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Is the Black Community More Homophobic?: Reflections on the Intersectionality of Race, Class, Gender, Culture and Religiosity of the Perception of Homophobia in the Black Community
Abstract
This article examines the perception of homophobia in the black community. The author offers a context for answering this question that briefly explores the parameters for understanding the black community and the experience of black gays and lesbians within this context. No mention of homophobia as it relates to black people would be complete without addressing the impact of racism, sexism, class, and religious practices within the black community. The author gives a rationale for the prevailing assumption that gay and lesbian intolerance is higher among black people and explores at what cost and to what benefit. Recommendations are given for building a stronger and more cohesive black community.
... Aside from Jenkins et al. (2009), many studies conclude that Blacks maintain more negative attitudes toward homosexuality than do Hispanic or White non-Hispanic people (Bonilla and Porter, 1990;Ernst, Francis, Nevels and Lemeh, 1991;Waldner, Sikka and Baig, 1999;Whitley, Childs and Collins, 2011). Data from the National Black Survey (collected since 1972) indicates that African Americans are more likely than Whites to believe that homosexuality is 'always wrong' (Hill, 2013). In 2008, 72 percent of Blacks agreed with this statement, while only 51 percent of Whites agreed with this statement. ...
... The authors conclude that the only statistically significant factor explaining the negative attitudes of Black men is their religiosity, which was calculated by measuring frequency of church attendance. Douglas (2004) andHill (2013) reiterate the connection between the strong influence of religious practice and religiosity and negative attitudes toward homosexuality in the Black community. ...
... In addition, there is some indication that Blacks tend to have more negative attitudes toward homosexuality than respondents from other racial groups (regardless of gender), but this result is only marginally significant. Considering common rhetoric that the Black community contains a heightened level of homophobia, these findings suggest what Douglas (2004) and Hill (2013) propose-that the level of homophobia in the Black community may well be exaggerated. ...
Although attitudes toward homosexuality have been widely studied over the past thirty years, few studies have scrutinized the interaction effects between gender and race, and gender and religiosity, on attitudes toward homosexuality. We analyze U.S. data from the fifth wave of the World Values Survey, collected in 2006—a nationally representative sample of individuals residing in the United States. Contrary to previous research, we find no significant interaction between gender and race on attitudes toward homosexuality. This finding challenges conventional thinking on essentialized differences regarding racial groups and their attitudes toward homosexuality. The interaction between gender and religiosity, though, suggests that religiosity has a greater effect on women’s attitudes than men’s. Finally, we show that most of the difference in attitudes towards homosexuality between men and women is explained by differences in gender role beliefs.
... Black sexual minority youth, for example, may feel less supported and more disfranchised within their families and community. Despite the rich existence of homoeroticism in Black history and literature (Battle & Bennett, 2007), it is said that sexual minorities are stigmatized within the Black community (Hill, 2013), a legacy of long-standing racism against the Black community and how the community has responded. From slavery to the civil rights movement, religion-based traditions and Christian church affiliation central to the Black community has been a central institutional force on the condemnation of sexual minorities (Constantine-Simms 2001;Ward, 2005). ...
... These findings underscore the compounding effects of pressure and ostracism attributed from heterosexism and racism from a larger society that sexual minority and Black youth have to navigate within their families and community. As a response to enduring racism and systematic oppression, traditional and religious gender and family roles have been historically reinforced as a means of preserving Black cultural identity and unity within Black families and communities, oftentimes leading to stigmatization and condemnation of sexual minorities (Battle & Bennett, 2007;Clarke, 1987;Greene, 1996Greene, , 1998Constantine-Simms 2001;Collins, 2005;Ward, 2005;Hunter, 2010;Moore, 2010Moore, , 2011Hill, 2013;Lee, 2021;Page et al., 2022). There could even be "courtesy stigma" at play, wherein families of color may reject or downplay the child's sexual identity to maintain the family image within the broader community (Dorri et al., 2023). ...
Introduction
It is well-documented that sexual minority youth are at a higher risk of experiencing being thrown away and running away from their parental home, the two main pathways to youth homelessness. These challenges are often related to family rejection and strained child-parent relationships. However, little knowledge exists of how sexual minority status intersect with race/ethnicity in this context.
Methods
The study utilized data from Wave III (2001–2002) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) (1994–2018) with a sample size of 14,181 survey participants to examine the effects of sexual minority status and race/ethnicity on the experience of youth being ordered to move out and running away from one’s parental home.
Results
A series of regression analyses revealed that sexual minority youth were more likely to experience being thrown away and running away from their parental home. Furthermore, the findings showed significant intersectional disparities from sexual minority status and Black race in experiences of being thrown away and running away even after controlling for various sociodemographic, family circumstances, and other risk factors. Black sexual minority youth faced heightened risks of parental home displacement, indicating increased vulnerability within sexual minority youth.
Conclusions
The study provides the first large-scale, nationally representative population-based evidence for the unique risk that Black sexual minority youth are facing with respect to the two pathways to youth homelessness.
Policy Implications
Families with sexual minority youth and youth experiencing homelessness may benefit from racially/ethnically specific and sexuality-specific interventions.
... Because BSMM often face stigma from multiple identities that intersect [15], the theoretical framework of intersectionality, which asserts that identities, institutional barriers, and systems are interrelated, is especially relevant [16,17]. Without considering intersectional approaches of substance use and sexual minorities, it is possible that the experiences of BSMM may be overlooked [11] [3,18,19] [20,21]. Intersectional research brings together the intersecting experiences of BSMM to examine how belonging to multiple stigmatized groups may impact substance use and other health outcomes [11]. ...
... It is also important to consider that participants were recruited from a convenience sample and may not be representative or generalizable to other populations. Moreover, because the eligibility for this sample was limited to young adults aged (18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29), this may inhibit the generalizability of these results. Additionally, it is also important to consider that the data provided in the survey instruments are self-report. ...
Introduction:
Heterosexist stigma, including microaggressions experienced in their own racial/ethnic communities, may partially explain disproportionate levels of substance use involvement among Black sexual minority men (BSMM). A strong sense of ethnic identity may provide BSMM with a protective resource. The purpose of this study was to explore associations between ethnic identity and substance use in BSMM.
