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Effects of captioning on video comprehension and incidental vocabulary learning
Abstract
This study examines how three captioning types (i.e., on-screen text in the same language as the video) can assist L2 learners in the incidental acquisition of target vocabulary words and in the comprehension of L2 video. A sample of 133 Flemish undergraduate students watched three French clips twice. The control group (n = 32) watched the clips without captioning; the second group (n = 30) watched fully captioned clips; the third group (n = 34) watched keyword captioned clips; and the fourth group (n = 37) watched fully captioned clips with highlighted keywords. Prior to the learning session, participants completed a vocabulary size test. During the learning session, they completed three comprehension tests; four vocabulary tests measuring (a) form recognition, (b) meaning recognition, (c) meaning recall, and (d) clip association, which assessed whether participants associated words with the corresponding clip; and a final questionnaire.
Our findings reveal that the captioning groups scored equally well on form recognition and clip association and significantly outperformed the control group. Only the keyword captioning and full captioning with highlighted keywords groups outperformed the control group on meaning recognition. Captioning did not affect comprehension nor meaning recall. Participants’ vocabulary size correlated significantly with their comprehension scores as well as with their vocabulary test scores.
... Comparing IVL from different modes of input, such as reading, listening, and viewing captioned videos, is important as L2 TV and movies have become common source of L2 input outside of the classroom. In addition, video captioning offers opportunities for lexical growth (Montero Perez et al. 2014;Montero Perez et al. 2018;Teng 2022;Teng and Cui 2024). ...
... In short, learners can gain IVL through reading (e.g., Pellicer-Sánchez and Schmitt 2010), reading-while-listening (e.g., Webb and Chang 2015;Webb et al. 2013), listening (e.g., van Zeeland andSchmitt 2013), and caption viewing (Montero Perez et al. 2014). However, many factors, such as frequency and word relevance (Peters and Webb 2018), prior vocabulary knowledge (Montero Perez et al. 2014), may contribute to IVL. ...
... In short, learners can gain IVL through reading (e.g., Pellicer-Sánchez and Schmitt 2010), reading-while-listening (e.g., Webb and Chang 2015;Webb et al. 2013), listening (e.g., van Zeeland andSchmitt 2013), and caption viewing (Montero Perez et al. 2014). However, many factors, such as frequency and word relevance (Peters and Webb 2018), prior vocabulary knowledge (Montero Perez et al. 2014), may contribute to IVL. Teng and Uchihara (2024) called for a need to assess factors that affect incidental vocabulary learning from different input modes. ...
The present study examined incidental vocabulary learning (IVL) while considering word-related factors (i.e., word occurrence frequency and word relevance) and learner-related factors (i.e., English proficiency and prior vocabulary knowledge) in different input modes: reading, listening, and viewing captioned videos. Participants were 123 second-year university students learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in China. The participants were randomly assigned to four groups, i.e., three experimental groups of reading, listening, viewing with captions, and a control group. A YouTube video was used as the materials for the three experimental groups. The participants encountered 48 target words in the materials. The control group took the tests without attending the intervention. Learning outcome was based on two tests that measure word meaning recall and recognition while word occurrence frequency, word relevance, vocabulary knowledge, and proficiency were considered. The results indicate that the caption viewing condition was most effective, followed by the reading and listening conditions, in the incidental learning of meaning recall and recognition. The findings also suggest that frequency, word relevance, proficiency, and vocabulary knowledge significantly influenced the IVL outcomes for the immediate posttest. However, their impact was less straightforward for the delayed posttest. Relevant implications based on these findings were discussed.
... Empirical studies show that vocabulary can be acquired incidentally through reading (Waring & Takaki, 2003), listening (Vidal, 2003), and watching TV programs without captions (Peters & Webb, 2018). Recently, Researchers have focused more on the potential of captioned audiovisual input in students' incidental vocabulary learning (Fievez et al., 2021;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Teng, 2024aTeng, , 2024b. Captions, which are textual representations of spoken dialogue and other relevant audio information, provide language learners with valuable opportunities for adoption and adaptation, allowing them to extract and internalize usable language from TV programs and other media (Teng, 2021;Vanderplank, 2016). ...
... There were some issues to be noted when reviewing the references. Comparing the studies by Fievez et al. (2020), Fievez et al. (2021), andMontero Perez et al. (2014), all investigated the impact of captions on vocabulary learning, specifically learners' ability to recognize and recall vocabulary. They consistently found that certain types of captions enhance vocabulary learning compared to control groups without captions. ...
... Fievez et al. (2021) focused on the effects of watching a French series with glossed captions on Netflix, highlighting the positive impact of glossed captions, word frequency, and learners' vocabulary size. Montero Perez et al. (2014) investigated the impact of different types of captioning, finding that keyword captioned clips and fully captioned clips with highlighted keywords significantly outperform the no-caption group in meaning recognition, although no significant differences were found between the various captioning groups. These differences in focus, methodology, and findings, highlight a need for further research in this topic. ...
Increasing attention has been paid to incidental vocabulary learning from captioned viewing. However, there is a lack of awareness about the impact of different captioned video genres and learner-related factors such as proficiency, working memory, and aptitude. The present study aims to evaluate how incidental vocabulary learning occurs in three genres of captioned videos (comedy, education, and documentary) and how individual differences in L2 proficiency level, working memory, and language aptitude affect outcomes. Forty-eight students at a university in China took part in this study. Form and meaning recognition tests were used as the pretests and posttests. Before watching the videos , participants completed two cognitive tests related to aptitude and working memory. The research findings support the effectiveness of captioned videos in the genres of comedy, education, and documentary for incidental vocabulary learning, specifically in form and meaning recognition. Additionally, the results suggest that learners' proficiency level in the second language (L2) impacts this type of learning from these video genres. While working memory and aptitude did not significantly influence the vocabulary learning outcomes directly, they could have significant indirect effects on form and meaning recognition through English proficiency in the comedy and education genres. The study discusses relevant implications for incidental vocabulary learning from captioned viewing.
... Even multi-modal input is proposed for learning content and vocabulary simultaneously. From among the proposed strategies is video watching or audiovisual input (Perez et al., 2014). Recent studies have proved that input via TV in the target language has the potentiality to provide the viewers with much of the input needed for language learning (Webb, 2014(Webb, , 2020. ...
... Concerning vocabulary acquisition, Perez et al. (2014) did research in which the learners watched short videos. They found out that all captioning groups, moderately exceeded the group with no caption input. ...
... Montero Perez et al. (2014), that investigated differences in L2 learning in different conditions of audiovisual input. His findings testified that the students who had subtitled audiovisual input had larger vocabulary growth than the other groups. ...
Please cite this paper as follows: Bagheri Nevisi, R., & Modarresi, M. H. (2023). The effect of audiovisual input on EFL learners' receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge of concrete and abstract words. Teaching English Language, 17(2), 325-360. Abstract Not only is vocabulary a pivotal constituent of language learning, but also it does constitute an important part of the instructional process of a foreign language. Considering the undeniable role of vocabulary plays in language learning, this study explored the effects of audiovisual input on EFL learners' receptive and productive knowledge of concrete and abstract words. To this end, 24 upper-intermediate English language learners were selected from Iran Language institute in Qom, with an age range of 15 to 25. A 30-item pretest of concrete and abstract words was administered prior to the study. The words were selected from one movie and its corresponding book that included both receptive and productive vocabularies. During the eight-session treatment, the control group was instructed through the written input (the book) and the experimental group was taught via the audiovisual input (the movie). Results of the delayed posttest pointed to significant differences between the two groups in terms of vocabulary gains and the audiovisual group outscored the written input group regarding the vocabulary knowledge. More specifically, the study revealed that the audiovisual input significantly impacted learning concrete words. The study is a confirmation on the importance of audiovisual input in learning all different classifications of 1 Corresponding author: r.bagherinevisi@qom.ac.ir 326 Teaching English Language, Vol. 17, No. 2 The Effect of Audiovisual Input … vocabulary in general and concrete words in particular. The study further implies that there would be a way for a more detailed scrutiny on the methods of acquiring various categories of vocabulary.
... Secondly, while existing studies generally support the benefits of captions and agree that the use of captions, irrespective of caption type, is better for comprehension than the non-use of captions (Guillory, 1998;P.-J. Lee et al., 2021;Montero Perez, 2022;Montero Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014;Rodgers & Webb, 2017), concerns persist about potential over-reliance hindering students' adaptability to caption-free environments (Leveridge & Yang, 2013Rooney, 2014;Vanderplank, 2016;Yeldham, 2018). Yeldham (2018) summarizes this view: ...
... The above studies seem to suggest that any amount of captions is better than non-caption materials for comprehension (Abobaker, 2017;Guillory, 1998;Montero Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014) and vocabulary learning (Montero Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014), that the type of captions preferred and how these are used depend on listener proficiency (Abobaker, 2017;Montero Perez et al., 2013;Sydorenko, 2010;Teng, 2019;Vanderplank, 2016), and that pronunciation improves, irrespective of the type of captions used (Mahdi, 2017;Mohsen & Mahdi, 2021). ...
... The above studies seem to suggest that any amount of captions is better than non-caption materials for comprehension (Abobaker, 2017;Guillory, 1998;Montero Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014) and vocabulary learning (Montero Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014), that the type of captions preferred and how these are used depend on listener proficiency (Abobaker, 2017;Montero Perez et al., 2013;Sydorenko, 2010;Teng, 2019;Vanderplank, 2016), and that pronunciation improves, irrespective of the type of captions used (Mahdi, 2017;Mohsen & Mahdi, 2021). ...
Aim/Purpose: This exploratory qualitative case study examines the perceptions of high-school learners of English regarding a pedagogical intervention involving progressive reduction of captions (full, sentence-level, keyword captions, and no-captions) in enhancing language learning. Background: Recognizing the limitations of caption usage in fostering independent listening comprehension in non-captioned environments, this research builds upon and extends the foundational work of Vanderplank (2016), who highlighted the necessity of a comprehensive blend of tasks, strategies, focused viewing, and the need to actively engage language learners in watching captioned materials. Methodology: Using a qualitative research design, the participants were exposed to authentic video texts in a five-week listening course. Participants completed an entry survey, and upon interaction with each captioning type, they wrote individual reflections and participated in focus group sessions. This methodological approach allowed for an in-depth exploration of learners’ experiences across different captioning scenarios, providing a nuanced understanding of the pedagogical intervention’s impact on their perceived language development process. Contribution: By bridging the research-practice gap, our study offers valuable insights into designing pedagogical interventions that reduce caption dependence, thereby preparing language learners for success in real-world, caption-free listening scenarios. Findings: Our findings show that learners not only appreciate the varied captioning approaches for their role in supporting text comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, pronunciation, and on-task focus but also for facilitating the integration of new linguistic knowledge with existing background knowledge. Crucially, our study uncovers a positive reception towards the gradual shift from fully captioned to uncaptioned materials, highlighting a stepwise reduction of caption dependence as instrumental in boosting learners’ confidence and sense of achievement in mastering L2 listening skills. Recommendations for Practitioners: The implications of our findings are threefold: addressing input selection, task design orchestration, and reflective practices. We advocate for a deliberate selection of input that resonates with learners’ interests and contextual realities alongside task designs that progressively reduce caption reliance and encourage active learner engagement and collaborative learning opportunities. Furthermore, our study underscores the importance of reflective practices in enabling learners to articulate their learning preferences and strategies, thereby fostering a more personalized and effective language learning experience. Recommendation for Researchers: Listening comprehension is a complex process that can be clearly influenced by the input, the task, and/or the learner characteristics. Comparative studies may struggle to control and account for all these variables, making it challenging to attribute observed differences solely to caption reduction. Impact on Society: This research responds to the call for innovative teaching practices in language education. It sets the stage for future inquiries into the nuanced dynamics of caption usage in language learning, advocating for a more learner-centered and adaptive approach. Future Research: Longitudinal quantitative studies that measure comprehension as captions support is gradually reduced (full, partial, and keyword) are strongly needed. Other studies could examine a range of individual differences (working memory capacity, age, levels of engagement, and language background) when reducing caption support. Future research could also examine captions with students with learning difficulties and/or disabilities.
