strate-jilerini o ülke pazarlarına uyarlamak durumunda kalmaktadırlar. Bu kapsamda çalış-manın amacı tüm dünyada faaliyet gösteren Unilever'in " Heartbrand " standart sembo-lü ile pazarda bulunan dondurma ürünleri için Türkiye'de yaptığı uygulamaları ve rakiplerine karşı olan durumunu glokalleşme çerçevesinde incelemektir. Çalışma İzmir şehir merkezinde yaşayan ve kolayda örneklem yoluyla seçilmiş 1428 kişiyle anket kullanılarak yüzyüze görüşmeler yoluyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Uygulamalar marka, ürün ve rekabet kapsamında değerlendirilerek, Türk tüketicilerin bu uygulamalarla ilgili tutumları ortaya konulmuştur.
The extent to which a company should customize its promotion and trade mixes for diverse markets is a key strategic decision. As rapidly developing countries such as Korea with cultural, political, and economic conditions diverse from Western markets present more opportunities for trade, multinational corporations (MNCs) must understand factors that affect successfully entering and competing in these markets.
This exploratory research provides an overview of the Korean market and the unique cultural, business, and environmental factors that affect doing business there. Specifically, this research focuses on promotion and entry strategies and balancing the trade and promotion mixes in Korea. The implications of examining integrated marketing communications and utilizing brand differentiating messages in Korea are discussed.
Branża motoryzacyjna jest jedną z najistotniejszych dla polskiej gospodarki. Jej znaczenie uwidocznione jest w liczbie oferowanych miejsc pracy (ponad 400 tys.), znaczeniu dla eksportu (ponad 14% polskiego eksportu to samochody i części samochodowe), wartości dodanej (ponad 8% całkowitej wartości dodanej polskiej gospodarki), a także inwestycjach i przychodach dla sektora finansów publicznych. Dodatkowo, branża ta bezpośrednio lub pośrednio wpływa na inne sektory gospodarki.
Celem monografii jest zaprezentowanie możliwie szerokiego spektrum wyzwań stojących przed podmiotami należącymi do tej branży. Praca skierowana jest zarówno do praktyków pragnących poszerzyć swoją wiedzę w zakresie współczesnych trendów i wyzwań stojących przed podmiotami należącymi do branży, jak i osób zainteresowanych prowadzeniem dalszych, pogłębionych badań w wybranych obszarach. Treść monografii prezentuje: 1) współczesne trendy w otoczeniu branży motoryzacyjnej: innowacyjność, modele sprzedaży, napęd elektryczny, pojazdy inteligentne, 2) otoczenie konkurencyjne w Polsce, 3) dylemat standaryzacji i adaptacji w zakresie projektowania i produkcji, 4) pomiar wyników i kluczowych wskaźników sukcesu, 5) zarządzanie relacjami z klientami w organizacjach rozproszonych, lead management, 6) analizę wpływy jakości relacji biznesowych na wyniki, 7) trzy case study przedsiębiorstw działających w branży motoryzacyjnej.
Internationale Marktbearbeitungsstrategien legen den Rahmen für den Einsatz des Marketinginstrumentariums in den anvisierten Ländermarktsegmenten fest; sie bestimmen somit die langfristige Positionierung des Unternehmens bzw. seiner strategischen Geschäftseinheiten auf den bearbeiteten Auslandsmärkten. Eine internationale Marktbearbeitungsstrategie umfasst dabei Entscheidungen auf drei Ebenen:
grundsätzliche strategische Ausrichtung,
internationale Basis-Marketingstrategie und
internationale Geschäftsfeldstrategie.
Diesel is an example of a successful Italian company in the fashion industry. This international lifestyle company founded in the 1970s has succeeded in creating and developing denim fabric in a mature market where the competition, led by American multinationals, is strong. Innovation, creativity and nonconformist choices are the fundamental roots of the company. The engine of the company’s success is its founder, Renzo Rosso. Rosso managed to merge the philosophy of Diesel with the challenges of the market. Thanks to his marketing strategy, the company reaches young consumers across the globe. The marketing mix is based on an intense knowledge of the business and on Rosso’s personal intuition. These characteristics made Rosso a pioneer of many trends that later came to be established in the market. This case study examines the company’s internationalization process, the development of its brand identity, and the structural, cultural and human resource variables that favor innovation. It also considers how the company succeeded in repositioning a mature product in such a way as to experience continued growth in national and international markets.