Methods:
Data were from Black sexual minority men (n = 390 Mage = 25.28; SD = 2.81) in the PrEP and Substance Use National Survey collected from March 2020 to August 2020 that included self-reported cannabis, cocaine, methamphetamines, inhalants, hallucinogens, prescription drugs misuse, and overall substance use involvement. Using zero-inflated negative binomial regression, we assessed the association between heterosexist microaggressions within BSMM's racial/ethnic communities and substance use involvement, moderated by subjective sense of ethnic identity.
Results:
More than half of participants reported past 3-month substance use. Heterosexist microaggressions were associated with higher relative risk of cannabis use involvement (RR = 1.76; 95% CI 1.13-2.73) and overall substance use involvement (RR = 2.23; 95% CI 1.39-3.56). Stronger ethnic identity buffered the association of heterosexism on substance use involvement (cannabis: RR = 0.82; 95% CI 0.72-0.95; overall: RR = 0.77; 95% CI 0.66-0.89).
Conclusion:
Nurturing ethnic identity development and reducing heterosexist stigma in Black communities may be a culturally responsive, two-pronged approach to reducing substance use involvement among BSMM. BSMM with strong ethnic identity demonstrated resilience to heterosexist stigma. Future research should examine the extent to which ethnic identity may be cultivated as a protective resource against substance use involvement.
... In the same way that the existence of the self-defined Black woman is no threat to the self-defined Black man, the Black lesbian is an emotional threat only to those Black women whose feelings of kinship and love for other Black women are problematic in some way. (49) Yet since the writing of Sister Outsider, there has been an increase in scholarly material that explores identity among Black lesbian and bisexualidentified women 2 (Follins, 2011;Hill, 2013;Patton Davis & Simmons, 2008;Robinson, 2008). ...
... Although these studies of Black LGBT identity underscore the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality, often making the claim that race is a master status for most Black lesbian-identified women, there is a dearth of research examining the everyday interactions and tensions between LGBT Black women and the larger heterosexual Black community. For example, Marjorie J. Hill (2013), in her article "Is the Black Community More Homophobic?: Reflections on the Intersectionality of Race, Class, Gender, Culture and Religiosity of the Perception of Homophobia in the Black Community," argued that although it has been suggested by some black theorists that segments of the White gay community and perhaps non-Black persons in general, may be inclined to perceive homophobia in the Black community as a more virulent strain than that that exists in other communities. Contrary to the prevailing wisdom in America, Black people, and Black men specifically, are not more homophobic. ...
The concept "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" regarding Black LGBT sexuality in Black communities has been an acceptable form of identity management for Black LGBT people. In other words, Black LGBT people are accepted as long as they are not vocal about their sexuality. However, this is changing with the issue of gay marriage, which is creating a space where Black LGBT people are more open about their gender identity/sexuality in heterosexual Black spaces. This new form of openness allows Black LGBT people to 'stay in' their communities, as opposed to coming out. In this article I examine how Black LGBT women in North Philadelphia stay in their communities: being politically active regarding LGBT issues, disengaging from LGBT issues, passing, and educating straight Black people about issues affecting the Black LGBT community. I conclude with implications of staying in and intersectionality among Black heterosexual and LGBT women fighting for social change.
... BSGLM raised in Black families affected by these factors may be particularly at risk for ACEs given that they may also experience neglect and abuse due to homonegativity and racialized gender role strain (E. L. Fields et al., 2015;Hill, 2013). Subgroup analyses in a U.S. national sample of 116,712 people indicated that BSGLM experiences more ACEs than their heterosexual Black male counterparts (Giano et al., 2023). ...
Black same-gender-loving (SGL) men (BSGLM) bear a disproportionate burden of depression. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have been found to predict depression among this group. However, little research has examined the mechanisms that may account for this relationship. This study aimed to examine how stress appraisal explained the association between ACEs and depression. This cross-sectional study leveraged survey data from 169 BSGLM residing in the United States. Utilizing Hayes’ PROCESS Macro (Model 4), we found that five different dimensions of stress appraisal were significant partial mediators of the association between ACEs and depression. Specifically, ACEs predicted lower levels of stress appraisal dimensions consistent with an optimal worldview, which in turn were inversely associated with depressive symptoms. ACEs predicted higher levels of stress appraisal dimensions consistent with a suboptimal worldview, which in turn were positively associated with depressive symptoms. Effects sizes ranged from small to large. Implications of these findings for clinical care and research with BSGLM were discussed.
... Two studies found that White lesbians and gay men felt more guilt about their White privilege than did heterosexuals, but this guilt did not translate into stronger commitments to dismantle White privilege (Dull et al., 2021;Kleiman et al., 2015). Finally, some studies even argue that lesbians might be especially fearful of racial minorities because they thought most people of color were homophobic (Craig & Richeson, 2016;Hill, 2013;Holley et al., 2008). ...
This study addressed the relative liberalism of White lesbians. In doing so, we compared sexuality differences in White women's reactions to sexual, gender, and racial hierarchies. In the end, our analysis of 2,950 women from the American National Election Survey (ANES) suggested three trends. First, lesbians and bisexual women rejected and challenged heteronormativity more than heterosexual women. Second, the relationship between sexual identities and feminist commitments was less consistent. Lesbians and bisexual women perceived higher levels of sexist discrimination than heterosexual women did, but sexual identities did not always predict involvement in feminist social movements. Third, lesbian women generally displayed greater support of antiracist activism than bisexual or heterosexual women. However, this greater lesbian concern over racial biases did not translate in sexual differences in antiracist activism. Implications for these findings were explored, as were suggestions of future research.
... Most Black American male athletes tend to be portrayed in sport culture as heterosexual, while gay male athletes tend to be portrayed as White (Anderson, 2011;Anderson & McCormack, 2010). Athletes who are both Black and gay may choose not to sacrifice their heterosexual masculine privilege and identify only with their racial identity to maintain a socially perceived queer identity (King, 2004) as homophobia, or gay and lesbian intolerance, is reported to be escalated among Black Americans (Hill, 2013). ...