... UK foreign language learners also make less use of multimedia or multimodal input, such as video clips and computer games, outside of school than is the case in Europe, where there is strong evidence of their beneficial impact on foreign language vocabulary development (De Wilde et al., 2021). It is worth noting, however, that existing empirical evidence examining the role of multimodal input in foreign language learning has mainly been drawn from studies investigating incidental vocabulary learning (e.g., Montero-Perez et al., 2014;Peters, 2019) whereby learners unconsciously "pick up" unknown vocabulary from the meaning-focused input (Hulstijn, 2001). To our knowledge, no study so far has explored the role of multimodal input in explicit vocabulary instruction, where vocabulary knowledge is intentionally delivered through pedagogical activities (Hulstijn, 2001). ...
... To our knowledge, no study so far has explored the role of multimodal input in explicit vocabulary instruction, where vocabulary knowledge is intentionally delivered through pedagogical activities (Hulstijn, 2001). In addition, in those existing studies (Montero-Perez et al., 2014;Peters, 2019), multimodal input has largely taken a single format, i.e., captioned/subtitled video clips. Very limited research has examined the effects of different combinations of multimodal input (incorporating different types of verbal and nonverbal elements) on learning and what additional scaffolding might be needed for lower proficiency learners to benefit from them. ...
... With foreign language learners, limited studies to date have focused on exploring how much linguistic knowledge, in particular vocabulary knowledge, learners can acquire incidentally from multimodal input (Zhang & Zou, 2022). For example, Montero-Perez et al. (2014) examined among Flemish adult learners of English the effects of captioned videos on the acquisition of English words. They found that learners who watched the captioned videos outperformed those who watched videos without captions on both form and meaning recognition of the target words. ...
This study explored the effects of different types of input (verbal-only vs. verbal plus content-related nonverbal vs. verbal plus paralinguistic-related nonverbal) on vocabulary learning from multimedia. It also investigated how learning was moderated by three learner-related factors (prior vocabulary size, phonological short-term memory (PSTM) capacity, and comprehension of the input). Forty-three English learners of French first completed a French vocabulary size test, a vocabulary pre-test, and a PSTM test online. They then viewed three sets of multimodal teaching materials, each with a different type of input condition, followed by a vocabulary post-test and a comprehension test. Findings indicated that multimodal input including additional nonverbal information was more beneficial than traditional verbal-only input for productive vocabulary knowledge gains. Additionally, comprehension of the input was the most important moderator for the learning gains, especially when the input included paralinguistic-related nonverbal information. The findings provide novel insights into theories of multimedia learning and have pedagogical implications for the design of multimodal language learning materials.
... In the context of captioned viewing, research has shown that repeated exposure to target words, or the role of repetition, supports the incidental learning of vocabulary (Teng 2019(Teng , 2023a. Second, differences in prior vocabulary knowledge may influence learners' ability to process contextual cues as input for incidental vocabulary learning; that said, pronounced gains can occur when learners have strong prior vocabulary knowledge (Montero- Perez et al. 2014;Teng and Mizumoto 2023). Scarce research to date has assessed the interaction between prior vocabulary knowledge and frequency when exploring incidental vocabulary learning while reading, listening, and viewing captioned videos. ...
... Captioned videos are readily accessible, simple to produce, and appropriate for language teaching and learning. Empirical research comparing captioning conditions has indicated that captioning affords learners opportunities for lexical growth (Montero Perez et al. 2014Perez et al. , 2018. Teng and Cui (2023) conducted a study comparing the incidental learning of single words and collocations from captioned viewing. ...
... Other studies have specifically explored incidental vocabulary learning from captioned videos. Montero Perez et al. (2014) reported a positive correlation between learners' vocabulary knowledge, assessed through a receptive vocabulary meaning test, and incidental vocabulary learning outcomes across three captioning groups: fully captioned clips, keyword captioned clips, and fully captioned clips with highlighted keywords. Teng (2023b) examined incidental vocabulary learning under three conditions: watching fully captioned videos, watching keyword captioned videos, and watching videos without captions, while considering learners' prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory. ...
The present study, given increasing attention to incidental vocabulary learning, explores how different input modes (i.e., listening, reading, and viewing captioned videos) affect such learning while considering frequency and prior vocabulary knowledge. One hundred twenty Chinese university students learning English as a foreign language were allocated to three treatment groups and one (test-only) control group. Target words included 48 terms appearing at various frequencies (1-6 occurrences) in a documentary video. Incidental vocabulary learning outcomes were measured through form and meaning recognition. Mixed effects models showed that the caption viewing condition led to the most pronounced incidental vocabulary learning and retention outcomes, followed by the reading and listening conditions. A significant interaction effect was identified between time, group, and prior vocabulary knowledge. A significant interaction effect was also observed between time, group, and frequency. Meanwhile, frequency was less important for incidental vocabulary learning than prior vocabulary knowledge. Pedagogical implications are discussed based on these findings.
... There is extensive research that supports the efficacy of captioned videos in incidental single word learning (e.g., Montero Perez, 2020;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Rodgers, 2013;Sydorenko, 2010). Research has demonstrated that the inclusion of captions supports learners in identifying unfamiliar vocabulary and enhancing the retention of video material, particularly among individuals who engage with videos in a non-native language (Hsieh, 2020). ...
... Research has demonstrated that the inclusion of captions supports learners in identifying unfamiliar vocabulary and enhancing the retention of video material, particularly among individuals who engage with videos in a non-native language (Hsieh, 2020). Furthermore, the results have demonstrated modest to moderate advancements in incidental learning of single words when employing various captioning modes (Montero Perez et al., 2014;Sydorenko, 2010;Teng, 2022). However, insufficient attention has been directed towards investigating the potential factors that contribute to the restricted learning outcomes observed across distinct captioning conditions (Montero Perez, 2020; Teng, 2022). ...
... Incidental single word learning has been shown to benefit from captioned videos through a wealth of studies (e.g., Candarli, 2023;Hsieh, 2020;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Rodgers, 2013;Sydorenko, 2010;Teng, 2022). For example, Candarli (2023) However, different from previous studies, Dang et al. (2022a) suggested that solely the group that engaged in viewing without captions exhibited notably superior learning advancements, while the viewing with captions group and other three groups (reading, listening, reading while listening) did not. ...
Background
Vocabulary learning in a second language (L2) encompasses crucial aspects, including single words and collocations. Research indicates that L2 learners can incidentally learn single words from captioned videos, but less is known about the incidental learning outcomes of collocations, let alone the differences in learning gains for single words and collocations under different captioned conditions, as well as individual differences that may account for such differences.
Objectives
This study aimed to fill this gap by comparing the learning gains of single words and collocations while investigating the influence of vocabulary knowledge (VK) and working memory (WM) on the learning results within diverse forms of captioning conditions: full captions, keyword captions, and no captions.
Methods
The study involved 129 young Chinese ESL learners who completed vocabulary tests assessing their meaning recall before, immediately after, and 2 weeks after the study, as well as tests for VK and WM.
Results and Conclusions
The results showed that full captions are the most efficacious condition for enhancing both single word and collocation learning. The depth of VK, as well as phonological and complex WM, were significant factors in the learning of new language items.
Takeaways
Different types of captioning (full or keyword) contribute differently to the learning of various language items. Individual differences in WM and depth of VK among learners should be considered when utilizing captioned videos for language learning.
... In that sense, research has sought to throw light upon the effects of captions on language acquisition in general and has succeeded in doing so by demonstrating the statistically significant advantage of participants who watch multimodal materials with captions (subtitles in the L2 or original language) or subtitles (in the L1). The use of captions has hence been corroborated to have a positive impact on L2 comprehension (Montero Perez et al., 2014), vocabulary (Pujadas & Muñoz, 2019;Suárez & Gesa, 2019) and grammar (Pattemore & Muñoz, 2020) learning, as word recognition is assisted by the breaking down of speech into separated items. ...
... Ample evidence exists confirming vocabulary acquisition through multimodal input and the use of captions (Montero Perez, 2022;Muñoz, 2022). Furthermore, recent studies have intended to redirect and refocus learners' attention by typographically enhancing specific parts of those captions (Majuddin et al., 2021;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Lee & Révéscz, 2020), as noticing has been widely recognised as Rebeca Finger-Bou and Carmen Muñoz a relevant and essential part of language learning (Schmidt, 1994). When the material salience of single-words is typographically enhanced in captions, learners of an L2 will expectedly pay more attention and learn new L2 vocabulary items (Montero Perez et al., 2015;Puimège et al., 2022). ...
... In this line of research, it has been found that learner-related factors such as proficiency level (Montero Perez et al., 2013;Suárez & Gesa, 2019), previous vocabulary knowledge (Majuddin, 2020;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Peters & Webb, 2018;Rodgers & Webb, 2019), or working memory (Pattemore & Muñoz, 2020) may impact vocabulary gains and the processing of multimodal input. Particularly, prior vocabulary knowledge is one of the most important factors affecting incidental vocabulary acquisition (Peters & Webb, 2018). ...
Research has demonstrated that watching audiovisual materials in the target language (L2) through using captions can foster vocabulary learning. Some studies have redirected learners’ attention by enhancing specific parts of those captions, thus increasing their saliency. This study explores the effects of regular and enhanced captions on incidental vocabulary acquisition by L1-Spanish/Catalan learners of English through short exposure to a documentary. It also analyses how vocabulary learning might be affected by previous vocabulary knowledge and language learning aptitude. Two randomly distributed groups were formed. One was provided with regular captions, and the other with enhanced captions (target words in yellow and bold). Vocabulary gains were assessed through preand post-tests that tapped into meaning recall, meaning recognition and form recognition knowledge. The results showed that the difference between the pre-test and the post-test was greater in the students with enhanced subtitles, but the difference was not significant between the two groups in the post-test. Vocabulary size emerged as the most significant predictor, but not aptitude. Retrospective questionnaires on participants’ focus of attention reported an emphasis on captions and comprehension. Analyses indicate that paying attention to the enhanced items might have positively affected acquisition and retention. This study has provided new evidence that shows the potential advantage of multimodal input as an accessible pedagogical tool for acquiring languages.
... Empirical studies have also documented the potential of reading (Waring & Takaki, 2003), extensive reading with audio support (Webb & Chang, 2015), viewing TV programs (Peters & Webb, 2018), and captioned videos (Teng, 2023a), on incidental vocabulary learning, including collocation (Teng, 2019a). Among them, incidental vocabulary learning through captioned videos has received increasing attention in recent years (Fievez et al., 2023;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Teng 2023b). ...
