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A Role Theory Perspective on Dyadic Interactions: The Service Encounter
Abstract
This article proposes that the dyadic interaction between a service provider and a customer is an important determinant of the customer's global satisfaction with the service. Based on role theory, a theoretical framework is presented which abstracts some of the critical components of service encounters across industries.
... 372). Both Solomon et al. (1985) and Broderick (1999) are the early advocators pointing out the appropriateness of utilizing role theory to explain employee behaviors at service encounters and highlighting the usefulness of role theory in explaining customers' expectations of and evaluations of service employees. ...
... Role theory explains service interactions between social actors (humans) and some scholars now apply it across settings and role performers, integrating multidisciplinary to explain service interactions between human and robotic social actors (Blaurock et al., 2022). However, although hospitality service encounters are environments for role performances (Solomon et al., 1985), limited studies have used a role theory perspective to investigate and explain the roles robots play in hospitality settings (Blaurock et al., 2022). In addition, considering restaurant environments as stages for robot roles to perform, much understanding has been clarified via a series of studies focusing on robots at independent and chain restaurants (Shin, 2022;Wang & Papastathopoulos, 2023). ...
... Further, it is still not clear whether customers can accept these roles traditionally performed by humans to be performed by robots. As these issues are highly relevant to people's perceptions and expectations of service roles and their performers, we suggest examining such issues using role theory (Biddle, 1979;Solomon et al., 1985). ...
Despite the popularity of service robot integration in restaurants, it is still unclear whether robots and human employees would influence customer experience, particularly customers’ restaurant brand relationship-building experience, differently. Taking a role theory perspective and building on the stereotypes literature, this study aims to address this research gap. Further, this study tests the moderating roles of stereotypes of warmth and competence toward robots in the proposed relationships. Using two studies, we examined the main effects of restaurant roles on brand relationship building with a scenario of customers at casual dining restaurants in study 1 and we tested the moderating effects with a scenario of customers at robot-themed restaurants at a theme park in study 2. This study contributes novel theoretical insights on robot roles in branding and provides managers with implications for adopting robots.
... Role theory is the behavior and activities expected of an individual in a particular position by those who rely on and interact with people in that position (welbourne et al., 1998). the Role theory (Rlt) proposes that Oc in the service sector is influenced by employees' perceptions of their roles and the extent to which they identify with their jobs (Solomon et al., 1985). in the service sector, employees are essential in delivering service experience as they are in close contact with customers. ...
... this role conflict occurs when there are incompatible demands or expectations from different roles an individual occupies (Marginson & Bui, 2009;Rizzo et al., 1970). Role theory suggests that individuals experience a sense of satisfaction and fulfillment when they can successfully fulfill the expectations associated with their roles, and when individuals perceive that they are meeting or exceeding role expectations, it can enhance their Oc (Mason, 1995;Miles et al., 1996;Solomon et al., 1985). ...
This evidence-based Systematic Literature Review (SLR) comprehensively examines existing research on the connections between organizational commitment (OC), trust, and leadership. Additionally, this study explores the theories underlying the relationships among these variables. Previous research has extensively discussed OC, but there is a need for more empirical evidence regarding its theories and antecedents. Therefore, it is essential to identify, critically analyze, and synthesize the available literature from various geographical regions. This review identified ten different theories used within the OC model. Analysis of publications between 1985 and 2023 revealed that 2011 had the highest number of publications (N = 26) on this subject. Most articles concerning individual behavioral theories in model development were based on empirical research. Furthermore, Google Scholar emerged as the most frequently used database, while SCOPUS was the most considered indexing body among researchers. As expected, the USA topped the list of publications, followed by the UK and India. This systematic review will help practitioners and researchers identify key factors and theories essential for developing a comprehensive model of OC.
... Customers apply social norms to interactions, including those with embodied conversational agents, and form expectations about role-congruent appearance and behavior (Blaurock et al., 2022;Solomon et al., 1985), such as whether an embodied conversational agent "looks" and "acts" like a partner or servant. We thus anticipate an optimal design for each embodied conversational agent role, such that customers' proxy efficacy beliefs and subsequent outcome expectancy are highest when the intended role is congruent with the embodied conversational agent's appearance (human vs. robotic) and conversation style (emotional vs. functional). ...
Recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) have ushered in a wave of AI innovations in the form of embodied conversational agents. These stakeholders offer new ways to engage customers in the co‐creation of services but still face significant customer skepticism. To address this challenge, we frame interactions between customers and embodied conversational agents through the lens of stakeholder engagement and apply the concept of proxy agency from social cognitive theory. This framework allows us to identify two primary stakeholder roles for embodied conversational agents: partner and servant. We conceptualize how these roles inform optimal design for embodied conversational agents and shape a two‐stage value‐by‐proxy process, comprising proxy efficacy and outcome expectancy. Additionally, we uncover tensions within this process due to over‐reliance on AI, as well as significant outcomes that extend beyond the immediate interaction. Our study, using a custom‐developed embodied conversational agent with a sample of 596 U.S.‐based respondents, reveals that positioning an embodied conversational agent in a partner role, combined with a human (vs. robot) appearance and emotional (vs. functional) conversation style, has the strongest positive impact on perceived value‐by‐proxy, usage and advice implementation intentions, and willingness to pay. We also observe an inverted U‐shaped moderation by reliance in the relationship between proxy efficacy and outcome expectancy, signaling the potential risks of over‐reliance on AI. Furthermore, we provide qualitative insights into why some customers avoid engaging with embodied conversational agents. Overall, we offer a nuanced perspective on embodied conversational agents as active stakeholders within organizational systems, advancing both theoretical understanding and practical applications of this rapidly evolving technology.
... Service encounters, which refer to the interactions between service employees and customers, are a crucial aspect of the customer experience. Service employees are instructed to address various situations that may arise during the course of their duties in order to enhance the quality of service and customer satisfaction and ensure that the brand promise is fulfilled (Solomon et al. 1985). Service personnel are assets entirely under the control of the organizations that employ them and should be managed as a customer experience touchpoint. ...
Due to the current fragmentation of experiences, companies have diminished control over the experience they provide at particular touchpoints. However, customers, on the other hand, have gained enhanced power over certain touchpoints. Touchpoints can be categorized as internal or external elements of a customer's journey. Our current knowledge of how businesses might affect external factors that may influence consumers' views of their experiences is very limited and the absence of information may stem from organizations prioritizing components within their control that can be fully managed internally. Fear, anxiety, and dread play a critical role in different touchpoints, either as indications of anticipated future outcomes or as emotions felt during the interaction. The experience with a touchpoint can also be affected by the presence of other customers providing patrons with the opportunity to engage with them at random. This interaction can result in gaining knowledge from others' experiences to address their own concerns, reduce uncertainty, and decrease perceived risks. Although emotion has always been studied as an individual experience, it is important to recognize that social interactions can also influence customer emotions, potentially aiding in the resolution of difficulties. This study examines the correlation between interactions occurring in the retail setting (in the form of peer-to-peer interactions) and the sense of peace of mind experienced by Generation Z consumers and how this affects their overall customer experience. Generation Z is sometimes characterized by a high risk aversion, especially when it comes to product categories in which they have little experience. As a result, this makes these individuals more susceptible to the influence of others. A market research company was hired to collect data from customers between 18 and 21 years of age who had just completed a purchase at various retailers at different malls. Participants were approached and randomly invited to participate in a survey immediately upon exiting a retailer once age verification and informed consent were confirmed. The instrument to measure the primary constructs was developed using scales validated by prior service-marketing literature. The PROCESS Macro developed by Hayes (PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modelling, University of Kansas, KS, 2012) was used to test mediation and moderated mediation of the variables used for the research model. The results demonstrate that P2PQ influences the experience process as an external and uncontrollable touchpoint. The relationship between P2PQ and POM represents a departure from how P2PQ was previously analyzed within the CX context and highlights the significance of the variable within the experience design process. The results also demonstrate that P2PQ interaction predicts CX via POM and that this relationship is stronger for hedonistic services than for functional ones.
... The pre-service period refers to the initial contact with a service, the service period covers when customers engage with the service, and the post-service period includes follow-up interactions, feedback or support (Stickdorn and Schneider, 2010). SD Solomon et al. (1985) This article proposes that the dyadic interaction between a service provider and a customer is an important determinant of the customer's overall satisfaction with the service Trischler and Charles (2019) The purpose of this article is to propose the application of a service ecosystem lens to public policy, addressing the limitations of the traditional marketing and dominant logic of public services, based on dyadic exchanges, which often overlooks the dynamic and complex nature of public problems Co-creation Sanders and Stappers (2008) This paper analyses the evolution of design research from a user-centred approach to co-creation and co-design, and how this has changed the roles of designers, researchers and users Akaka et al. (2012) The purpose of this paper is to deepen the concept of value co-creation from a service ecosystem perspective, considering the importance of networks and the configuration of relationships and resources in markets Magno and Cassia (2015) This paper uses Payne, Storbacka and Frow's value co-creation management framework to examine the preconditions for organisational learning in the co-creation of public services Torfing et al. (2019) This article explores whether co-creation is a viable way forward for the public sector. It defines co-creation and provides some empirical examples. ...
Purpose
This study aims to identify and map the problems of participatory processes in policymaking through a Service Design approach.