Objective: Collegiate-athletes are vulnerable to mental health disorders, such as anxiety and depression, yet very little is known about what variables might predict the use of on-campus mental health services among them. The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of Andersen’s Behavioral Model (ABM) in predicting the use of on-campus mental health services by student-athletes using data from the Spring 2019 American College Health Association’s National College Health Assessment IIc (ACHA-NCHA IIc). Participants: The sample consisted of college student participants in the Spring 2019 administration of the ACHA-NCHA IIc survey (n= 67,973) with 3,536 students who reported participating in “varsity” level college athletics in the previous 12 months. Methods: The ABM enabled selection of predisposing, enabling, and need predictor variables utilizing the Spring 2019 ACHA-NCHA IIc survey. Analyses were conducted individually and collectively using descriptive statistics, Chi-squares, and logistic regressions to test for differences in use of on-campus mental health services. Results: Use of on-campus mental health services was similar between college student athletes and their non-athlete peers. Results indicate that the Andersen Model is a useful model for framing the relationship between use of on-campus mental health services among college student-athletes and the ABM variables. Need factors were more likely to predict use of mental health counseling services while Enabling variables were the least likely to predict these impacts. Comparisons pointed to heightened risks for the subgroups of Latinx, Native American/Native Hawaiians, males, heterosexuals, those attending public colleges and universities, and first year student-athletes for being the least likely to utilize on-campus mental health services. Conclusions: Findings in this investigation have implications for prevention, practice, and future research and warrant increased attention and targeted outreach to those student-athletes recognized for being most at-risk for not accessing on-campus mental health services. A multifaceted approach that decreases stigma and improves attitudes towards utilizing on campus mental health services could have the most meaningful effect on encouraging service use and bolstering student-athlete mental wellness. Results make the case for adopting an inclusive lens across demographic and organizational culture variables when conceptualizing mental health risk and resilience among student-athletes.
... The literature has documented how internalized homophobia has been consequence for many SMM of color stemming from the lived experience of having multiple intersecting identities. Anticipated discrimination, lack of trust, concealment of sexual identity, and one's gender expression when compounded with multiple intersecting identities (Hill, 2013) can cause serious harm and further perpetuate HIV risk disparities and how SMM view themselves. Some of these negative maladaptive outcomes are caused by internalized homophobia. ...
In the United States, 13 million people identify as sexual and gender minorities. The purposes of this article were to (a) examine the associations among sexual orientation concealment and internalized homophobia with HIV knowledge, health literacy, and transactional sex through sexual identity; and (b) assess whether gender expression moderates those relationships in sexual minority men of color. A multigroup mediation path model examined the association between sexual orientation concealment and internalized homophobia on HIV knowledge, health literacy, and transactional sex through sexual identity by gender expression. Results suggest that, among those with a masculine gender expression, as sexual concealment increased, health literacy decreased. The association between sexual orientation concealment and transactional sex varied by participant's gender expression as did the association between internalized homophobia and HIV knowledge. Multiple intersecting identities, when faced with anticipated discrimination and homophobia, can negatively affect health outcomes and increase HIV risk in sexual minority men of color.
... These experiences, in turn, can increase vulnerability to a range of poor health and mental health outcomes [18,19]. Although homophobic attitudes are present across racial groups [33], scholarship on BSMM has often assumed greater levels of homophobia within Black communities [34][35][36]. More recent research, however, has found that Black communities report comparable or lower rates of homophobia when compared with other US racial groups (e.g., White, Latinx, and Asian populations) [37]. ...
Black sexual minority men (BSMM) in the USA navigate a range of factors that may influence the extent to which they disclose or conceal their sexual identity in various social contexts. To date, few studies have investigated the correlates of sexual identity disclosure or concealment among BSMM across multiple life domains. Guided by a minority stress perspective and intersectionality, we analyzed data from N = 809 BSMM who participated in the Social Justice Sexuality Survey. We conducted ordinary least squares regression to examine the relative weight of perceptions of homophobia, religiosity, LGBT community connectedness, racial identity salience, and sexual identity salience on disclosure of sexual identity in six social-relational contexts: (1) family, (2) friends, (3) neighbors, (4) religious community, (5) work, and (6) online. Findings indicate that BSMM disclosed their sexual identity unevenly across social-relational contexts. Notably, LGBTQ community connectedness and sexual identity importance were consistent predictors of sexual identity disclosure across contexts. In contrast, perceptions of homophobia were not related to sexual identity disclosure, suggesting that other factors may be more salient for BSMM when deciding to disclose their sexual identity. Finally, bisexual men consistently reported lower levels of sexual identity disclosure relative to gay men in all six contexts. Study findings have important implications for future research on sexual identity disclosure with diverse samples of BSMM.
... 41 Perhaps most importantly, the struggles of the flesh surrounding intersectional issues of racism, sexism, social class, and religiosity within the Black communities make it a particularly challenging site for engaging nonheterosexual identities. 42 The erasure of sexuality from Ayo's character fashions a utopic vision of Blackness that relegates queerness to an unwelcome bedfellow, further codifying that sexuality, particularly LGBTQ identities, are incompatible with Blackness. ...
This essay interrogates queer erasure from the film Black Panther. The implications of queer erasure from one of the most recognizable and lucrative franchises in film history are particularly problematic as Black Panther envisions “a Pan-African past, present, and future” where queer bodies are both invisible and unwelcome. By continuing to relegate queer sexualities to spaces of Otherness in superhero films, the film reifies dominant discourses of heteronormativity and patriarchy, producing a paradoxical image of Black (queer) women.
... That is, any improvement in racial minority lives might come at the expense of sexual minority well-being. It is also possible that gays and lesbians might attribute homophobic practices mostly to People of Color (Hill, 2013). For example, a study from Germany found that gay men were more critical of Arab Muslims when they thought Muslims were more homophobic than other religions (Simon & Grabow, 2014). ...
Some recent studies suggest that lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people are generally more racially progressive than heterosexuals. However, the findings of these “political distinctiveness” studies are up for some debate. Other studies find no sexuality gaps in racial attitudes, and these studies overlook the possibility of bisexual people having unique racial perspectives. These distinctiveness studies also ignore the possibility of racial and sexual identities influencing racial attitudes at the same time. In using the American National Election Survey of 2016 as a data source (N = 3,987), this work found limited and conditional support for a sexuality gap in racial attitudes. In most cases, heterosexual people and sexual minorities converge in their racial interpretations, but there are some cases of stark differences between heterosexual individuals and lesbian-gay counterparts. Finally, an analysis of intersecting identities displayed some instances where the impact of a sexual identity varied by a person’s racial background. For example, Black and Latinx bisexual people did not perceive racism or internalize racial stereotypes at especially high levels, but Latinx bisexual individuals were more supportive of Black protests against the police than Black bisexual individuals.