... Some empirical studies have also been conducted to assess the role of vocabulary knowledge in vocabulary learning from captioned videos (Montero Perez et al., 2014;Peters et al., 2016). For example, Peters et al. (2016) indicated the role of captions in form learning. ...
... First, the captioning group outperformed the control group on the four tests. The findings supported the role of viewing captioned videos for incidental vocabulary learning (Fievez et al., 2020;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Teng 2022aTeng , 2022bTeng , 2023aTeng , 2023b. While learning gains in the present study might seem low, the results were consistent with other findings in incidental learning studies. ...
... There are three kinds of video subtitles commonly used in the L2 classroom: first language (L1), second language (L2), and first language and second language (bilingual or L1+L2) (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2007). The first two have been widely discussed for enhancing second language learning, including listening comprehension (e.g., Tsai 2010), vocabulary development (e.g., Montero Perez et al. 2014) and reading comprehension (e.g., Markham and Peter 2003). Bilingual subtitles, however, have received little attention. ...
... Generally, researchers perceive subtitles as a useful instructional aid for supporting language learning (e.g., Montero Perez et al. 2014;Winke et al. 2010) and lowering learners' affective filters (e.g. Vanderplank 1988). ...
... Examining the impact of subtitles on vocabulary knowledge depth, several studies found that subtitles enhanced word form recognition receptively (i.e., recognise the correct word form) (e.g., Montero Perez et al. 2015;Sydorenko 2010) and productively (i.e., offer the correct word spelling) (e.g., Baltova 1999;Danan 1992). However, the study conducted by Montero Perez et al. (2014) revealed a different result of word meaning acquisition. They found no differences in word meaning recall between with and without subtitles group in (upper-) intermediate learners. ...
This study investigates the differential effects of monolingual (L1 or L2) and bilingual (L1+L2) subtitles on students’ receptive vocabulary acquisition. In light of the widespread use of bilingual subtitles in videos in language classrooms with limited supportive literature available, this study aims at examining the pedagogical effects of bilingual subtitles on receptive vocabulary acquisition in the L2 classroom. A seven-week quasi-experimental study was conducted among four year-3 English-major classes in a Chinese university: three treatment groups and one control group. Adopting a counterbalanced design, students in the treatment classes were exposed to three types of subtitles within three videos. They were then tested on recall and recognition of the vocabulary target items encountered in the videos. The results demonstrate a significant advantage for bilingual subtitling in videos in terms of students’ vocabulary recognition and recall at post-test, and this advantage is maintained at the delayed post-test. Implications of the study are discussed in the context of current pedagogical practices such as a wider L1 use in the L2 classrooms.
... Allocation of sufficient attention to an unfamiliar item is a critical initial step in the vocabulary acquisition process. Empirical evidence indicates that fully captioned video content enhances vocabulary learning more than noncaptioned video content (Danan, 1992;Markham, 1999;Montero Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014;Sydorenko, 2010). Winke et al. (2010) noted that full captioning helps l2 learners to isolate unknown vocabulary items, because the captions draw the learners' attention to the items. ...
... Numerous studies have compared the effectiveness of various caption formats (no captions, full captions, keyword captions, full captions with highlighted keywords) for vocabulary acquisition (Laufer, 2010;Montero Perez et al., 2014, Montero Perez, Peters, & Desmet, 2015Sydorenko, 2010). In addition to these captionrelated formats, glosses can enhance vocabulary learning (Ko, 2005;Sanders, 2002) and draw learners' attention to the form and meaning of annotated words (Marzban, 2011). ...
Use of captioned video in classrooms has gained considerable attention in the second and foreign language learning. However, the effect of application of captioned video embedded with glosses on incidental vocabulary enhancement has not been explored. This study aims to examine the effect of video captions with glosses on efl students’ incidental business vocabulary acquisition; 50 students from a college of management served as participants. A pretest was adopted to ensure participants lacked familiarity with the target vocabulary. All participants watched three video clips presented in three modes (noncaptioned, captioned, and caption-gloss modes). After each mode session, all participants took an immediate posttest and a 3-week-delayed posttest. Following the final posttest, the participants completed a questionnaire. The findings revealed that the caption-gloss mode significantly outperformed the other 2 modes in both the immediate and 3-week-delayed posttests. Retention of the target business words did not significantly decline at the 3-weekdelayed posttest. Therefore, glosses in the captioned video improved the participants’ shortand long-term incidental business vocabulary retention. The participants also provided positive feedback regarding the efficacy of the caption-gloss mode for incidental business word acquisition. Pedagogical implications regarding use of captioned video with glosses for incidental professional vocabulary acquisition are discussed.
... The primary goal of this study is to document students' self-reported, out-of-class transactional listening experiences which they recorded in listening diaries. With regard to material selection (rq #1), it was found that students often engaged in multimedia or multimodal listening (Leveridge & Yang, 2014;Perez, Peters, Clarebout, & Desmet, 2014) which involved processing verbal as well as visual content simultaneously (Cross, 2011). Compared to Goh's (2000) study which predates the explosion of free online audiovisual materials, this study involved learners whose daily environment is flooded with online information and audiovisual resources. ...
... Although this study did not set out to examine the effectiveness of these "help options" on language learning (Cárdenas-Claros & Gruba, 2014; Cross, 2011; Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007;Leveridge & Yang, 2014;Perez et al., 2014), numerous accounts of how learners made use of these support tools can be found in students' diaries, and they provide a glimpse into students' online learning behaviors and preferences. It was found in this study that when viewing captioned videos, students typically began by viewing their choice of video without any caption. ...
The current study reports on a group of Taiwanese college students’ first-person diary accounts of their private, transactional listening activities outside the classroom. Issues related to students’ material selection, listening problems, and perceived usefulness of keeping a listening diary were explored. It was found that most students chose audiovisual materials to listen to, and the most frequently chosen material was ted talks. In their diaries, the most frequently reported listening problems were unknown vocabulary and speed. Most students perceived the experience of keeping a listening diary positively. It was found that keeping a listening diary facilitated the development of future study plans, linguistic knowledge, listening and writing skills, and self-confidence. Data also suggest that students need to take more responsibility of their own learning to be able to benefit from the abundant resources available in the digital age. The study concludes with a set of recommendations to further the research on using listening diary as a pedagogical and research tool.
... Such benefits have been found with both single word (e.g., Montero Perez et al., 2014Perez et al., , 2015 and multi word unit learning (e.g., Majuddin et al., 2021;Puimège et al., 2023). ...
... When positive results are found for TE, they are predominantly on form recognition tasks (e.g., Boers et al., 2017;Montero Perez et al., 2014Toomer & Elgort, 2019) and sometimes form recall tasks (e.g., Peters, 2012;Majuddin et al., 2021;Puimège et al., 2023;Vu & Peters, 2022a, 2022b. Not all studies include tests that assess word-meaning knowledge. ...
This chapter first positions Sharwood Smith's (1991, 1993) introduction of the concept of input enhancement (IE) as a milestone in instructed second language acquisition (SLA). By emphasizing that grammar instruction need not be limited to the teaching and practicing of pedagogical grammar rules, and by underscoring that there are many ways to help second language (L2) learners attend to form, IE changed the perception of grammar instruction. Since Sharwood Smith's introduction of IE now more than 30 years ago, instructed SLA research has investigated the impact of different input enhancement techniques on SLA on different linguistic subsystems. This chapter hopes to contribute to advancing IE research by providing a historical overview of IE and in reviewing some key areas of IE research for grammar and vocabulary learning. After discussing issues in research and classroom application, different taxonomies of IE are discussed to help guide pedagogical choices. 2
... Still, the use of audiovisual materials leads to higher gains in receptive vocabulary knowledge, which is an outcome that may be associated to the lower cognitive demands required to accomplish this task (González-Fernández & Schmitt, 2020;Montero Perez, 2022). Equally important, meaning-learning seems to be more cognitively demanding than word-form learning given that the former draws on learners' capacity to integrate the meaning cues provided by each modality while viewing (Gesa, 2019;Mayer, 2014Mayer, , 2022Montero Perez et al., 2014;Peters et al., 2016;Pujadas & Muñoz, 2019;Suárez & Gesa, 2019). Although learners' vocabulary gains may be found to be significant, the average number of items acquired in incidental conditions has been found to be relatively low (Montero Perez, 2022;Webb, 2020), this is why some studies have examined the synergy between video-viewing and vocabulary pre-teaching or tasks to maximize learning (e.g. ...
... In relation to the cognitive factors, the analyses indicated that the three variables explored in this study significantly influenced learners' performance: complex working memory, PSTM and visual processing speed. These results corroborate the higher cognitive demands involved in form-meaning mapping since this word dimension draws on learners' capacity to integrate the meaning cues provided by each modality while viewing (Gesa, 2019;Mayer, 2014Mayer, , 2022Montero Perez et al., 2014;Peters et al., 2016;Pujadas & Muñoz, 2019;Suárez & Gesa, 2019). These findings may be explained in the framework of the Dual Coding theory (Paivio, 1986), and the Cognitive theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2014(Mayer, , 2022. ...
An increasing number of investigations have been conducted in the last decade to explore the effects of audiovisual input on L2 learning (Montero Perez, 2022; Muñoz, 2022). Nevertheless, primary school L2 learners are still an under-researched age group in comparison with university and secondary school students (Montero Perez & Rodgers, 2019). The literature suggests that L1 subtitles would be a more suitable option for primary school learners due to their lower L2 proficiency level and still developing L1 reading skills. However, the question on how suitable and beneficial captioned-video viewing may be for primary school learners from input-limited contexts still needs further evidence to be answered. The present study attempted to fill the gaps in the literature as regards the extent to which extensive captioned-video viewing (11 episodes) fostered vocabulary learning (written-word form recall, and written-word form and meaning recognition) and the development of receptive language skills in six groups of EFL primary school students from Chile (n=120; 9-11 years old; years 4 and 5). More specifically, we studied the influence of treatment, learner and input-related factors on the results. To start with, the experimental groups differed in terms of viewing distribution (number of episodes watched a week) and the activities completed at the end of each session (meaning-focused vs. construction-focused activities). As for learners’ characteristics, this study assessed the influence of a group of cognitive and language-related factors (L1 and L2) on the results. Finally, we explored the extent to which a set of context and word characteristics predicted vocabulary learning. The findings that emerged from the statistical analyses were interpreted in light of the literature and also of the learners’ perceptions of the viewing experience. Overall, the results revealed significant improvement in vocabulary learning and the development of receptive language skills in both year levels. Still, the treatment appeared to be especially beneficial for fifth graders due to their significantly higher proficiency level in both languages and, possibly, to their cognitive maturity. Notwithstanding this result, the analyses also showed that fourth graders’ performance was enhanced by the implementation of shorter lags between episodes. Additionally, the data on learners’ perceptions of the treatment provided rich evidence on how the participants from both year levels took advantage of the different modalities to compensate for their knowledge gaps. On the whole, the findings reported in this dissertation suggest that the use of captioned videos may be suitable and conducive to learning in both year levels as long as some specific factors are considered.
http://hdl.handle.net/2445/196164
... Studies have examined vocabulary gains through viewing captioned and subtitled videos, which provide multimodal input by combining visual, textual, and auditory information (Montero Perez et al., 2014;Rodgers, 2013). Subtitles provide written translation of the spoken language, while captions transcribe the speech verbatim. ...
