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Beyond Child Protection: Afro-Caribbean Service Users of Child Welfare

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Abstract

The literature on the overrepresentation of Black children in the child welfare system is well established, yet little is known about the experiences of Afro-Caribbean families as service users. This article draws on qualitative data from in-depth interviews with Afro-Caribbean mothers and youths to understand how they perceive and experience the child welfare system. The analyses were informed by the theoretical frameworks of critical race theory and critical race feminism. Findings indicate that Afro-Caribbean service users are caught in a complex institutional web of racism, classism, and sexism, which marginalizes and criminalizes them.

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... There is a growing realization that in part, issues of disproportionality and disparity for Black families in state sanctioned systems are symptoms of entrenched anti-Black roots within the specific history and cultural context of Canada's relationship to Black communities (Clarke, 2011;Cole, 2020;Maynard, 2017;Mohamud et al., 2021; One Vision One Voice [OVOV], 2016;Phillips & Pon, 2018). Community-based researchers and advocates also highlight how experiences of Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario are characterized by anti-Black racism (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012Edwards et al., 2022;Gosine & Pon, 2011;Hasford, 2015;Mohamud et al., 2021). Some academics assert that the disproportionate involvement of Black young people 1 in the child protection system is intrinsically connected to a history of racism (Akuoku-Barfi et al., 2021;Edwards et al., 2023;Gosine & Pon, 2011;Mohamud et al., 2021;Thobani, 2007) and that the child welfare system has participated in its perpetuation (African Canadian Legal Clinic, 2012). ...
... From a research perspective, there has been a limited exploration of how written policies define the child welfare system and directly inform the delivery of child welfare service. However, scholars have voiced concerns that the language of policy and practice standards contributes to disparities for Black families in Ontario's child welfare system (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012. Parada (2004) conducted an institutional ethnography to investigate the effects of the Ontario government's child welfare reform strategy on child welfare practice. ...
... For example, Black mothers and youth voiced that throughout their time in child welfare most of the families who became involved with the system were "low income, single parent, unemployed, and living in housing projects" (Clarke, 2012, p. 234). In Clarke's (2012) study, child welfare workers also shared that a structural analysis was absent from their role. Meaning that even though workers were aware of the numerous barriers in securing housing, employment, and childcare which make Black families more susceptible to child welfare intervention, it was not a consideration in their assessment and decision-making practices. ...
Preprint
p>Background: The research pertaining to racial disparities for Black families in child welfare is relatively limited in Canada. Recent research reveals that the overrepresentation of Black families in Canadian child welfare systems typically begins at the reporting or investigation stage and continues throughout the child welfare service and decision-making continuum. This research is occurring against the backdrop of increasing public acknowledgement of Canada’s historic anti-Black policy-making and institutional relationships to Black communities. Though there is increased awareness about anti-Black racism, there has been limited exploration of the connection between anti-Black racism in child welfare legislation and how this policy generates disparities for Black families in both child welfare involvement and outcomes – this paper seeks to fill this gap in knowledge. Objective: The objective of this paper is to explore the entrenchment of anti-Black racism within the child welfare system by critically assessing the language and absence of language within the guiding legislative and implementation policies. Methods: Utilizing a critical race discourse analysis method, this study explores the entrenchment of anti-Black racism within the Ontario child welfare system by critically assessing the language and absence of language within the guiding legislative policies that shape practice for Black children, youth, and families. Results: The findings revealed that though the legislation does not explicitly address anti-Black racism, there were instances where the legislation indicated that race and culture may be considered in responding to children and families. The lack of specificity, particularly in the Duty to Report, has the potential to contribute to disparate reporting and decision-making for Black families. Conclusions: Policy makers should acknowledge the history of anti-Black racism that informed the development of the legislation in Ontario and move towards tackling systemic injustices that disproportionately affect Black families. More explicit language will shape future policies and practices to ensure that the impact of anti-Black racism is considered across the child welfare continuum. </p
... In addition to these quantitative findings, scholars have also described how Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario experience their involvement with other workers and within agencies (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. For example, Clarke (2012) qualitative study found that Afro-Caribbean service users, specifically mothers and youth, identified the cumulative and intersectional impact of race, gender, and poverty as contributing to child welfare involvement. ...
... In addition to these quantitative findings, scholars have also described how Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario experience their involvement with other workers and within agencies (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. For example, Clarke (2012) qualitative study found that Afro-Caribbean service users, specifically mothers and youth, identified the cumulative and intersectional impact of race, gender, and poverty as contributing to child welfare involvement. Mothers also articulated difficulties meeting the often inappropriate expectations of child welfare workers, including being required to attend parenting classes and other therapeutic services that did not address their fundamental material and social concerns, such as housing and child care. ...
... White supremacy operates most effectively when it cloaks itself in neutrality and objectivity, and instead focusing on individual or family-level deficiencies of the subjects of anti-Black and other forms of racism (Bonilla-Silva, 2006;DePouw & Matias, 2016). Studies with Black caregivers in Canada who are contending with these dynamics as they negotiate either the threat of or actual involvement in the child welfare system speak to the ways in which these values are imposed on family life and the persistent spectre of disavowed anti-Blackness that permeates their interactions with child welfare workers (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Alaazi et al., 2018;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Phillips & Pon, 2018). ...
Preprint