... Heterosexism may be a more critical risk factor for Black MSM than other groups of MSM. Unlike the case with racism, YBMSM face heterosexism both outside of and within the Black community and within their own families (Arnold et al., 2014;Hill, 2013). Within this context, enacted heterosexism is more strongly associated with sexual-risk behavior among Black MSM than it is with sexual-risk behavior among other MSM (Jeffries, Marks, Lauby, Murrill, & Millett, 2013;Peterson & Jones, 2009). ...
Objective: This study examined whether the association between social support and condom self-efficacy would be moderated by (a) internalized heterosexism among and (b) enacted heterosexism experienced by young Black men who have sex with men (YBMSM), who contend with high HIV incidence, heterosexism, and low uptake of preexposure prophylaxis. Method: Participants were 1,210 YBMSM (ages 18–29) who completed measures of social support, internalized and enacted heterosexism, and condom self-efficacy in 2 large cities in the southern United States as part of a community-level HIV-prevention study. Results: A significant 3-way interaction between social support and both hypothesized moderators, internalized and enacted heterosexism, showed that social support was positively associated with condom self-efficacy when both internalized and enacted heterosexism were high (1 SD above the mean; b = .177, 95% confidence interval [CI: .088, .266]). However, social support was not associated with condom self-efficacy when scores were low (1 SD below the mean) on both internalized and enacted heterosexism (b = .024, 95% CI [−.054, .101]), low on internalized and high on enacted heterosexism (b = .058, 95% CI [−.061, .117]), or high on internalized and low on enacted heterosexism (b = .039, 95% CI [−.083, .161]). Conclusions: YBMSM who are high in both internalized and enacted heterosexism may see greater benefits from social support on condom self-efficacy than would YBMSM who grapple with less heterosexism. In addition to promoting social support, interventions should aim to assess and reduce multiple forms of stigma.
... For black LGBTQ people, race matters when choosing distinction or integration, but especially on the way to non-religion. The unique position of black churches as more than a source of worship (Lincoln and Mamiya 1990, Jones and Hill 2002, Barnes 2005) makes it particularly difficult to leave -even when people leave, they are still influenced by the Black Church (Dyson 2003, Hill 2013. Another way race matters is that black LGBTQ people live in black communities instead of 'gay neighborhoods', which are usually white (Moore 2010, Moore 2011a, Dudley 2013, and leaving means breaking ties that alleviate racism (Johnson 2001, Bowleg et al. 2008, Bridges, Selvidge and Matthews 2003. ...
To examine paths to non-religion in the lives of black LGBTQ people, I analyze 10 interviews of black LGBTQ people who were raised Christian. Utilizing an intersectional lens, I conclude that lessons of the Christian home, reinforced in religious school and at church, drew a connection between Christianity, one’s racial and ethnic identity, and heterosexuality in such a way that being LGBTQ was marked un-Christian and foreign, and sometimes associated with whiteness. This further shaped how my participants navigated the urban public sphere, one of the only spheres where they could ‘be LGBTQ’ – some neighborhoods were constructed as Christian, connected to one’s childhood and hostile to LGBTQ people, while others were LGBTQ-friendly, albeit largely white and gentrified. The overall impact of Christianity across multiple spheres influenced which non-religious paths my participants took. One remained with a Christian denomination of her childhood and one remained with a Christian denomination of her mother but not her father. The other eight left Christianity behind, with one choosing a different religion and seven becoming non-religious, holding identities from Unitarian Universalist to atheist. Overall, black LGBTQ people struggle to find acceptance of their LGBTQ identities by people closest to them and acceptance of their racial, ethnic and non-religious identities in largely white and often non-religious LGBTQ spaces. In response, they use different strategies to find community and live coherent lives, whenever possible.
... Yet research also suggests that racial/ethnic minorities may be less likely to support LGBT-friendly policies than others (e.g. Hill, 2013), and that attitudes toward LGBT-related issues may be shaped by the interaction between multiple social categories including gender, race/ ethnicity, religion and age (Ciszek and Gallicano, 2013;Guittar and Pals, 2014). Future research could build upon the current study by analyzing the intersection of gender and other social categories on the likelihood that corporate leaders will champion LGBTfriendly policies. ...
We advance the literature on the demographic factors that shape organizational outcomes by analyzing the impact of the gender composition of firm leadership on the likelihood that a firm will adopt lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT)-friendly policies. Drawing on social role and token theory, we test the relative impact of CEO gender and the gender composition of the board of directors separately and together in order to identify the effects of gender diversity at the top of the organization. We rely on a unique data set that includes corporate policies (gender identity and sexual orientation non-discrimination policies, domestic-partner benefits, and overall corporate equality index scores) as well as the gender of the CEO and board of directors among Fortune 500 firms over a 10-year period. Our findings suggest that firms with gender-diverse boards are more likely than other firms to offer LGBT-friendly policies, whereas findings for firms with women CEOs offer mixed results.
Few empirical studies have examined ways in which anti-Black and heteronormative scripts are reproduced within Black queer communities or how Black queer group members explicitly perceive their own levels of privilege relative to other Black queer group members marginalized on different axes (e.g., cisgender group members compared to Transgender group members). This critical qualitative study utilized semi-structured interviews to explore how 9 Black queer adults (20–29) thought about their intersectional identities within the context of power and privilege. Analyses revealed four main themes including navigating stigma conspicuity, benevolent and hostile heterosexism, intersectional representation as generative, and communal accountability. Authors provide theoretical insights and considerations for social psychological scholarship as well as community activism and organizing around Black queer liberation.