... In addition, a generative theory of multimedia learning proposed by Mayer (1994) stresses that meaningful learning only occurs when learners are engaged in active thinking, including visual and verbal thinking, in the different phases of cognitive processing. Animations or videos embedding both target words and visual images are considered the best candidates to improve FL vocabulary teaching or learning (Arndt & Woore, 2018;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Peters et al., 2016). Finally, in the light of the Comprehensible Output Hypothesis put forward by Swain (1985), learners need the opportunities for meaningful use of their language knowledge in order to attain grammatical competence. ...
Since ineffective FL vocabulary teaching has been currently shown in the higher education of Mainland China, this study aims to achieve a satisfactory vocabulary teaching outcome through the construction of a systematic computer-based vocabulary teaching mode. Based on constructivism, the mode was established with three essential teaching phases, which were incorporated with systematic cognitive processes of vocabulary learning, supported by appropriate vocabulary teaching strategies, and also facilitated by computer technologies. To illustrate its efficacy, altogether 58 non-English major undergraduate students in two classes were selected randomly from a university in Mainland China. The participants were divided into two groups by class, which were taught target words under the computer-based systematic vocabulary teaching mode and the traditional paper-based one, respectively. Under the traditional mode, the same teacher adopted the teaching methods as they had normally done in the past, such as rote memorization and mechanical practice mainly with paper-based materials. Through the achievement comparisons, it was ultimately revealed that the systematic computer-based vocabulary teaching mode was superior to the traditional with a detectable difference either immediately after or one month after the treatment. The significance was further reinforced by the results from a questionnaire survey conducted among the group taught under the systematic computer-based vocabulary teaching mode.
... Moreover, studies with a focal interest on AVP controls are limited. Most existing technology-enhanced listening research has directed its attention towards various ancillary elements such as: captions (Gass et al., 2019;Hosogoshi, 2016;Mohsen, 2016;Montero Perez et al., 2014;Pattemore & Muñoz, 2022;Sydorenko, 2010), transcripts (Cárdenas-Claros & Campos-Ibaceta, 2018; Danan, 2016;Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007), glossary and/or dictionaries (Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007;Rivens-Mompean, 2009) and, more recently, feedback (Cárdenas-Claros, 2022). Remarkably, research focusing on AVP controls remains scarce. ...
This systematic review investigates learner use of audio/video playback (AVP) controls in technology-enhanced listening environments. To this aim, 61 academic works produced from 2000-2021 underwent inclusion/exclusion criteria and were analyzed. The resulting corpus was made up of 16 peer-reviewed articles. We first situate the studies examined with regards to contextual, educational , and methodological characteristics of AVP controls research. Then, we conducted thematic analysis to identify, analyze and report affordances and limitations of AVP controls. Four affordances and two limitations were identified. The affordances describe how AVP controls enable students to resort to different strategies, change their interaction patterns with learning materials, address comprehension problems and enhance listening comprehension performance. Similarly, limitations describe how proficiency level restricts interaction with AVP controls and the need for learner training on AVP controls. Results are discussed along with integrated data. Pedagogical implications and avenues for further research are also discussed. Keywords: audio/video playback controls, listening comprehension, learner control, systematic reviews As the provision of audio/video playback (AVP) controls is a staple of second language (L2) listening materials, levels of control provided to L2 listeners is a key feature of technology-enhanced listening materials. AVP controls or features found in computer media players enable listeners/viewers to skip text segments , replay partial or full texts, rewind and forward texts and pause or stop
... Keyword subtitles can be either intralingual (in the same foreign language as the video) or interlingual (typically bilingual, featuring the keyword in the foreign language accompanied by a gloss offering the L1 translation). Montero Perez et al. (2014) compared the impacts of no subtitle, intralingual (full) subtitles, and intralingual keyword subtitles on vocabulary learning among university students. They found that intralingual keyword subtitles yielded superior results in terms of vocabulary form and meaning recognition when compared to no subtitle, yet they did not significantly enhance meaning recall. ...
This study examines the effect of four subtitling conditions — no subtitle, intralingual subtitles, interlingual subtitles, and keyword subtitles — on vocabulary learning among diverse learner groups, as well as their perception of the effectiveness of subtitles. The study involved four participant types, all learning English as a foreign language: second-year primary school students (N = 147), fourth-year primary school students (N = 97), middle school students (year 8, N = 38), and high school students (year 10, N = 50). Participants watched videos under different subtitling conditions, followed by a vocabulary test. Our findings revealed that middle and high school students scored higher on vocabulary meaning recall when subtitles were provided. Meanwhile, second- and fourth-year primary school students did not benefit from the subtitles in terms of meaning recognition. Among the subtitle types, bilingual keyword subtitles were the most effective for middle school students, while interlingual subtitles proved to be the best for high school students. Generally, the students' perception of the effectiveness of the subtitles in the experiment aligned with their actual learning outcomes.
... 2 We refrain from reviewing incidental learning studies that used a combination of words and MWEs as target items (e.g., Montero Perez et al., 2015). Evidence from Peters (2014) suggests that MWEs might be more difficult to learn than single words, so the two types of lexical items cannot be dealt with as a single category. 3 In the psycholinguistic literature, transparency and decompositionality have been dealt with as independent factors, transparency being related to the ease of guessing the meaning of the MWE and decompositionality referring to how decodable the meaning of the MWE is based on the meaning of its individual components (see Cieślicka, 2015). ...
... Nakata and Elgort (2021) found that learners with larger vocabulary sizes were better able to infer the meanings of the pseudowords from context. Several studies have also examined the relationship between learners' prior vocabulary knowledge and their vocabulary learning through viewing videos (e.g., Montero Perez et al., 2014;Puimège & Peters, 2019), and these studies found that prior vocabulary knowledge corre-lated positively with the effects of viewing. These findings indicate that learners' prior knowledge of vocabulary in incidental learning conditions leads to a better comprehension of input materials, which in turn helps learners pick up new words. ...
... In line with the multimedia learning principle, subtitled or captioned videos allow for two ways of learning English: "narration and on-screen text" (Moon, 2021, p. 25). The subtitles and captions encourage learners to detect unfamiliar vocabulary items, which is the first step in the learning process (Montero Perez et al., 2014). Thus, bi-modal input, simultaneous display of sound and text, was found to result in better learning outcomes than the use of one modality (Charles & Trenkic, 2015). ...
Audio-visual materials such as TV series and films offer multiple semiotic modes and authentic language input for language learning. This case study sought to depict English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ habits of utilising subtitles and captions for incidental and intentional learning of grammar and vocabulary through on-screen texts, subtitles and captions. The target group was determined through criterion sampling because they were expected to watch English TV series or films to be eligible to take part in the study. A survey and inter-view were employed to gather data from 113 Turkish EFL learners studying at the tertiary level. The quantitative data were analysed descriptively, while the qualitative data were analysed using a constant comparative method (Creswell & Poth, 2016). The findings revealed that, by watching captioned TV series and films, most of the participants performed intentional learning of vocabulary and grammar, whereas some are engaged in incidental learning. The strategies used by EFL learners for intentional learning of vocabulary and grammar were also provided.
... While previous studies demonstrate the promise of reversed subtitles (Danan, 1992;Perez et al., 2014;Ragni, 2020;Zareei, 2009), further optimization tailored to learner's aptitudes and linguistic typologies may be possible. This study seeks to answer these questions: Can adding typographic salience through bolding and color emphasis to reversed subtitles better optimize comprehension and retention of elementary foreign language videos compared to plain reversed subtitles? ...
This study explores whether typographically enhanced reversed subtitles better optimize vocabulary learning compared to plain reversed captions across 30 Arabic and Spanish novices. Analyses reveal complex interactions while multimedia principles substantially improved Spanish comprehension and retention, optimization efficacy critically falters for Arabic's intricate derivational morphology. Significant limitations emerge in generalized "one-size-fits-all" augmentation assumptions, indicating personalized accommodations aligned with typological properties as instrumental pathways for unlocking excellence. Quantifying specific enhancement asymmetries spotlights imperative transitions toward frameworks actively reducing inequities through customized supports responsive to evolving needs and abilities, as enhancement techniques hold immense potential if implementation frameworks progress. Findings contribute compelling directives for equitably implementing multimedia learning at scale. However, realizing enduring collective benefit remains contingent on elevating adaptation specifications to overcome consolidation barriers tied to intrinsic structural complexities.
... Furthermore, captioned videos have been found to be superior to non-captioned videos in terms of the initial stage of incidental vocabulary acquisition (e.g., Montero Perez et al., 2014;Rodgers & Webb, 2019;Sydorenko, 2010). Neuman and Koskinen (1992) were among the first researchers to report the benefits of captions in L2 vocabulary acquisition. ...
This study explored how visual input enhancement impacts caption-reading behaviors, the acquisition of English collocations, and the recall of onscreen captions. The participants comprised 53 Korean undergraduate students at a high-intermediate level of English proficiency. They were assigned to either a baseline or an enhancement group. The baseline group viewed a digital video with unenhanced captions, whereas the enhancement group watched the same video with enhanced captions (i.e., captions including yellow-colored collocations). The eye movements of the participants were measured using an eye tracker. Thereafter, they completed a collocation test and a caption recall test. The results showed that the baseline and enhancement groups did not vary in their caption-reading behaviors. Conversely, the enhancement group significantly outperformed the baseline group on the collocation test. In the caption recall test, the enhancement group recalled significantly more target collocations than the baseline group, whereas the two groups did not differ in recalling unenhanced captions. Finally, correlational analyses revealed nonsignificant correlations between attention to target collocations and collocation test scores in both groups. This evidence suggests that enhanced video captions may be an effective means of stimulating collocational competence that is not at the expense of second language learners' ability to learn video content.
... Through their review of research studies on captioning in short videos, Montero et al. (2014) demonstrate that full captions with and without highlighted key words, as well as captions with key words only, all seem to produce a better comprehension performance in the secondlanguage experimental group, as well as vocabulary retention. They also report about studies according to which this beneficial outcome is possible only with advanced-level students (118-120). ...
... Incidental vocabulary acquisition is an approach to learning words, and it is described as a process when "learners incidentally gain knowledge of words in small increments, building upon their previous gains through repeated encounters until a word is known" (Webb, 2008, p. 232). The researchers examined L2 incidental vocabulary gain through different input modes: reading (Rott, 1999;Webb, 2007;Chen & Truscott, 2010;Liu & Todd, 2016), writing (Webb & Piasecki, 2018), communication tasks (Newton, 2013), and viewing (Montero Perez et al., 2014;Peters & Webb, 2018). ...
Based on a prior study by Zubenko and Shwedel (2019), the present study investigated the possible effects of repetition (repeated exposure) on the incidental acquisition and retention of 120 English target words by 51 Ukrainian-speaking ESL learners at a Ukrainian university. The hypothesis was that regular repetition of vocabulary while incidental listening would have a significant and positive effect on students’ vocabulary acquisition and performance. The paper examines the results of the implementation of spaced repetition of L2 vocabulary strategy of the second-year students who were covering the same vocabulary they learned during the experiment in the previous year. 7 audio lessons were created for increasing the long-term retention of target vocabulary in the students’ memory. Participants (N=51) were second-year Ukrainian university students majoring in English as a second language (ESL) at the age of 17-19. They were assigned to three groups, one experimental and two comparison. The optimal result based on the interval of repetitions influences the vocabulary recall and retention. Students who used the spaced L2 vocabulary acquisition strategy (SVAS) outperformed on the End-of-Experiment test 84,1 versus 80,6 for the Comparison group. The results prove that spaced L2 vocabulary acquisition strategy is an efficient part of enriching new vocabulary. The findings indicate that implications of this research are connected with the spaced vocabulary acquisition strategy as an effective tool for learning new lexical units by ESL learners while incidental listening to the audio dictionary lessons. Thus, the study results open up new possibilities for the teachers and learners to consider implementing audio dictionaries and similar tools as assets for efficient vocabulary learning.