Purpose: The recent increase in the presence of emerging-market firms (EMFs) in global
markets requires a closer examination of their international marketing strategies (including
branding). This paper examines the factors behind the standardization or adaptation of global
marketing strategies adopted by EMFs for their cross-border acquisitions.
Methodology/Approach: This paper examines the determinants of the marketing strategies
adopted by Indian and Chinese firms for their cross-border acquisitions. The drivers of the
standardization/adaptation of marketing strategies (including branding) are identified using
both quantitative data collected in 168 cross-border acquisitions conducted by the EMFs
mentioned above and the institutional theory and organizational identity literature.
Findings: Institutional factors have a stronger effect than organizational identities on global
marketing strategies, including branding. The standardization of the EMFs’ marketing
strategies is driven by the private statuses of the acquirers, legal distances, target countries’
2
economic development, and the ethnic ties that exist between the home and host countries.
The acquirers’ decisions to retain the targets’ brand identities, thus adapting their global
marketing strategies, is related to the cultural distances, economic freedom distances and
sizes of the targets.
Research limitations/implications: In this study, two large emerging markets—India and
China—are used to gather the empirical data; future works can expand upon this line of
research and examine other EMFs.
Practical Implications: The acquiring companies have to decide whether to adopt an
adaption marketing strategy, with reference to the acquired targets’ local stakeholder
requirements, or to incorporate their targets’ brands into their own global marketing
strategies.
Originality/ Value: Typically, previous work on the adaptation versus standardization of
global marketing strategies adopted in the wake of cross-border deals has focused on
acquisitions involving companies from developed countries; this paper extends the field of
research to the EMFs of two of the most important developing countries: China and India.
Deutschland ist seit vielen Jahren eine „Exportnation“. Ein großer Teil der in Deutschland hergestellten Produkte und automatisierten bzw. veredelten/materialisierten Dienstleistungen werden in andere Länder abgesetzt. Dabei ist der Export, also der Verkauf von Gütern über Ländergrenzen hinweg, ohne dass Direktinvestitionen in den Absatzländern getätigt werden, nur eine unter vielen Möglichkeiten zur Internationalisierung der Absatzaktivitäten von Unternehmen. Ebenso sind beispielsweise Lizenzierung, Franchising oder die Etablierung von (Verkaufs-) Niederlassungen in Form von Joint Ventures oder als rein eigenständiges Engagement für den Eintritt in ausländische Absatzmärkte denkbar. Dennoch ist der Export eine der am häufigsten gewählten Markteintrittsstrategien von kleinen und mittelständischen Unternehmen. So schätzt man, dass in Deutschland weit über 90 % der kleinen und mittelständischen Unternehmen diese Form des internationalen Markteintritts für die Internationalisierung ihrer Absatzaktivitäten nutzen, die häufig wegen des geringeren Bedarfs an finanziellen und personellen Ressourcen sowie vermeintlich geringerer Informations-und Know-how-Anforderungen im Vergleich zu den anderen Markteintrittsalternativen bevorzugt wird. Dabei kann zwischen indirektem und direktem Export unterschieden werden. Während beim indirekten Export der Anbieter für seine grenzüberschreitenden Absatzaktivitäten spezielle Exporthändler oder -agenturen in seinem Heimatland nutzt, erfolgt beim direkten Export der Absatz über die Ländergrenzen hinweg in eigener Regie, ohne die Einschaltung eines Exporthändlers oder -agenten. Beim direkten Export können sich die Absatzaktivitäten auf Importhändler oder auf die eigentlichen Verwender der Produkte und Dienstleistungen im Auslandsmarkt als Zielgruppe(n) beziehen. In Abhängigkeit von der Ausrichtung des Marketing-Mix an den Anforderungen des ausländischen Absatzmarktes kann zwischen Export-Verkauf und Export-Marketing unterschieden werden. Anbieter, die ihre Absatzleistungen und/oder ihre Kommunikation und die Preise an die ausländischen Absatzmärkte anpassen, betreiben Export-Marketing, während Anbieter, die ihre Absatzleistungen standardisiert zu weitgehend gleichen Preisforderungen sowie identischen Kommunikationsformen und -botschaften anbieten, im Export-Verkauf tätig sind.