Engagement and perceived community belonging has vast benefits on the well-being of Black queer adults (i.e., identifying as both Black and a sexual or gender minority). However, little is known about the intersectional experiences of Black queer individuals concerning engagement and belonging in marginalized communities. The present study investigated the association of community engagement and sexual orientation disclosure, alongside the moderating roles of identity salience (racial salience and queer salience) and perceived community belonging (racial belonging and queer belonging), with a national sample of 1026 Black queer adults from the Social Justice Sexuality Project. Regression analyses found community engagement was associated with increased sexual orientation disclosure for Black queer adults who reported average-to-high perceived racial community belonging. Prominent levels of racial community engagement were associated with less sexual orientation disclosure for Black queer adults with varying perceived queer community belonging. These findings highlight the necessity of examining the role of perceived community belonging and identity salience with Black queer adults’ sexual orientation disclosure. Research, policy, and practice implications are further discussed.
Experiences of racism and heterosexism in medical settings are social and systemic barriers to 'on-time' receipt of sexual and reproductive health services among women with both racial and sexual minority identities. Medical mistrust based on experiences related to these dual identities is associated with avoidance and delays in care. However, investigators are just beginning to apply an intersectional lens to quantitatively understanding such barriers. The purpose of this study was to examine the independent and interaction effects of racial and heterosexist medical mistrust on timing of sexual/reproductive health care among Black sexual minority women who have sex with women and men. A total of 320 women participated in an online study of factors affecting sexual health in this population. Ordinal logistic regression was used to assess the independent and interaction effects of racial and heterosexist medical mistrust on self-reported time since last sexual/reproductive health visit. Results indicated an interaction between the two types of medical mistrust. Research on Black women who have sex with women and men's experiences of racism and heterosexism in the US healthcare system can lead to the development of the comprehensive training programmes needed to alleviate medical mistrust among women with racial and sexual minority identities.
Sibling Rivalry is a podcast hosted by Bob the Drag Queen and Monet X Change, where the two share their Black queer experiences. Drawing quare studies, this essay closely reads their discourse surrounding being queer and dating interracially. From this, three themes emerged: the imagined realities of interracial queer dating, the stigmatization of interracial dating and media representations of Black love. The two articulate being strongly influenced to have strong Black preferential romantic inclinations in their youth, but race became a more negligent aspect of their romantic relationships after being able to travel and explore the world.
Objective
This study aims to identify types of gender‐identity‐specific social support provided by parents that helps transgender and gender‐expansive (TGE) youth of color thrive.
Background
TGE youth of color benefit from parental social support, though less is known about supportive practices that specifically affirm marginalized gender identities—gender‐identity‐specific social support. Guided by a counter‐storytelling framework that highlights the voices of TGE youth of color, this study investigates how TGE youth of color perceive such support from parents.
Method
Data were collected via semistructured interviews with 18 youth (14–25 years, M age = 20.28) who identified as TGE and as persons of color. Transcripts were analyzed using a modified thematic coding approach to identify themes related to youth perceptions of parental support of their gender identities.
Results
Findings revealed four major themes related to parental provision of gender‐identity‐specific social support: self‐work, support of gender‐atypical behavior during early development, current affirmational and instrumental support, and family cohesion. Participants discussed parental gender‐identity‐specific support as a valued source of strength.
Conclusion
TGE youth well‐being can be enhanced by facilitating parents' provision of gender‐identity‐specific social support.
Implications
Specific insight into sources of resilience and strength for TGE youth of color are offered for researchers and practitioners.
Promoting Black Women's Mental Health celebrates the strengths and complexities of Black women in American life. Many misunderstand and mis-characterize Black women and underappreciate their important contributions to families, communities, and the nation. In this book, a team of Black women mental health practitioners and scholars discuss a range of conditions that impact Black women's self-concepts and mental health. Drawing on a study of Black women across the United States, authors explore the social determinants of Black women's mental health and wellness and Black women's girlhood experiences. The book also explores Black women's stereotypes, their traumas, how they shift in relationships, and images that affect their racial and gender identity development. The book draws on scholarly and popular sources to present Black women's strength and challenges. Authors include commentary, case examples, reflection questions, and resources to improve practitioners' capacities to help Black women clients to recover, heal, and thrive.
In this chapter, we review historical and contemporary stereotypes of Black women in America driven by histories of racism, sexism, and classism. We discuss how these stereotypes impact the mental health of Black women as they navigate these stereotypes, which can cause Black women to feel constrained. We provide recommendations to clinicians for supporting Black women in challenging stereotypes and constructing their own authentic identities. This chapter also discusses ways that clinicians might unconsciously hold common stereotypes about Black women and how unexamined stereotypes can affect the therapeutic alliance. We guide readers to examine their biases toward Black women so that they do not unintentionally affect treatment negatively.
Our society deals with many binaries: male versus female, boy versus girl, black versus white. However, the human experience is complex and does not easily fit into binary categories; instead, it is helpful to view our identities in a continuum and take a dimensional perspective. This article will be divided into three sections to explore care for specific marginalized youth communities that do not neatly fit into defined categories and benefit from a more expansive approach: transgender youth of color, intersex youth, and nonbinary youth. The first section will provide an overview of the concept of intersectionality with a focus on ethnic-racial identity, highlighting the challenges and disparities that transgender and nonbinary youth of color experience, as well as their strengths and resilience. A framework for thinking about intersectionality and ethnic-racial identity will be provided. There will be subsections to highlight specific ethnic-racial groups, including Black, Latinx, and Asian American Pacific
Islander (AAPI) transgender and nonbinary youth, and relevant cultural considerations. Next, this article will explore intersex traits and variations in sex development, including definitions, terminology, and psychosocial implications, such as intersex stigma. Finally, this article will discuss nonbinary gender identities, how gender shows up in social interactions, disparities and barriers to care, and considerations for gender affirmation. In all sections, we highlight the strengths and resilience of these diverse youth and provide practical clinical recommendations for child and adolescent mental health providers.
The impact of anti-Black racism on child and adolescent health is well documented. When stigma related to race is compounded with HIV-related stigma, Black youth living with HIV (YLWH) may be further disenfranchised and systematically oppressed. To better understand the intersectional role of anti-Black racism and HIV-related stigma, this qualitative study explored the experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of Black YLWH who reside in the Deep South, a region particularly affected by racism and the HIV epidemic. Guided by the stigma and HIV disparities model, interview data with Black YLWH were analyzed using an intersectional framework to triangulate the lived experiences of these youth. Findings provide insight into intersectional stigma among Black YLWH. The implications of these findings for future research and inclusive public health programming will be discussed.