Studies investigating the acquisition of multiword items (MWIs) from reading have furnished evidence that the likelihood of acquisition improves considerably if such items are typographically enhanced (e.g., bolded or underlined) in the texts. In the case of captioned audio-visual materials, however, an earlier study by the authors did not find such compelling evidence. In that study, indications of an effect emerged only when the same video was watched twice. Arguably, for learners to benefit more immediately from typographic enhancement in captions, they may need to be made aware of its purpose beforehand. The present article therefore reports an approximate replication of Majuddin et al. (2021), but this time the students were informed about the MWI-learning purpose of watching the video. As in the original study, the learners watched a video once or twice with standard captions, with captions in which MWIs were enhanced, or without captions. The positive effect of enhancement for MWI learning was clearer than in the original study, and it already emerged after a single viewing. On the downside, enhancement was found to have a negative effect on lower-proficiency learners' comprehension of the content of the video.
This volume presents research on second language learning through audiovisual input, conducted within the SUBTiLL (Subtitles in Language Learning) project at the University of Barcelona. It includes studies exploring various language dimensions and skills, such as vocabulary, pronunciation, and reading, while also considering learner factors, such as language learning aptitude and proficiency. Two distinctive features of this collective volume are 1) the inclusion of children and teenagers as participants in studies, addressing the gap concerning young learners in this line of research, and 2) an emphasis on longitudinal studies, enhancing the ecological validity of the findings. The studies in this volume also showcase a diverse range of research instruments, from eye-tracking to retrospective interviews, enriching our comprehension of this innovative research area. A concluding chapter synthesizes these findings, linking them to prior research and advancing our understanding of the role of audiovisual input in language acquisition.
A különböző streamingszolgáltatók térnyerésével egyre többen néznek filmeket és sorozatokat a szabadidejükben. Ezen tartalmak egy része csak eredeti nyelven, sok esetben angolul érhető el, ami remek lehetőséget teremt a különböző idegen nyelvek, és főképp az angol nyelv szórakoztató módon, szinte akár észrevétlenül történő tanulására. Az idegennyelv-tanulás során kiemelt szerepe van az audiovizuális tartalmaknak, mivel a legtöbb esetben a filmek és sorozatok esetében elérhető a célnyelvi felirat is, amely akár szinte észrevétlenül is hozzájárulhat a könnyebb megértéshez, és segítheti a nézőt a szókincsbővítésben is. A jelen tanulmány célja, hogy a véletlenszerű, illetve a szándékos tanulás elméleti keretrendszerének bemutatása mellett feltárja, hogy hogyan lehetséges hatékonyan idegen nyelvet tanulni egy webböngészős bővítmény (Language Reactor) segítségével a Netflix streamingszolgáltató tartalmain keresztül. A tanulmány részletesen bemutatja a webböngészőkhöz használható Language Reactor nevű felhasználóbarát bővítményt és annak használatát.
The extent to which L2 television is viewed by foreign language learners will depend on the degree to which it is understood. The addition of captions has been shown to support comprehension (e.g., Birulés-Muntané & Soto-Faraco, 2016; Montero-Perez, Peters, & Desmet, 2014), especially when proficiency is low (e.g., Lavaur & Bairstow, 2011). Yet, little is known about the extent to which captions benefit comprehension as L2 proficiency increases. This study seeks to investigate the effect of captions at different proficiency levels, and to identify the level at which captions cease to enhance comprehension. A total of 250 Catalan/Spanish university students, who had L2 English proficiency ranging from A1 to C2, viewed nine episodes of an English TV series with and without captions. Results showed that captioned viewing had a significant advantage over uncaptioned viewing in comprehension tests with multiple-choice and true-false items, and that learners with higher L2 proficiency and larger vocabulary performed better. While having access to captions increased the odds of a correct response independently of learners’ L2 proficiency and vocabulary knowledge, the additive benefits of captions were no longer significant at the C2 level, suggesting a threshold beyond which uncaptioned viewing does not negatively impact comprehension. Pedagogical implications are discussed.
We investigated the impact of teachers' multimodal cues on L2 word learning in naturalistic teaching. 169 university students randomly watched 12 of 54 clips of English vocabulary instructions and took subsequent word recognition and learning tests. The learning outcomes were analysed as a function of teachers' prosodic, linguistic and gestural input during the instruction of each vocabulary while controlling for students' characteristics and varying teachers' influences. Results showed that a shorter mean length of utterances, fewer L2 English words, and more questions for students and "phrase" teaching predicted better learning outcomes. Furthermore, students learning improved with teachers' slower speaking rate but fewer pauses and more iconic gestures. These results were robust even after controlling for other significant factors such as students' English proficiency, working memory, degree of liking of teachers and different teachers. Overall, multimodal cues enhance L2 vocabulary learning, with implications for educators, linguists, and cognitive scientists.
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The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether the bimodal input (videos in theEnglish language with English captions) can lead Italian high school students toimprove their listening comprehension skills. The trigger for this research comes frommy EFL teaching experiences at Italian schools where the syllabi employed tend toneglect the training of the listening comprehension skills and focus mainly on grammartranslation and English literature instructions. The literature review describes in detailtheoretical issues with regard to the advantages of the bimodal input over monomodalinput and other approaches on how these techniques help FL students to facilitatecomprehension difficulties. It also makes reference to a few key findings from formerresearch. Findings indicate that not only can the bimodal input effectively help learnersto enhance their comprehension, but it can stimulate their motivation in studyingEnglish and lower learners� level of anxiety which is commonly associated with theircomprehension performance.
Numerous studies have focused on incidental language acquisition and improving English skills with subtitles, but few
have examined how Bangladeshi tertiary students can enhance their vocabulary knowledge. Thus, the aim of this
research is to explore how the private university based undergraduates view the utilization of subtitles in enhancing their
vocabulary knowledge in English. Semi-structured interview were conducted to obtain data from 15 undergraduates and 5
English language teachers from the department of English of two Dhaka-based private universities. The findings indicate
that students are positive about advancing their knowledge of vocabulary using the series/movie subtitles in English.
Teachers also support subtitled content in language classes, but acknowledge barriers and suggest future research for
improved teaching and learning.
Keywords: English Subtitles, Students‟ and Teachers‟ Responses, English Language Teaching, Bangladeshi Private
University, Vocabulary Knowledge.
Given the pivotal role of vocabulary as the salient component of language, and the associations among vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary learning strategies, and aural and visual input modalities, this study, addressing the extant lacuna in the empirical literature, aimed at probing the interplay between EFL learners' aural vocabulary size, language learning strategies, and their viewing comprehension. Furthermore, the study probed whether aural vocabulary Size and vocabulary learning strategies made any significant contribution in the prediction of viewing comprehension. The participants, selected based on convenience sampling procedures, consisted of 112 Iranian EFL learners selected from two private language institutes located in Qazvin, Iran. Upon selecting the participants, two questionnaires, namely the Aural Vocabulary Size Test (AVST) and Schmitt’s Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire (VLSQ), were given to the participants to complete. Finally, a short video clip, followed by 15 comprehension questions, was administered to the learners to assess their viewing comprehension. The results of statistical analysis, i.e., Pearson correlation coefficient, indicated that there was a statistically positive and significant relationship between aural vocabulary size and viewing comprehension. Similarly, there was a statistically positive and significant relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and viewing comprehension. Moreover, using the standard multiple regression statistical procedure revealed that vocabulary learning strategies and aural vocabulary size made a significant contribution to predicting viewing comprehension. However, by comparing the Beta coefficient indices, vocabulary learning strategy was considered a better predictor than vocabulary size of viewing comprehension. The findings of the present study could be applicable for the EFL teachers, EFL learners, and materials developers
This paper investigates the influence of gestures on foreign language (FL) vocabulary learning. In this work, we first address the state of the art in the field and then delve into the research conducted in our lab (three experiments already published) in order to finally offer a unified theoretical interpretation of the role of gestures in FL vocabulary learning. In Experiments 1 and 2, we examined the impact of gestures on noun and verb learning. The results revealed that participants exhibited better learning outcomes when FL words were accompanied by congruent gestures compared to those from the no-gesture condition. Conversely, when meaningless or incongruent gestures were presented alongside new FL words, gestures had a detrimental effect on the learning process. Secondly, we addressed the question of whether or not individuals need to physically perform the gestures themselves to observe the effects of gestures on vocabulary learning (Experiment 3). Results indicated that congruent gestures improved FL word recall when learners only observed the instructor’s gestures (“see” group) and when they mimicked them (“do” group). Importantly, the adverse effect associated with incongruent gestures was reduced in the “do” compared to that in the “see” experimental group. These findings suggest that iconic gestures can serve as an effective tool for learning vocabulary in an FL, particularly when the gestures align with the meaning of the words. Furthermore, the active performance of gestures helps counteract the negative effects associated with inconsistencies between gestures and word meanings. Consequently, if a choice must be made, an FL learning strategy in which learners acquire words while making gestures congruent with their meaning would be highly desirable.
Despite the widespread use of internet-based platforms by multilingual English learners (MELs), research on the intersection of listening comprehension and the ability to manipulate technological features is under-studied. This study explores how the use of captions affects MELs’ listening comprehension of easier versus harder questions at three different playback speed levels (0.75, 1, 1.25). It also addresses how overall proficiency, listening subscores (TOEFL), and four background and experiential factors moderate possible effects of captions. The quasiexperimental design involves three cross-sectional experimental and control groups (captions vs. no captions) organized by playback speed levels: Level 1 = slower, Level 2 = default, Level 3 = faster. MANOVA and MANCOVA tests were performed to examine data from 287 MELs who viewed a YouTube TED talk and answered 8 comprehension questions (4 easier, 4 harder). Findings revealed that use of captions had several significant effects on MELs’ responses to both easier and harder questions across all levels, with impact being larger at Level 1 than Level 2 and Level 3. They also suggested that overall English proficiency, listening subscores, and several background and experiential factors moderated some main effects of the experiment on participants’ responses. Implications for additional language education, both for the acquisition and instructed contexts, are discussed.
This study reviewed the empirical research on the role of input enhancement on foreign language vocabulary acquisition published in core journals from 2009 to 2023, from which the current status and future trends of the studies were analyzed. The results manifested that (1) the number of input enhancement research demonstrated a trend of a spiral upward development; (2) the studies used different types of input enhancement as independent variable to explore their effects on the acquisition of target vocabulary; (3) the research materials applied in input enhancement were mostly in the reading mode, while lacked investigation in the listening mode. Therefore, future research could further examine the interactive and comparative effects of input enhancement on vocabulary acquisition as well as enhancing vocabulary in the materials with a variety of modes.