In this study, we link regional diversification to global diversification of emerging market multinationals (EMNCs) and explore the importance of firm-specific technology and marketing know-how in that process. We develop our hypotheses and test them using a sample of 625 Chinese manufacturing multinationals across multiple industries. The results reveal that regional diversification predicts global diversification, and that firm-specific technology and marketing know-how both increase the likelihood of a firm’s moving from regional to global operations. Technology know-how was found to be more influential than marketing know-how.
Die Automobilbranche ist traditionell durch ihre internationale Geschäftstätigkeit gekennzeichnet. Diese Ausrichtung wird seit Beginn der achtziger Jahre von tief greifenden Veränderungen begleitet, die auf die Globalisierung der Märkte, der Branche und des Wettbewerbs zurückzuführen sind (Meffert/Bolz 1992, S. 659f.).
Internationale Märkte sind für Industriegüterunternehmen1 traditionell von großer Bedeutung. Festmachen lässt sich diese Tatsache u.a. an der Warenausfuhrstatistik. Diese zeigt, dass die Exportquoten von Industriegüterunternehmen deutlich höher sind als die durchschnittlichen Exportquoten anderer Branchen (siehe Abbildung 1) (Weiber/Adler 2002, S. 327f.). Die Entwicklung der letzten Jahre in Deutschland verdeutlicht zudem, dass dieser Unterschied weiter zunimmt: War die Exportquote der Investitionsgüterproduzenten im Jahre 1991 um 12,4 Prozentpunkte höher als die aller Branchen im Durchschnitt, so betrug der Unterschied im Jahre 2002 bereits 16,4 Prozentpunkte.
Few strategy concepts are more likely to give misleading insights than the experience curve. As a result there is considerable disenchantment with the simplistic market share prescriptions that marked the early applications. Nonetheless, the experience curve remains an extremely useful organizing framework when scale, technology and learning effects are influential forces in the environment. This article reviews the measurement and interpretation problems that have to be overcome before the experience curve can be productively applied. Conclusions provide rewarding topics for further research.
The authors attempt to assess what has been learned from econometric models about the effect of advertising on sales. Short-term and long-term advertising response as well as model fit are analyzed for 128 econometric models involving the impact of advertising on sales. The approach, a form of meta-analysis called “replication analysis,” treats the studies as imperfect experimental replications and uses ANOVA to identify sources of systematic variation. For short-term advertising elasticities, systematic variability is found related to model specification, estimation, measurement, product type, and setting of study. For advertising carryover and model goodness of fit, the “quasi-experimental design” is so imperfect that a high degree of sharing of explained variance among explanatory factors makes it difficult to identify the impact of a particular factor. Because the studies mostly address mature products in the U.S., suggestions are made for research needs crucial to better understanding of how advertising affects sales.
The author describes a meta-analysis of econometric studies that estimated the elasticity of selective sales or market share to price. The literature review yielded 367 suitable price elasticities from about 220 different brands/markets. The results indicate that the price elasticity is significantly negative and, in absolute value, eight times larger than the advertising elasticity obtained from a prior meta-analysis. The omission of distribution or quality, the use of only cross-sectional data, and temporal aggregation lead to severe biases in the estimates of price elasticity. The elasticity also differs significantly over the brand life cycle, product categories, estimation methods, and countries.
The Federal Trade Commission's recent public policy emphasis has been on antitrust action to break up firms in certain industries. The basis for such action is often the market structure-profitability paradigm. The authors review the framework and empirical results of studies based on the paradigm, identify and demonstrate shortcomings of research in this area, propose and test a more appealing model, and conclude that the FTC cannot properly rely on findings produced by this research stream for the direction of public policy efforts.