The questions explored in this article highlight the insights girls of colour gained through participation in a community-based organization’s core course centreing examinations of power and oppression. Given that the experiences of girls of colour are often essentialized, this study highlights how their varied socio-political realities influence how they utilize curriculum and pedagogy that employs an intersectional lens to make sense of the oppressive ideologies, systems, and structures that impact the material conditions of their lives. The thoughts and perspectives shared by the girls in this study demonstrate how a curriculum that facilitates access to terminology focussed on systems of power and oppression helps them to name, understand, and draw connections to their identities and lived experiences. The girls’ reflections also attest to the transformations and coalitional thinking cultivated through opportunities to engage with the diverse perspectives shared through their individual and collective narratives about their experiences with institutional, interpersonal, and internalized oppression. The knowledge and validation the girls received from their peers and faculty members strengthened their ability to critique and confront social injustice in their daily lives.
Adult attachment, or the ways in which individuals are able to develop and maintain trusting and loving relationships with peers and romantic partners has been demonstrated to influence hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning among young sexual minority men. Theory and some preliminary evidence suggest that differences in the lived experiences of White and Black sexual minority young adults may influence the way in which adult attachment influences the HPA-axis functioning. We sought to further this field of inquiry by examining if race moderates the association between adult attachment insecurity (i.e., avoidance and anxiety) and HPA-axis functioning among young sexual minority men (YSMM). Sixty-three YSMM participated in a 5-day daily diary study in which they completed a baseline survey to assess adult attachment orientation and provided saliva samples 4 times per day over a 5-day period in order to measure cortisol across the day. Three-level hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine the association between adult attachment, the cortisol awakening response (CAR), diurnal cortisol, and the moderating effect of race. We found no main effect of attachment anxiety or avoidance on HPA-axis functioning. However, we found that race moderated the association between adult attachment avoidance and the CAR such that Black YSMM with higher attachment avoidance had a lower CAR as compared to White YSMM. Results suggest that there may be key differences between White and Black YSMM men’s lived experiences that should be explored in future research.
This introductory article situates the papers in our special issue within the broader framework of the contradictory yet important concept of the Black Mecca. Broadly defined, a city or place considered a Black Mecca is characterized as one with a dominant Black constituency that is influential in the local social, cultural, economic, and political realms. Some of these spaces are economically poor but remain epicenters of cultural innovation. Others are stereotyped as bastions of gang violence but also represent centers of racial equality revolutions. Others are still recognized as centers of Black economic success. Many times, all these labels are used simultaneously for the same geography. As far back as the mid-19th century, centers for Black commerce and innovation have been established and recognized by Black and white people alike. The overall objective of this issue is to gain a more comprehensive understanding of what Black Meccas are, have been in the past, and what their future may hold with particular attention paid to Black Meccas of southern states.
Sexual minorities of color often speak about racism in White lesbian and gay communities while White sexual minorities often consider themselves liberals, especially for issues of racial justice. This study explored this contradiction by analyzing the role of sexual identities in predicting antiracist thoughts and actions of self-identified White people. Data from the 2010-2012 American National Election Survey provided information on the racial consciousness and social movement participation of White people (N = 2,552). In the end, sexuality differences in racial attitudes was somewhat or partially confirmed as White lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals endorsed fewer racial stereotypes and saw more racism than did White heterosexuals. However, these liberal sentiments of White lesbians, gays, and bisexuals were connected more to thoughts more than to political actions. Implications for methodological choices for studying race and sexuality were included, along with ideas for better understanding activism across racial lines.
In a comparison of attitudes concerning same-sex relationships and inclusive policies for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) persons, African Americans are more likely to possess stronger opposition than Whites. The default agent in explaining disapproving attitudes is the Black Church. However, observations from 2017 expert interviews, part of a study on causes of Black homophobia, revealed that varying experts do not affirm the Black Church as the primary actor in sustaining these attitudes. Based on this observation, this study theorizes that attitudes considered homophobic are primarily sustained by actors distinct and separate from the Black Church. This study employs a modified grounded theory to explore themes toward the creation of an expert-driven narrative that disapproval of same-sex relationships and opposition to LGBTI policies are attitudes sustained by Black gatekeepers, as they see same-sex relationships and policy as oppositional to the Black identity and Black sociopolitical progress.
Few studies have compared clients’ perceptions of substance use disorder (SUD) treatment by sexual orientation in programs with mostly nonwhite populations. In eight such SUD programs, treatment satisfaction, therapeutic alliance with counselors, social affiliation with other clients, and treatment connection between 58 self-identified LGB clients, 72 self-identified heterosexual clients with histories of same-gender sexual experiences (Hetero-SGSE), and 503 self-identified heterosexual clients without histories of same-gender sexual experiences (Heterosexual) were compared. Gay/bisexual men reported less social affiliation than Heterosexual men, with low rates of sexual orientation disclosure in treatment. Hetero-SGSE respondents reported less treatment connection than LGB and Heterosexual participants.
Objectives: Members of historically marginalized racial and ethnic groups are more likely to experience racial and ethnic microaggressions (REMs), as well as to endorse greater mental health stigma. The present study examined whether the experience of REMs partially explains a greater likelihood of endorsing mental health stigma among members of marginalized groups. Method: 494 undergraduate students and MTurk workers completed a survey including measures of the experience of REMs, mental health symptoms, and mental health stigma (including mental illness microaggressions [MIMs]). Analyses examined the association between the experience of REMS and mental health stigma, and whether REMS mediated the relationship between race/ethnicity and mental health stigma. Results: Black/African-American participants endorsed experiencing significantly more REMs than participants from other racial/ethnic groups, while both Latinx and Black/African-American participants endorsed a greater willingness to engage in MIMs. REMs significantly predicted intent to perpetrate MIMs; however, mediational analyses did not support that REMs mediated the relationship between race/ethnicity and MIMs. Discussion: Findings suggest that the experience of REMs may predispose individuals to “pass along” discrimination that they have experienced to persons diagnosed with mental illness, but this relationship does not explain why members of racial and ethnic minorities may express more mental health stigma.