Extramural exposure, through activities such as watching TV, gaming, networking, and online reading, has become an important source of vocabulary acquisition in English as a foreign language, particularly when learners’ first language (L1) has many cognates with English. Our study examined extramural vocabulary acquisition of 10th-grade L1 speakers of noncognate languages over one school year and explored the effects of digital activities and initial lexical knowledge of the participants on their vocabulary gains. Learners reported the amount of digital activity, took a vocabulary pretest, and kept vocabulary diaries where they recorded, on a weekly basis, the new words they encountered. At the end of the study, each student took a personalized test that included all the words recorded in their personal diary. The results indicate that (a) all learners gained some out-of-school word knowledge, (b) students with better initial vocabulary knowledge gained more words, and (c) the initial knowledge contributed to out-of-school learning more than the amount of digital activity.
El presente trabajo se centra en explorar cuál es el grado de especificidad con el que se traducen los verbos de manera de movimiento del inglés al español en el ámbito de los deportes. Para ello se han utilizado dos documentales deportivos de la plataforma Netflix (Home Game y The Playbook) y se han analizado los subtítulos que ofrece la extensión Language Reactor en ambas lenguas. El objetivo es comprobar si es posible utilizar estas herramientas como recurso para el aprendizaje de patrones de lexicalización de movimiento en el proceso de adquisición de segundas lenguas. Se analiza del nivel de inclusión de información sobre la manera empleado por el traductor y los resultados apuntan a que la combinación de Netflix y Language Reactor no resulta un recurso conveniente para el aprendizaje de los patrones de lexicalización del movimiento. Sin embargo, sí supone una fuente de contenido didáctico para crear actividades de foco en la forma, método apropiado para este tipo de contenido gramatical más pormenorizado.
This study was to assess the spoken vocabulary knowledge and its role in incidental vocabulary learning from captioned television. The participants were a total of 87 minority students learning English as a foreign language in Australia. The breadth of their vocabulary knowledge was measured with a vocabulary size test, while the depth of their vocabulary knowledge was through an assessment of collocational and semantic relationships. The results indicated that (1) captioned videos are helpful for incidental vocabulary learning; (2) scores on the breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge and incidental vocabulary learning from viewing captioned television are highly and positively correlated; and (3) scores on the depth of vocabulary knowledge can make a unique contribution to the prediction of incidental vocabulary learning at the form and meaning recognition level, in addition to the prediction afforded by scores on the breadth of vocabulary knowledge. The findings highlight a need to improve the depth of vocabulary knowledge for incidental vocabulary learning from captioned viewing.
Research in the Malaysian context has shown that English as a second language (ESL) students have an insufficient vocabulary for higher education and thus, must be provided with opportunities to acquire new words. Recently, evidence has emerged that viewing audio-visual input is effective for incidental vocabulary learning (IVL). Yet, there is limited understanding of the effectiveness of academic videos for IVL, an accessible, cost and time-efficient resource that is encouraged to be used for promoting personalised and interactive teaching and learning. Therefore, this research investigated the potential vocabulary gains through a 10-min academic video among 56 ESL foundation students in an English-medium university in Malaysia. Before watching the video, IVL was measured using a modified Vocabulary Size Test, followed by a comprehension test and a post-target words test afterward. Results indicated a significant gain of 0.78 words on average after watching the video, where thirty participants made gains of 44 words in total. However, further research is necessary to investigate the role of various learner-related factors on IVL. These findings provide insight for educators on how teaching practices using academic videos may address the low vocabulary knowledge of ESL learners and develop long-lasting L2 proficiency for successful education.KeywordsIncidental vocabulary learningAcademic videosSecond language acquisitionLearner-related factorsInnovative teaching strategies
This exploratory study investigates the effects of imagery on word learning through audio-visual input. A total of 82 adolescent EFL learners were exposed to 8 episodes of a TV series under four conditions, depending on the language of the on-screen text (L1 or L2) and whether they were pre-taught target words or not. The effects of co-occurrence of the word with its image, and the image time on screen (ITOS) were explored, alongside frequency, proficiency, and learning condition variables. Results showed that both image-related variables and frequency predicted word-form learning, while only ITOS predicted word-meaning recall, with a longer exposure to image associated to higher gains, suggesting that, at this age and proficiency level, the images associated with the words can be conducive to learning.
There is a great deal of variation in gains found between studies of second language (L2) incidental vocabulary learning, as well as many factors that affect learning. This meta-analysis investigated the effects of exposure to L2 meaning-focused input on incidental vocabulary learning with an aim to clarify the proportional gains that occur through meaning-focused learning. Twenty-four primary studies were retrieved providing 29 different effect sizes and a total sample size of 2,771 participants (1,517 in experimental groups vs. 1,254 in control groups). Results showed large overall effects for incidental vocabulary learning on first and follow-up posttests. Mean proportions of target words learned ranged from 9-18% on immediate posttests, and 6-17% on delayed posttests. Incidental L2 vocabulary learning gains were similar across reading (17%, 15%), listening (15%, 13%), and reading while listening (13%, 17%) conditions on immediate and delayed posttest. In contrast, the proportion of words learned in viewing conditions on immediate posttests was smaller (7%, 5%). Findings also revealed that the amount of incidental learning varies according to a range of moderator variables including learner characteristics (L2 proficiency, institutional levels), materials (text type and audience), learning activities (spacing, mode of input), and methodological features (approaches to controlling prior word knowledge).
The present study examined the relative effectiveness of bilingual subtitles for L2 viewing comprehension, compared to other subtitling types. Learners’ allocation of attention to the image and subtitles/captions in different viewing conditions, as well as the relationship between attention and comprehension, were also investigated. A total of 112 Chinese learners of English watched an English documentary clip in one of four conditions (bilingual subtitles, captions, L1 subtitles, no subtitles) while their eye movements were recorded. The results revealed that bilingual subtitles were as beneficial as L1 subtitles for comprehension, which both outscored captions and no subtitles. Participants using bilingual subtitles spent significantly more time processing L1 than L2 lines. L1 lines in bilingual subtitles were processed significantly longer than in L1 subtitles, but L2 lines were processed significantly shorter than in captions. No significant relationship was found between the processing time and comprehension for either the L1 or L2 lines of bilingual subtitles.
The scripts of 288 television episodes were analysed to determine the extent to which vocabulary reoccurs in television programs from the same subgenres and unrelated television programs from different genres. Episodes from two programs from each of the following three subgenres of the American drama genre: medical, spy/action, and criminal forensic investigation were compared with different sets of random episodes. The results showed that although there were an equivalent number of running words in each set of episodes, the episodes from programs within the same subgenre contained fewer word families than random programs. The findings also showed that low frequency word families (4000-14,000 levels) reoccur more often in programs within the same subgenre. Together the results indicate that watching programs within the same subgenre may be an effective approach to language learning with television because it reduces the lexical demands of viewing and increases the potential for vocabulary learning. RESUMEN Los guiones de 288 episodios televisivos se analizaron para determinar el alcance de la recursividad del vocabulario en programas de televisión del mismo subgénero y en programas no relacionados de géneros diferentes. Se compararon episodios de tres subgéneros del drama americano: médico, de espías/acción y de investigación forense, con varios grupos de episodios elegidos al azar. Los resultados muestran que, aunque el número de palabras en cada grupo de episodios era equivalente, los episodios del mismo subgénero contienen menos familias de palabras que aquellos elegidos al azar. Los hallazgos mostraron que las familias de baja frecuencia (niveles de 4.000-14.000) se repiten con más frecuencia en los programas del mismo subgénero. En conjunto, los resultados indican que el visionado de programas del mismo subgénero puede ser un método efectivo para aprender el lenguaje por medio de la televisión porque reduce la demanda léxica de la proyección y aumenta el potencial de aprendizaje de vocabulario. PALABRAS CLAVE: Comprensión, Lingüística de corpus, género, aprendizaje incidental, televisión, cobertura del vocabulario, frecuencia léxica.
Nowadays, text corpora play an important role in language research and all fields involving language study, including theoretical and applied linguistics, language technology, translation studies and CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning). Multilingual corpora, especially translated corpora, are not always readily available for Dutch. Much depends on the private initiative of individuals, and the data are often restrictedly available. The DPC-project (Dutch Parallel Corpus), which is carried out within the STEVIN program (Odijk et al. 2004), intends to fill the gap for this type of corpora for Dutch. This paper gives an overview of the DPC project. First, an overview and a discussion is given of the main parallel corpora containing Dutch. Then the DPC project is described, focusing on those aspects that make the DPC different from existing parallel corpora. Finally, the choice of an XML based format is explained.
Audiovisual material enhanced with captions or interlingual subtitles is a particularly powerful pedagogical tool which can help improve the listening comprehension skills of second-language learners. Captioning facilitates language learning by helping students visualize what they hear, especially if the input is not too far beyond their linguistic ability. Subtitling can also increase language comprehension and leads to additional cognitive benefits, such as greater depth of processing. However, learners often need to be trained to develop active viewing strategies for an efficient use of captioned and subtitled material. Multimedia can offer an even wider range of strategies to learners, who can control access to either captions or subtitles.
This article describes the development and validation of a test of vocabulary size and strength. The rst part of the article sets out the theoretical rationale for the test, and describes how the size and strength constructs have been conceptualized and operationalized. The second part of the article focusses on the process of test validation, which involved the testing of the hypotheses implicit in the test design, using both unidimensional and multifaceted Rasch analyses. Possible applications for the test include determining the status of a learner’s vocabulary development as well as screening and placement. A model for administering the test in computer adaptive mode is also proposed. The study has implications both for the design and delivery of this test as well as for theories of vocabulary acquisition.
The DAFLES is an on line electronic dictionary for learners of French as a foreign or second language (http://www.kuleuven.ac.be/dafles). It is designed as a reception and production oriented learner's dictionary. As an electronic dictionary it should considerably facilitate interactivity and user friendliness by improving the access to the data and by a better presentation of them. This should enhance both flexibility and comprehensibility. The data are structured in a MySQL database and visualized by the script language PHP. The interface is fully operational and we are currently working on the description of the data. The dictionary intends to help the learner both with decoding and encoding tasks by providing him with two types of definitions (short and long ones) and by giving information and tools which allow him to quickly identify the different meanings. It also offers a full description of the valency rules of the verbs and it classifies collocations by a simplified set of lexical functions. Synonyms are structured in semantic networks in such a way that the learner can easily explore them. As the different meanings are translated into several other languages, the learner also has access to the data by means of his mother tongue.
One theory of second language acquisition argues that children's competence in a second language is a function of the amount of "comprehensible input" acquirers receive and understand, without formal instruction in reading or grammar. To examine this hypothesis, this study analyzes whether comprehensible input in the form of captioned television might influence bilingual students' acquisition of vocabulary and conceptual knowledge in science. The 129 bilingual seventh and eighth graders in the study were assigned to one of the following groups: (1) captioned television; (2) traditional television without captioning; (3) reading along and listening to text; and (4) textbook only. Students in these groups either viewed or read 3 units from a science series, twice a week for a period of 12 weeks. Pretest checklist vocabulary tests and prior knowledge pretests were administered before the study of each unit; vocabulary measures analyzing a continuum of word knowledge of 90 target words were administered, along with a written retelling activity analyzing recall of science information. An analysis of word-related and video-related factors suggested that contexts providing explicit information yielded higher vocabulary gains. Further analysis indicated that those who were more proficient in English learned more words from context than others. These results suggest that along with the development of instructional strategies sensitive to differing levels of bilingualism, comprehensible input may be a key ingredient in language acquisition and reading development. (JL)
The realization by applied linguists that second language learners cannot achieve high levels of grammatical competence from entirely meaning centered instruction has led them to propose that learners need to focus on form, i.e. to attend to linguistic elements during a communicative activity (Long 1991, De Keyser 1998, Norris and Ortega 2000, Ellis 2001). However, most advocates of Focus on Form (FonF), have also proscribed Focus on Forms (FonFs), the systematic teaching of isolated grammatical items and rules. So far, FonF research has been concerned with grammatical, not lexical, instruction. In this paper, which was originally presented as a plenary session at the 2004 EUROSLA conference, I examine the need for Focus on Form and the proscription of Focus on Forms from the vocabulary learning perspective.