The Bass new product growth model is used for cross-national analysis of diffusion processes of durable goods in four major Pacific Rim countries. The estimated coefficients are used to test the hypotheses on country-specific effects and on lead- and lag-time effects on the diffusion rates of consumer durable goods in the Pacific Rim countries. On the basis of the empirical findings, managerial implications are derived and discussed to provide insights into the relationships between diffusion processes and country-specific characteristics. These insights may serve as guidelines in formulating effective marketing strategies for introducing new products into Pacific Rim markets.
This paper presents an international study of industrial marketing communications spending. The study compares the results of data collected from 55 European companies on 80 products with a sample of 131 products from 29 companies representing the ADVISOR study sample in the United States. The results show that the overall relationship between the strategic variables and advertising and marketing spending levels is not different between the U.S. and Europe. Although some differences exist in the importance of individual strategic variables between the two regions, those differences are generally small.
A successful JIT program requires large amounts of capital and a revamping of labor/management relationships. Many wood product manufacturers are now pursuing the Just In Time (JIT) method of manufacturing. Unfortunately, many of these manufacturers are dealing with only one of the five elements needed for success. Success means reducing unit production costs while improving customer service. Costs are reduced via smaller material and work in process inventories, less waste, a lower labor cost content, and a higher production rate. Customer service is improved by living up to promised delivery dates of delivering faster than promised.
Contrary to popular opinion, U. S. firms need not look overseas for models of successfully managed companies. Instead, many U. S. companies can benefit from using well-managed American high-tech firms as their guides. Through studies of a wide range of high-technology firms, those characteristics that make a company successful are identified, and grouped into six themes. Analysis of the findings has led to the conclusion that well-managed companies have found ways to resolve a critical dilemma - the ability to manage the conflict between continuity and rapid change.
Though the PIMS data have been used extensively to relate profitability both to specific firm marketing actions and to market conditions, no attempt has been made to estimate directly the magnitudes of marketing mix elasticities. The authors propose and evaluate a simple cross-sectional time series regression method that recovers unbiased estimates of the elasticities despite the presence of firm-specific disguise factors in the database. Though measurement error creates instability for certain variables, the recovered elasticities compare favorably with those found in previous research and have predictable relationships with market characteristics.
The PIMS research program is examined in eight key areas. In general, the PIMS approach was found to be the best current attempt to gather and analyze data on strategic actions of businesses. Suggested improvements will enhance its usefulness to the practitioner. These improvements will further the state of theoretical model building and validation in the strategy field.
Although research directors of large European advertising agencies and their U.S. counterparts generally have similar overall outlooks, their opinions differ on advertising campaign measures, such as those having to do with predispositions and sales. European opinions differed sharply depending on agency size, extent of U.S. influence, and nation of operation.
In Poland and the United States social stratification is related to parental values and to social orientations, with men of higher position more likely to value self-direction and to have a social orientation consonant with valuing self-direction: a nonauthoritarian perspective, personally responsible standards of morality, and trustfulness. These relationships result in large measure from the greater opportunities afforded by higher position to be self-directed in one's work. In the United States, higher social-stratification position is associated with more favorable self-conceptions, largely as a result of the greater opportunities for occupational self-direction that higher position affords. In Poland, lower position is associated with greater self-confidence and less anxiety.
Although the concept of moderator variables has been used extensively in marketing-related studies, much confusion persists as to how they are defined and identified. To alleviate this confusion, the authors present a typology of moderator variables with a framework for identifying their presence and type. Simulated data are used to illustrate and validate the proposed framework.
This article identifies product types on the basis of the problems involved in their adoption by industrial buyers. The importance of various attributes to purchasing agents is then compared across these types of products in the United States and the United Kingdom. The results suggest some interesting strategies for industrial suppliers seeking increased adoption of their products.