In this paper, the recipient of the 2020 John Fryer Award from the American Psychiatric Association, Dr. Billy E. Jones, and his co-author Dr. Alfonso Ferguson tell the story of Black gay men from the time of pre-colonial Africa to the present day. Billy E. Jones, M.D., M.S., is a senior psychiatrist who has served as President/CEO, NYC Health and Hospitals Corporation, and as Commissioner, NYC Department of Mental Health, Mental Retardation and Alcoholism Services. Previously, he was Medical Director, Lincoln Hospital, and Senior Associate Dean and Professor of Psychiatry, NYMC. Dr. Jones is the author/editor of numerous publications on African American mental health and LGBTQ issues Including the recently published, “BLACK MENTAL HEALTH, Patients, Providers, and Systems.” The John E Fryer, MD Award honors an individual whose work has contributed to the mental health of sexual and gender minorities. It was named for John Fryer, the psychiatrist who appeared as “Dr. H. Anonymous” at the 1972 APA meeting and helped move forward the process of removing the diagnosis of homosexuality from the DSM. The Award was funded by members of AGLP: The Association of LGBTQ Psychiatrists, a matching grant from the Gill Foundation, and a bequest from AGLP founding member Frank Rundle, MD. The Fryer Award is given at the APA Annual Meeting, and includes an honorarium and a lecture at the APA meeting.
Although support for the legalization of same-sex marriage was widely shared among the LGB community, the reasons for that support among LGB individuals from different socio-demographic backgrounds are poorly understood. To fill this gap, I investigate the relationship between race and perceptions of same-sex marriage legalization among LGB racial minorities. Drawing from the 2010 Social Justice Sexuality survey, two major findings emerge: First, respondents’ perception of homophobia in their respective racial communities is the most significant predictor of their perceived impact of same-sex marriage legalization. Second, characteristics explaining LGB racial minorities’ perceptions of same-sex marriage legalization are racially distinctive. Results are interpreted through a lens of the “politics of respectability” contributing to our understanding of intersectional stigmas and the social construction of race.
The aim of Study 1 was to determine whether preferences for psychotherapy theoretical orientations (PTOs) differ between LGB and heterosexual persons. Eighty-four LGB and 87 heterosexual participants read descriptions of three traditional PTOs (i.e., cognitive behavioral [CBT], humanistic [HT], and psychodynamic [PT]), then chose their most preferred PTO. PTO preferences did not differ between LGB and heterosexual participants. The aim of Study 2 was to determine whether LGB persons prefer an LGB affirmative PTO (LGB-AT) to traditional PTOs. Eighty-two LGB participants read descriptions, then chose their preferred PTO among CBT, HT, PT, and LGB-AT. They preferred CBT to LGB-AT.
The current study uses large datasets from the Project Implicit website to better understand the role of belonging to multiple stigmatized groups on ingroup attitudes. Participants from stigmatized groups completed explicit and implicit measures of attitudes in three domains – race, sexuality, and disability. Our investigation focused on whether occupying multiple stigmatized identities (compared to a single stigmatized identity) is associated with the magnitude of ingroup preferences on a single dimension. The results showed that: (1) there is considerable variation in the strength of ingroup favoritism across members of stigmatized groups, (2) Black people (particularly Black men) showed the weakest levels of ingroup preference, and (3) White women in particular showed the greatest degree of ingroup preferences.
This chapter gives an account of the context for the development of the student cohort’s culture in relation to heteronormativity. It explores how the student experience of the wider institution, and its heteronormativity, only comes to the fore through particular incidents and exchanges. An account will be given of instances where students experienced feelings of uncomfortableness echoing Orne’s (Sociological Quarterly, 54(2), 229–253, 2013) typology of middle reactions between acceptance and hostility. Students had learned that they had to ‘perform’ acceptance and challenge heteronormativity in more regulated spaces. Less regulated spaces such as toilets were places of heterosexual retreat. Some women feeling these spaces were legitimate places of retreat from a masculine hegemony, juxtaposed with transgender people’s experiences of these women’s spaces where they were not always accepted as women.
Over recent decades, British attitudes towards same-sex relationships have become more accepting. However, results from the National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles show that, in 2010, around a fifth of 16–59-year-olds still viewed sex between two men or two women as ‘always wrong’. Using data from each edition of this survey (1990, 2000, 2010), we investigated which individuals are more likely to regard same-sex relationships as wrong and how this has changed over time. Using various measures of individual characteristics, the results showed sex, religiosity, ethnicity, education and whether someone has ever experienced same-sex attraction were most strongly associated with homonegative attitudes. We show that religiosity and ethnicity became more strongly associated with homonegativity between 1990 and 2010, with religiosity replacing education as the characteristic most associated with homonegativity by 2010; explanations for these changes are offered. Further results show that attitudes towards one night stands are also associated with attitudes towards same-sex relationships. This suggests that falling rates of homonegativity might (in part) be explained by a general liberalization in attitudes towards non-traditional sexual relationships.
This book examines the increasing marginalization of and response by people living in urban areas throughout the Western Hemisphere, and both the local and global implications of continued colonial racial hierarchies and the often-dire consequences they have for people perceived as different. However, in the aftermath of recent U.S. elections, whiteness also seems to embody strictures on religion, ethnicity, country of origin, and almost any other personal characteristic deemed suspect at the moment. For that reason, gender, race, and even class, collectively, may not be sufficient units of analysis to study the marginalizing mechanisms of the urban center. The authors interrogate the social and institutional structures that facilitate the disenfranchisement or downward trajectory of groups, and their potential or subsequent lack of access to mainstream rewards. The book also seeks to highlight examples where marginalized groups have found ways to assert their equality. No recent texts have attempted to connect the mechanisms of marginality across geographical and political boundaries within the Western Hemisphere.
Drawing from multiple disciplines such as anthropology, cultural studies, music studies, and women’s studies, this chapter explores the history and conditions of black transgender people living in the United States and will slightly compare the homophobia and/or transphobia they face with those confronting their counterparts in Jamaica. Examples used in this chapter will also come from a few music lyrics expressing the kind of abuse to which black transgender and homosexual individuals are exposed in these two nations. In addition, the chapter draws attention to the importance of the narratives of black transgender people which, like those of Shontae and RuPaul, reflect the harsh experiences these individuals must overcome in their lives. Racism is a major factor in these experiences since black transgender people in the United States especially face multiple challenges stemming not only from their skin color but also from their gender and sexuality.