First, I argue that, similarly to grammar, comprehensible input is insufficient for acquiring vocabulary, and consequently Focus on Form is an essential component of instruction. I base my argument on the fallacy of the assumptions which underlie the vocabulary-through-input hypothesis: the noticing assumption, the guessing ability assumption, the guessing-retention link assumption and the cumulative gain assumption. Second, I defend Focus on Forms and argue against the claim that attention to form must be motivated by and carried out within a communicative task environment. The defense is based on the nature of lexical competence, which is perceived as a combination of different aspects of vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary use, speed of lexical access and strategic competence. The two arguments above will be supported by empirical evidence from three types of vocabulary learning studies: (a) the `classic' task embedded FonF, (b) task related FonFs, and (c) `pure' FonFs studies, unrelated to any task.
Two experiments examined the effect of single-modality (sound or text) and bimodal (sound and text) presentation on word learning, as measured by both improvements in spoken word recognition efficiency (long lag repetition priming) and recognition memory. Native and advanced nonnative speakers of English were tested. In Experiment 1 auditory lexical decisions on familiar words were equally primed by prior bimodal and sound-only presentation, whereas there were no priming effects for nonwords. Experiment 2 employed a rhyme judgment task using nonwords. Repetition priming of auditory rhyme judgment decisions was now obtained, and this was greater in the bimodal than the sound-only condition. In both experiments prior bimodal presentation improved recognition memory for spoken words and nonwords compared to single modality presentation. We conclude that simultaneous text presentation can aid novel word learning under certain conditions, as assessed by both explicit and implicit memory tests.
Cambridge Core - ELT Applied Linguistics - Learning Vocabulary in Another Language - by I. S. P. Nation
The term incidental learning is used, in applied linguistics, to refer to the acquisition of a word or expression without the conscious intention to commit the element to memory, such as "picking up" an unknown word from listening to someone or from reading a text.
Now in its third edition, Teaching and Researching Listening renews its commitment to provide language educators, practitioners, and researchers in the fields of ESL, TESOL, and Applied Linguistics with a state-of-the-art treatment of the linguistic, psycholinguistic, and pragmatic processes underpinning oral language use. This revised edition incorporates signifi cantly updated sections on neurological processing, pragmatic processing, automated processing, and pragmatic assessment, as well as coverage of emerging areas of interest in L1 and L2 instruction and research. Boxes throughout such as “Concepts” and “Ideas From Practitioners” help to both reinforce readers understanding of the topics covered and ground them in a practical context. In addition, the updated section “Exploring listening” provides access to a range of tools and technologies to explore new perspectives on listening. Combining detailed overviews of theunderlying processes of listening with an exhaustive set of practical resources, this third edition of Teaching and Researching Listening serves as an authoritative and c omprehensive survey of issues related to teaching and researching oral communication for language teachers, practitioners, and researchers.
This paper takes the papers in this special collection as a starting point and raises issues concerning key terms, with particular emphasis on incidental . It is argued that there is no clear way to show that a word has been learned incidentally, if one means that specific attention is not drawn to that word either by some external force or by the learner. I further argue that, to understand vocabulary learning, linguists cannot limit the investigation to word meaning. Essential to a study of the lexicon is the study of syntax—in particular, the incorporation of syntactic subcategorizations. Taking all of these factors into account, a more nuanced approach to the study of incidental vocabulary learning is needed.
Most research on the acquisition of second language vocabulary has depended on estimates of vocabulary size, or 'breadth' measures, rather than on estimates of 'depth' defined either in terms of kinds of knowledge of specific words or in terms of degrees of such knowledge. Breadth tests provide rough comparative estimates of individuals' overall vocabulary knowledge, useful for such purposes as placement in instructional programs, and for charting group gains for purposes such as program evaluation. However, such measures have a number of limitations, an obvious one being that they do not measure how well given words are known (Read, 1988); thus they are of limited value in studies of the vocabulary acquisition process or in assessment of curriculum-related vocabulary learning. Few procedures and even fewer test instruments have been proposed that attempt to carry out these functions. This article surveys existing second language (L2) vocabulary measures of both kinds and describes in detail a recently developed instrument designed to assess levels of familiarity with given words, the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) (Paribakht & Wesche, 1993a, 1993b).
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Most research on L2 reading comprehension has indicated that 98 per cent lexical coverage provides adequate comprehension
of written text. This figure has been transferred to listening comprehension and has been used to set vocabulary size targets
for L2 learners. This study directly investigates coverage in regard to listening comprehension, to determine whether such
transfer is reasonable. The coverage of four spoken informal narrative passages was manipulated, and participants’ (36 native
and 40 non-native speakers) listening comprehension of factual information was measured. Results showed that most native and
non-native participants could adequately comprehend the spoken texts with only 90 per cent coverage, although the non-natives
showed considerable variation at this level. At 95 per cent coverage, non-native participants also demonstrated relatively
good comprehension, but with much less variation. Based on a 95 per cent coverage figure, language users would need to know
between 2,000 and 3,000 word families for adequate listening comprehension, compared with Nation’s (2006) calculation of 6,000–7,000
families based on a 98 per cent figure.
This study examined the extent to which glossaries may affect the percentage of known words (coverage) in television programs. The transcripts of 51 episodes of 2 television programs (House and Grey's Anatomy) were analyzed using Range (Heatley, Nation, & Coxhead, 2002) to create glossaries consisting of the low-frequency (less frequent than the 3,000 word level) word families that were encountered 10 or more times in each program. The results showed that coverage of the glossaries was 1.31% for Grey's Anatomy and 2.26% for House. This was greater than coverage of the 3,001–4,000 most frequent word families in both programs. The cumulative coverage including the glossaries at the 3,000 word level increased to 96.00% for House and 97.20% for Grey's Anatomy. The findings indicate that glossaries have the potential to improve comprehension of television programs.
This study investigates caption-reading behavior by foreign language (L2) learners and, through eye-tracking methodology, explores the extent to which the relationship between the native and target language affects that behavior. Second-year (4th semester) English-speaking learners of Arabic, Chinese, Russian, and Spanish watched 2 videos differing in content familiarity, each dubbed and captioned in the target language. Results indicated that time spent on captions differed significantly by language: Arabic learners spent more time on captions than learners of Spanish and Russian. A significant interaction between language and content familiarity occurred: Chinese learners spent less time on captions in the unfamiliar content video than the familiar, while others spent comparable times on each. Based on dual-processing and cognitive load theories, we posit that the Chinese learners experienced a split-attention effect when verbal processing was difficult and that, overall, captioning benefits during the 4th semester of language learning are constrained by L2 differences, including differences in script, vocabulary knowledge, concomitant L2 proficiency, and instructional methods. Results are triangulated with qualitative findings from interviews.
Eta squared measures the proportion of the total variance in a dependent variable that is associated with the membership of different groups defined by an independent variable. Partial eta squared is a similar measure in which the effects of other independent variables and interactions are partialled out. The development of these measures is described and their characteristics compared. In the past, the two measures have been confused in the research literature, partly because of a labelling error in the output produced by certain versions of the statistical package SPSS. Nowadays, partial eta squared is overwhelmingly cited as a measure of effect size in the educational research literature. Although there are good reasons for this, the interpretation of both measures needs to be undertaken with care. The paper concludes with a summary of the key characteristics of eta squared and partial eta squared.
This descriptive study investigates incidental language learning by subjects using multimedia as a self-study and mandatory component of an undergraduate module. Language items recalled and reused while subjects were engaged in a meaning-focused task were compared with those contained in two multimedia applications for evidence of incidental learning. The analysis compared the language items of the multimedia input and, in particular, those made salient through tasks or hotspots with learners' output. It showed a high incidence of reuse of those language items made salient and offering interactive opportunities but a very low incidence of reuse of other items in the input. The study may show the potential learning value of the multimedia environment's capacity to encourage `noticing' and `negotiation' with language input and has implications for the design of courseware to be used in self-study mode.
A widespread view of vocabulary learning is that it is advisable to make the shift away from learning words with their translations and to rely on second language (L2) context as soon as possible. Such faith in context learning has not always received experimental support, however, nor is it commonly shared by L2 learners. An experiment in which subjects were tested on their recall of newly learned words was conducted to determine the relative advantages and disadvantages of both context learning and translation learning as a function of learner proficiency. Results reveal a superiority of translation learning in terms of quantity, but an inability on the part of weaker learners to transfer their knowledge into L2 contexts. The possible reasons for this are discussed, and it is suggested that alternative learning strategies that combine the advantages of the two techniques should be explored.
Low frequency words at two different densities in a text were replaced by nonsense words. The subjects were asked to guess the meanings of these words by using context clues. The results were analysed to see what factors affected difficulty of guessing. Words in the low density text (1 unknown word in 25) were easier to guess than words in the high density text (1 word in 10). Verbs were easier to guess than nouns, which were easier than adverbs and adjectives.
The subjects were divided into proficiency levels according to their success at guessing. Groups of learners at high proficiency levels could successfully guess 85% to 100% of the unknown words. The group of learners at the lowest proficiency level tested guessed be tween 30% and 40% of the unknown words.
From the results, it seems that learning the word guessing skill is best done by the class as a whole rather than individually. At first learners should work on verbs and nouns with plenty of understand able context.
Research needs to be done on the effects of repetition on guessing, the types of words that learners need to guess, and the effect of teaching on improvement of the guessing skill.