Design/methodology/approach
First, 50 semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts in the field of citizen participation. This was followed by a comparative analysis of how backstage and frontstage stakeholders perceived the identified problems. Secondly, a Service Blueprint model was proposed as a means of mapping the identified problems within the broader framework of a service experience of participation. Finally, a brainstorming session was held with the aim of proposing design solutions to the problems from a human-centred perspective.
Findings
Fifteen problems of participatory processes in policymaking were identified, and some differences were observed in the perception of these problems between the stakeholders responsible for designing and implementing the participatory processes (backstage stakeholders) and those who are called upon to participate (frontstage stakeholders). The problems were found to occur at different stages of the service and to affect different stakeholders. A number of design actions were proposed to help mitigate these problems from a human-centred approach. These included process improvements, digital opportunities, new technologies and staff training, among others.
Practical implications
Public managers, politicians and designers of participatory processes can use this study to design participatory processes based on the real needs and expectations of the different stakeholders involved.
Originality/value
This research adds to the literature on citizen participation and Service Design by shedding new light on the problems of participatory processes through a human-centred approach.
This chapter aims to represent the evolution of the cultural vocation of the territory with relation to the cultural product. The authors achieve this by adopting a holistic, viable-systemic approach. This approach proves useful to draw a better representation of the relationships existing among members of the territory - which is a prerequisite for the creation of any cultural product - and among them and the stakeholders to whom the cultural product itself is targeted. The authors consider the notion of relationship as a form of interactive connection determining - in causal fashion - a series of input-output effects among system members.
Smart elderly care represents a dynamic intersection of technology, service delivery, and environmental influence. This study adopts a social psychology perspective to explore how service quality, interaction dynamics, security assurance, and brand effect - when viewed through the lens of social identity and environmental psychology - affect consumer experience in smart elderly care settings. By integrating theories of self-efficacy and social exchange, the research examines how both the physical and social environments contribute to the elderly’s sense of well-being, belonging, and trust. The findings offer vital insights for designing care environments that not only meet functional needs but also foster social cohesion and psychological comfort.
Purpose
Citizen engagement plays a crucial role in transitioning to sustainable service ecosystems. While customer engagement has been extensively studied in service research, citizen engagement has received significantly less attention. By synthesizing customer and citizen engagement literatures, this study develops an integrated framework to conceptually clarify the dual role of customer-citizen engagement for sustainability.
Design/methodology/approach
This study builds on a systematic literature review of customer engagement literature in service research and citizen engagement literature. Following a theory synthesis approach, we qualitatively analyzed 126 articles to develop an integrated conceptual framework of customer-citizen engagement for sustainability through a process of abductive reasoning.
Findings
The analysis showed that customer engagement and citizen engagement literatures have developed mostly separately but provide complementary views. While the customer engagement literature has traditionally focused on business-related facets, such as engagement with brands, the citizen perspective broadens the engagement scope to other citizens, communities and society in general. The integrated framework highlights the interplay between citizen and customer roles and the impact of their relationships with multiple objects on sustainability.
Originality/value
This integrated framework contributes to advancing our understanding of customer-citizen engagement, broadening the scope of subject-object engagement by examining the interplay between these roles in how they engage for sustainability and moving beyond the traditional dyadic perspective to a multi-level perspective of service ecosystems. This framework also enables the development of a set of research directions to advance the understanding of engagement in sustainable service ecosystems.
The main purpose of this research was to create and test a scale to measure customer’s expectations about new service dimensions. Quantitative methodology, using exploratory factor analysis, was used to validate the scale for new service dimensions. This transnational research involved hotel service, and data were collected from 10 Latin countries: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Romania, Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, Bolivia, and Chile. About 1262 customers answered a questionnaire about their expectations regarding service dimensions of the hotel service. Findings show that there is a set of new dimensions that are accurate to measure customer’s expectations about service, namely, the degree of customer involvement, convenience level, contact personnel performance, complexity degree, information and communication power, and environment and social responsibility. The major contribution is that these dimensions were outlined to be tested from the customers’ point of view for any service, as all these service dimensions can be controlled by the service provider to fulfil customers’ expectations. This research goes beyond the usual service quality dimensions, including other dimensions of the service. However, owing to the dynamic nature of customers’ expectations, researchers should continue to search for new aspects that customers consider in the service process and test new service dimensions.
In today's competitive environment, customer satisfaction and loyalty are crucial to the success of the service industry. This study examines the impact of employee professionalism, courtesy, and problem-solving skills on customer satisfaction and their role in building long-term loyalty within the hotel sector. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the research incorporates quantitative data collected from 391 employees and customers of budget hotels in the Delhi NCR region. The findings reveal a significant positive correlation between employee professionalism, courtesy, and problem-solving abilities with customer satisfaction, ultimately leading to increased customer loyalty. The study highlights the importance of investing in employee training and development, particularly in these key areas, to enhance customer satisfaction and drive lasting loyalty.
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