Recent scholars have underscored how the experiences of LGBT people of color cannot be fully understood by considering only the independent contributions of race and sexual orientation. Framed by an intersectional lens, the current study seeks to address this gap in understanding by considering the role of nativity on the health and wellbeing of Black sexual minority adults; we also examined the moderating effects of family support and racial community climate on this relationship. Using national data from the Social Justice Sexuality Project (N = 2,166), we discovered that foreign-born Black LGBT adults had similar levels of psychological wellbeing and physical health as their native counterparts; family support and racial community climate did not moderate this relationship. Our findings did, however, substantiate the importance of family and community support for all Black LGBT adults, regardless of immigration status. Implications of this finding, in addition to directions for future intersectional work on racial minority LGBT people, are discussed.
The following is a review of the text Shoptalk: Lessons in Teaching from an African American Hair Salon, by Majors (2017). In this text, the author asserts that adopting “shoptalk”, a culture specific form of community discourse found in African American hair salons/barbershops, as a pedagogical practice, can sustain cultural pluralism of marginalized students in public education. This text is especially valuable to education research and practice in that it is one of the few, if not the only, text available on the market that attempts to provide a specific example for the implementation of culturally relevant pedagogy.
The 2015 SCOTUS ruling legalizing same-sex marriage was hailed as a universal victory for the lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) community, but the pervasive support mobilized to achieve this goal may mask important dissension and inequality within the community. Specifically, how race may shape or perpetuate inequalities in the LGB community through same-sex marriage has largely been absent from the discussion. Focusing on the perceived impact of same-sex marriage in respondents’ lives, I investigate the relationship between black LGBs’ perception of same-sex marriage legalization and their intersectional identities and community membership. Drawing from the 2010 Social Justice Sexuality Project survey, I explain the complexity of the attitudes of black LGBs to the legalization of same-sex marriage and illustrate that 1) black LGBs exhibit heterogeneous interpretation of the effects of same-sex marriage legalization on their lives based on their racial and sexual identities, and 2) same-sex marriage may provide black LGBs the rationale to affirm their racial community membership as sexual minorities. This study pushes our understanding of the relationship between intersectional identities and individuals’ perceptions of the self, identity-based community memberships, and social institutions.
Few studies exist that highlight the life experiences of the older LGBTQ person of color. This cohort faces unique challenges in life that have not been explored or investigated extensively, if at all. Older LGBTQ people of color have experienced discrimination based on race, gender and sexuality in all phases of their lives, often bearing witness to and helping to start various equal rights and social justice movements. In addition to the unique challenges that come with being a multiple minority – an LGBTQ person of color – they also have to deal with the stressors that come with normal aging. Some of the unique challenges that are faced by the older LGBTQ person of color include homophobia, racism, acculturation, the phenomenon of “going back into the closet”, poverty, housing discrimination, homelessness, and loss of sexuality and ageism, just to name a few. In this article, by getting a glimpse of these unique challenges, we give this vulnerable and marginalized group of people the much-needed attention warranted. With more research on this population, we can develop better interventions to decrease the negative mental health outcomes associated with these unique challenges. This is also a complex cohort with some studies showing positive findings of resilience and the positive influence of spirituality and religion on the mental health outcomes of older LGBTQ people of color. A general sense of advocacy is needed in the realm of healthcare, social services, legal services, and public policy in helping to shed light on the needs of this population. Furthermore, a greater sense of urgency is needed to better elucidate the experiences and challenges faced by older LGBTQ people of color in order to better care for this currently marginalized and suffering group.
In academia the traditional literature review (TLR) is used to provide a summary look at what has been 'done before'. However, critics poiint to the potential for biased representation of topics when TLR are used. A large systematic review methods (SR) literature offers evidence that the shortcomings of TLR might be minimized. Moreover, SR methods themselves are evolving; “rapid reviews” and “scoping” are a new approaches for picturing the literature on topics. We report on our use of these methods to map the social science literature on the broad topic of “intolerance in religion”, and we discuss our experience to date with the rapid review and scoping methodologies. The literature of SR methods does seem a valuable resource for guidance that can serve librarians and researchers as they work on reviews addressing topics in religion.
The experiences of black lesbians highlight the unique circumstance found at the intersection of sexuality, race, and gender. However, most sexuality research tends to focus on white lesbians and white gay men, while most race research tends to focus on black heterosexuals. Furthermore, research on the black gay community tends to focus on those living in the Northeast or West coast, neglecting experiences of those living in the more politically, socially, and religiously conservative South. This article draws on data obtained from semi-structured interviews with twelve black lesbians living in North-Central Florida, exploring their perspectives as they negotiate a social world of intersecting oppressions. Participants especially highlight how they contextualized their sexuality in racialized terms and negotiated it in racially-defined communities.
There is little available literature on gay and lesbian identity among Black Americans. This exploratory study involved interviewing a total of six Black‐American gay men and lesbian women regarding gay identity development issues. Data pertaining to the interviewees' experiences of gay identity development were obtained through a questionnaire of six open‐ended questions and an interview with each participant lasting 1 to 2 hours. This article presents some of the significant challenges faced by those who were interviewed regarding their sense of self‐acceptance, both as Blacks in the predominantly White gay and lesbian community and as gay men and lesbian women in the predominantly heterosexual Black community. The implications of these issues for future research and counseling intervention are discussed. In this article the term gay identity is generally used in reference to both men and women. When women are being discussed exclusively, however, the term lesbian identity is used.
discuss the intrapsychic conflicts of African American lesbians, gay men, or bisexual individuals / address what it is like to be a lesbian, gay man, or bisexual in the African American community, in White America, and in the gay, lesbian, and bisexual community / explore the kinds of supports available to this minority within 2 minorities and the special issues affecting the treatment process
psychological issues [stereotypes, identity development, racism and homophobia, the impact of sexism] / bisexuality / the African American community and homosexuality [attitudes toward homosexuality, "denial" of homosexuality, changing attitudes] / the homosexual community and African Americans [a minority within a minority] / therapy [seeking psychotherapy, psychotherapy issues] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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