This study investigated the effects of closed-captioned TV (CCTV) on the listening comprehension of intermediate English as a second language (ESL) students. Thirty students with intermediate levels of ESL proficiency partici- pated in this study. Since vocabulary/phrase acquisition and comprehension are main factors that influence the success/failure of listening comprehen- sion, this research also examined the effects of CCTV on these two subscales. The correlations between the listening comprehension and other factors—starting age of ESL instruction, length of time in the United States, length of ESL instruction, length of time in private language schools, length of time with tutors, and length of time traveling in English speaking coun- tries—were inspected as well. Subjects' perceptions of the effects of CCTV on ESL learning were also covered in the study. The results of the research showed that CCTV helped ESL students' general comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, and listening comprehension. However, all other factors exam- ined in the study, such as age of starting ESL instruction, length of ESL instruction, etc., did not correlate with the listening comprehension test. Closed captioning technology was originally devised for the benefit of the hearing impaired. However, the marketing studies of the National Captioning Institute in 1989 suggest that over half of the decoders are sold to the hearing population, and among the purchasers many are immigrant families. Hofmeister et al. (1) also claim that at least 40 percent of the decoders are purchased for persons other than
In this study, fifteen European learners of English, between high-intermediate and post-proficiency level, watched nine hour-long sessions of BBC general output television programmes with CEEFAX English language subtitles. The aim of the study was to investigate the potential benefits to be gained in terms of language learning from watching sub-titled programmes. The subjects provided detailed feedback on language gained from the programmes, on their reactions to the sub-titles, on strategies used in exploiting the sub-titles, on levels of anxiety, on the comprehensibility of the sound and text, and on the programmes themselves. The subjects also undertook a limited number of language-oriented activities connected with the programmes. Subjects reported that they found the sub-titles useful and beneficial to their language development and that they were able to develop strategies and techniques for using sub-titles flexibly and according to need. The findings suggested that sub-titled programmes may be of limited value for low-level learners, but may provide large amounts of comprehensible input for post-intermediate-level learners. The findings also indicated that sub-titles promote a low affective filter, encourage conscious language learning in 'literate' learners, and, paradoxically, release spare language-processing capacity.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of caption availability on advanced university-level ESL students' comprehension of contrasting, religion-specific video material. Seventy-nine advanced ESL students participated in the study. Fifty-four of these students reported that they were religion-neutral, having very little or no knowledge of Buddhist or Muslim religious rites. Sixteen students self-reported being practicing Muslims, and nine of the students self-reported being practicing Buddhists. The videotaped episodes consisted of two excerpts from a series of public television broadcasts concerning world religions. The first episode (9 min., 25 sec.) presented information about the Muslim religion and the second episode (10 min., 11 sec.) displayed information about Buddhism. The students were enrolled in six different sections of an intensive English course and participated as intact groups. Each group viewed the Muslim episode once with or without captions, and the Buddhist episode once with or without captions. The primary dependent measure consisted of the number of idea units generated by each student in written summaries of the content of each of the two videos. The results revealed that both religious background knowledge and captions contribute substantially to the comprehension of university-level ESL students. Regarding the prior knowledge issue, the Muslim students and the Buddhist students performed at a higher level after viewing videotapes concerning their respective religions. However, the smaller sample of Buddhist students performed somewhat more erratically than the Muslim group. Conversely, the religion-neutral students performed at a higher level after being exposed to captioned versions of the videos concerning either religion.
DVDs have substantially replaced traditional VHS videotapes as the movie medium of the new millennium. In addition to their compactness and availability, there are a variety of special features offered on DVDs, including interactive menus, theatrical trailers, behind-the-scenes commentary, foreign languages, captions and subtitles, and immediate scene access. With these special features, DVD feature films provide a wide array of pedagogical options and represent a rich resource of intrinsically motivating materials for learners. This study is three-fold in nature: the first part is devoted to a discussion of film-viewing approaches; it then provides an assessment on the use of closed-captioned and non-closed-captioned DVD feature films for different levels of learners. Finally, suggestions are provided for choosing appropriate films to promote active viewing and interaction in order to maximize classroom application of DVD feature films.
This article has two goals: to report on the trialling of fourteen 1,000 word-family lists made from the British National Corpus, and to use these lists to see what,vocabulary,size is needed for unassisted,compre- hension,of written and spoken,English. The trialling showed,that the lists were,properly,sequenced,and there were,no glaring omissions,from the lists. If 98% coverage of a text is needed for unassisted comprehension, then a 8,000 to 9,000 word-family vocabulary is needed for comprehension of written text and a vocabulary of 6,000 to 7,000 for spoken text. Résumé : L’article a pour objectif de parler des essais menés sur
The role of conversational interactions in the development of a second language has been central in the recent second language acquisition literature. While a great deal is now known about the way in which nonnative speakers interact with native speakers and other nonnative speakers, little is known about the lasting effects of these interactions on a nonnative's linguistic development. This paper specifically investigates the relationship among input, interaction, and second language production. Through data from native–nonnative speaker interactions in a direction-giving task, we show that both modified input and interaction affect task performance. However, only interaction has an effect on subsequent task performance.
This study explores the question of whether or not learners can consciously attend to both form and meaning when processing input. An experimental procedure is presented in which three levels of learners in four groups were asked to process information under four different conditions: attention to meaning alone; simultaneous attention to meaning and an important lexical item; simultaneous attention to meaning and a grammatical functor; and simultaneous attention to meaning and a verb form. Results suggest that learners, in particular early stage learners, have great difficulty in attending to both form and content. These results raise important questions for current discussions of the role of consciousness in input processing.
This article presents an empirical study that investigates the role of vocabulary knowledge in listening comprehension with 115 advanced Danish learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). The dimensions of depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge (measured by the Vocabulary Levels Test and the Word Associates Test) were found to be significantly correlated with listening comprehension (measured by a listening test from the Cambridge certificate of proficiency in English) and could predict half of the variance in the listening scores. This study thus provides empirical evidence that vocabulary knowledge is an important factor for successful listening comprehension in EFL. Furthermore, the results suggest that a lexical coverage of 98% is needed for coping with the spoken texts that constitute the listening test. This coverage figure is consistent with findings from reading research.
It is widely agreed that much second language vocabulary learning occurs incidentally while
the learner is engaged in extensive reading. After a decade of intensive research, however, the
incidental learning of vocabulary is still not fully understood, and many questions remain
unsettled. Key unresolved issues include the actual mechanism of incidental acquisition, the type
and size of vocabulary needed for accurate guessing, the degree of exposure to a word needed for
successful acquisition, the efficacy of different word-guessing strategies, the value of teaching
explicit guessing strategies, the influence of different kinds of reading texts, the effects of input
modification, and, more generally, the problems with incidental learning. This article briefly
surveys the empirical research that has been done on these issues in recent years.
This paper summarizes the research described in a PhD thesis (Pujola, 2000) which
presents a description of how learners use the help facilities of a web-based multimedia CALL program,
called ImPRESSions, designed to foster second language learners’ reading and listening skills and
language learning strategies. The study investigates the variation of strategy use in a CALL environment:
Twenty two Spanish adult students of English worked with the program in four sessions and their computer
movements were digital-video screen recorded. Together with direct observation and retrospective questions
a detailed picture of learners’ deployment of strategies was drawn. As the emphasis was on the
process rather than the product, the description and analysis of the data focus on the observation of the
language learning strategies learners deployed when using the help facilities provided: Dictionary,
Cultural Notes, Transcript, Subtitles and Play Controls, Feedback and an Experts module specifically designed
to provide the language learner training component of the program. The qualitative analysis of the
data indicates that many variables have an influence on the amount and quality of the use of the help
provided by the program, from the learners’ individual differences to the fact that the CALL
environment may prompt learners to behave or work in a different way from a more conventional type of
learning. The results of the study provide information for future CALL material design and the type of
research offers new possibilities for CALL research methods.
The developments in the last ten years in the form of DVD, streaming video, video on demand, interactive television and digital language laboratories call for an assessment of the research into language teaching and learning making use of these technologies and the learning paradigms underpinning them. This paper surveys research on language teaching and learning using these and older technologies since 1999, and maps out some pointers for future research. The evidence suggests that research on video and language learning using DVD and other recent technologies is already well established, bringing out a number of issues for further study. In contrast, research-led implementation of the enhanced functionality of digital language laboratories is hardly in its infancy and much language laboratory use is marginal at best.
In this study, the scripts of 288 television episodes were analyzed to determine the extent to which vocabulary reoccurs in related and unrelated television programs, and the potential for incidental vocabulary learning through watching one season (approximately 24 episodes) of television programs. The scripts consisted of 1,330,268 running words and had a total running time of 203 hours and 49 minutes with a mean running time of 42 minutes. The vocabulary from a single season of six individual television programs (142 episodes) was compared with six sets of random television programs (146 episodes). The results indicated that, when there are an equivalent number of running words, related television programs are likely to contain fewer word families than unrelated programs. The findings also indicated that word families from the 4,000–14,000 levels were more likely to reoccur in a complete season of a television program than in random television programs. The percentage of low-frequency word families encountered 10 or more times was higher, and the percentage of word families encountered once was fewer in all six programs than in the random television programs.
ABSTRACT As increasing numbers of foreign language programs begin to integrate video materials into their curricula, more attention is being focused on ways and means to optimize the student's comprehension of the language of film and television segments. This article reports on the results of research conducted to evaluate the use of captioning (on-screen target language subtitles) as a pedagogical aid to facilitate the use of authentic video materials in the foreign language classroom, especially in advanced or upper-level courses. Using Russian and ESL as target languages, the data collected strongly support a positive correlation between the presence of captions and increased comprehension of the linguistic content of the video material, suggesting the use of captions to bridge the gap between the learner's competence in reading and listening. The paper includes a detailed description of the research methodology, implementation, data analysis, and conclusions. A discussion of the results and suggestions for further research are also included.
This study investigated vocabulary coverage and the number of encounters of low-frequency vocabulary in television programs. Eighty-eight television programs consisting of 264,384 running words were categorized according to genre. Television shows were classified as either British or American and then put into the following genres: news, drama, situation comedy, older programs, children's programs, and science fiction. The results showed that knowledge of the most frequent 3,000 word families plus proper nouns and marginal words provided 95.45% coverage, and knowledge of the most frequent 7,000 word families plus proper nouns and marginal words provided 98.27% coverage. The vocabulary size necessary to gain 95% coverage of the different genres ranged from 2,000 to 4,000 word families plus proper nouns and marginal words; 5,000 to 9,000 word families plus proper nouns and marginal words to gain 98% coverage. The analysis also indicated that there was great variation in coverage between episodes. The results showed that there were relatively few encounters with low-frequency vocabulary. However, if learners knew the most frequent 3,000 word families and they watched at least an hour of television a day, there is the potential for significant incidental vocabulary learning.
ABSTRACT Listening plays a significant role in the language acquisition process and in communication, and its development as a key second/foreign language skill has gradually become of chief concern to language teachers and scholars. Applying high technology to furthering language learning is becoming commonplace. Most language teachers acknowledge that videos expose students to authentic materials and aid the identification of words and the clarification of unfamiliar cultural concepts. This study compares listening comprehension rates for video texts using a variety of techniques: advance organizers; captions; a combination of both; and none of the foregoing. The subjects of the study were 170 students at Ming-Hsin Institute of Technology, Hsinchu, Taiwan. They viewed four different video segments each attended with one of the four above-listed treatments, and a Latin square design was used to collect data. After each viewing, a set of ten multiple<hoice items was administered to examine comprehension rates. The results showed that more effective comprehension occurred when using the combination of techniques than when using any one singly. Furthermore, they revealed that captions on videos best helped bridge the competence gap between reading and listening and enhanced language learning. The implications of the results for the use of video for listening comprehension are discussed.
IntroductionIncidental and Intentional Learning in the Psychological LiteratureEmpirical Studies on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary LearningMethodological Issues in Incidental and Intentional Vocabulary-Learning StudiesConclusions
The common practice in captioning video programs for foreign language instruction is to transcribe the spoken language verbatim into captions. This practice presents a dense visual channel for foreign language learn-ers. The study presented here tested a keyword captioning method based on the hypothesis that keyword captions present learners with less to read without attenuating their comprehension of the information in the spoken message. The design of the experiment was simple; the use of three differ-ent amounts of text on video were compared: full text, keywords, and no text. The results of the experiment showed that the keyword captions group outperformed the no-text group and that the full text captions group out-performed the keyword captions group; however, a post-hoc analysis re-vealed no significant difference between the means of the full text cap-tions group and the keyword captions group. The positive effect of both keyword and full text captions on comprehension, the basic research hy-pothesis, is confirmed.