A number of researchers in the marketing, management, and economics disciplines have expressed reservations regarding the validity and generalizability of the reported relationships between market share and profitability. Against this backdrop, the authors performed a meta-analysis on 276 market share-profitability findings from forty-eight studies to address whether market share and profitability are positively related and to examine the factors that moderate the magnitude of that relationship. The authors found that, on average, market share has a positive effect on business profitability. However, the magnitude of the market share-profitability relationship is moderated by model specification errors, sample characteristics, and measurement characteristics. The relationship is moderated the most (and, on average, the relationship could be artifactual) when firm-specific intangible factors are specified in the profit model or the estimate of the market share-profitability relationship is based on an analysis of non-PIMS businesses. The authors discuss the implications of these results for the evaluation and utilization of market share information by managers in reference to strategies that focus on building market share as a means for increasing profits.
This study demonstrates the application of the BC TRY system of cluster analysis for classifying world markets. A brief discussion of methodology is followed by analysis of data for 29 variables and 91 countries; 4 variable clusters and 7 country clusters are identified. Further uses of the technique in international business are discussed and ideas for further research are outlined.
The Bass new product growth model is used for cross-national analysis of diffusion processes of durable goods in four major Pacific Rim countries. The estimated coefficients are used to test the hypotheses on country-specific effects and on lead- and lag-time effects on the diffusion rates of consumer durable goods in the Pacific Rim countries. On the basis of the empirical findings, managerial implications are derived and discussed to provide insights into the relationships between diffusion processes and country-specific characteristics. These insights may serve as guidelines in formulating effective marketing strategies for introducing new products into Pacific Rim markets.
Two aspects of international marketing strategy standardization are process and program standardization. A framework for determining marketing program standardization is introduced. Factors affecting program standardization are examined critically. In an attempt to establish a research agenda on the standardization issue, the author develops research propositions for each factor.
The authors address a key controversy in the marketing literature about the suitability of global standardization. An empirical investigation of the differences between firms that emphasize global standardization and others that use less standardization was conducted within the global industry context. The results indicate that market coverage and capacity utilization are important considerations for firms emphasizing global standardization. Emphasis on specialty products and the development of high priced products for market niches are also of some importance to these firms. However, in the critical area of performance, no difference is observed between firms stressing global standardization and others.
Studies in three countries (U. S., U. K., and France) show some interesting similarities-and differences-in life-style patterns and buying habits.
Promotion strategies for a major car company are developed for different international market segments by comparing consumer preferences measured by tradeoff analysis with their perceptions of new and existing products.
This study uses a causal modelling methodology to examine competing methodological and theo- retical hypotheses concerning the effects of prod- uct quality on direct costs and business unit re- turn on investment (ROI). Results show that the PIMS' measures under study exhibit high reliabil- ity across all samples. The findings fail to support the widely held view that a high relative quality position is incompatible with achieving a low rel- ative cost position in an industry.
I. The concentration-profits hypothesis, 294. — II. Industry definition, measure of concentration, and selection of sample, 297. — III. Character and limitations of profit data, 305. — IV. Calculation of accounting profit rates, 310. — V. Association of industry profit rates and concentration, 311. — VI. Association of firm profit rates and industry concentration, 317. — VII. Association of profit rates with other determinants, 321. — VIII. Summary, 323. Copyright, 1951, by the President and Fellows of Harvard College.
The author describes a meta-analysis of econometric studies that estimated the elasticity of selective sales or market share to price. The literature review yielded 367 suitable price elasticities from about 220 different brands/markets. The results indicate that the price elasticity is significantly negative and, in absolute value, eight times larger than the advertising elasticity obtained from a prior meta-analysis. The omission of distribution or quality, the use of only cross-sectional data, and temporal aggregation lead to severe biases in the estimates of price elasticity. The elasticity also differs significantly over the brand life cycle, product categories, estimation methods, and countries.
We investigate the impact of increasing the number of items made in a cell on its performance. The optimal lotsizes of production and queuing delays are both shown to increase with increased product mix. However, these adverse effects diminish as more items are assigned to the cell. We also examine a strategy of sequencing which attempts to minimize the number of setups by looking ahead in the queue and processing all items for which the machine is already setup. In the case of similar items, it is found that this sequencing policy results in little savings in setup time.