p>Racial disparities in child welfare involvement between Black and White children have been well-documented in the United States, but research in this area is relatively underexplored in Canada. Emerging evidence from Canadian studies indicates that Black families are far more likely to be reported for maltreatment concerns, and that these initial disparities persist as families move deeper into the system. Scholars have begun to identify the factors associated with those disparities in Canada, but there is a need for understanding the larger structural and historical context that shapes the opportunities and constraints for Black families living in Ontario. This analysis will situate child welfare in a nexus of anti-Black policy and structure with respect to immigration restrictions, income disparities, residential segregation, and the functioning of linked institutions such as the mental health, education, and legal systems. The cumulative burden of navigating and contending with these larger systemic forces leave Black families vulnerable to a relatively low threshold for reporting maltreatment concerns and risk of harm to Ontario child welfare agencies. This paper documents the alignment between the circumstances created by anti-Black racism at institutional, provincial, and federal levels and the seemingly race-neutral eligibility criteria embedded within Ontario child welfare, which results in disproportionate reporting of Black families. </p
... There is a growing realization that in part, issues of disproportionality and disparity for Black families in state sanctioned systems are symptoms of entrenched anti-Black roots within the specific history and cultural context of Canada's relationship to Black communities (Clarke, 2011;Cole, 2020;Maynard, 2017;Mohamud et al., 2021; One Vision One Voice [OVOV], 2016;Phillips & Pon, 2018). Community-based researchers and advocates also highlight how experiences of Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario are characterized by anti-Black racism (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012Edwards et al., 2022;Gosine & Pon, 2011;Hasford, 2015;Mohamud et al., 2021). Some academics assert that the disproportionate involvement of Black young people 1 in the child protection system is intrinsically connected to a history of racism (Akuoku-Barfi et al., 2021;Edwards et al., 2023;Gosine & Pon, 2011;Mohamud et al., 2021;Thobani, 2007) and that the child welfare system has participated in its perpetuation (African Canadian Legal Clinic, 2012). ...
... From a research perspective, there has been a limited exploration of how written policies define the child welfare system and directly inform the delivery of child welfare service. However, scholars have voiced concerns that the language of policy and practice standards contributes to disparities for Black families in Ontario's child welfare system (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012. Parada (2004) conducted an institutional ethnography to investigate the effects of the Ontario government's child welfare reform strategy on child welfare practice. ...
... For example, Black mothers and youth voiced that throughout their time in child welfare most of the families who became involved with the system were "low income, single parent, unemployed, and living in housing projects" (Clarke, 2012, p. 234). In Clarke's (2012) study, child welfare workers also shared that a structural analysis was absent from their role. Meaning that even though workers were aware of the numerous barriers in securing housing, employment, and childcare which make Black families more susceptible to child welfare intervention, it was not a consideration in their assessment and decision-making practices. ...
Article
Background The research pertaining to racial disparities for Black families in child welfare is relatively limited in Canada. Recent research reveals that the overrepresentation of Black families in Canadian child welfare systems typically begins at the reporting or investigation stage and continues throughout the child welfare service and decision-making continuum. This research is occurring against the backdrop of increasing public acknowledgement of Canada's historic anti-Black policy-making and institutional relationships to Black communities. Though there is increased awareness about anti-Black racism, there has been limited exploration of the connection between anti-Black racism in child welfare legislation and how this policy generates disparities for Black families in both child welfare involvement and outcomes – this paper seeks to fill this gap in knowledge. Objective The objective of this paper is to explore the entrenchment of anti-Black racism within the child welfare system by critically assessing the language and absence of language within the guiding legislative and implementation policies. Methods Utilizing a critical race discourse analysis method, this study explores the entrenchment of anti-Black racism within the Ontario child welfare system by critically assessing the language and absence of language within the guiding legislative policies that shape practice for Black children, youth, and families. Results The findings revealed that though the legislation does not explicitly address anti-Black racism, there were instances where the legislation indicated that race and culture may be considered in responding to children and families. The lack of specificity, particularly in the Duty to Report, has the potential to contribute to disparate reporting and decision-making for Black families. Conclusions Policy makers should acknowledge the history of anti-Black racism that informed the development of the legislation in Ontario and move towards tackling systemic injustices that disproportionately affect Black families. More explicit language will shape future policies and practices to ensure that the impact of anti-Black racism is considered across the child welfare continuum.
... This critique is echoed in the United States context, where prospective Black foster caregivers are reportedly screened out during selection processes at disproportionate rates (Evans, 2011). Perceptions of anti-Black racism in child welfare in Canada, based on experiences of racist interactions with child protection workers (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Clarke, 2012;OACAS, 2016), and racism in parenting standards (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Williams, 2004), may also work to dissuade Black caregivers from engaging with CAS in Ontario. ...
... Anti-Black racism is used to describe the unique and specific nature of racial discrimination perpetrated against Black communities (Benjamin, 2003). In the Canadian context, anti-Black racism is inextricably linked to Canada's establishment as a White settler nation-state through means of slavery, colonization, dispossession, immigration, segregation, and othering (Benjamin, 2003;Clarke, 2012;Cole, 2020;Maynard, 2017;Walcott, 2019;Walcott & Abdillahi, 2019). Scholars have called attention to Canada's practice of convenient "ahistoricism" (Clarke, 2012, p. 229) regarding its legacy of injustices against Black people and how the realities of Black Canadians in particular "have been distorted and repressed" over time (Henry, 1993, p. 212). ...
... Anti-Black racism in Canada can be seen in the denial of slavery and its economic, social, and psychological impact on subsequent generations; enduring schemes constraining Black people's access to the labour market, healthcare, and education; the hyper-surveillance, criminalization, pathologizing, and policing of Black communities; the minimalizing of Black Canadian heritage; the demonization of Black expressions of resistance; and the failure to acknowledge and celebrate the resiliency of Black Canadians (Benjamin, 2003;Clarke, 2012;Cole, 2020;Maynard, 2017;Walcott, 2019;Walcott & Abdillahi, 2019;Walker, 1985). Scholars advocate differentiating anti-Black racism from other forms of racism in Canada and identifying and addressing issues specific to anti-Black racism as a "form of resistance to White, capitalist hegemony and domination" (Benjamin, 2003, p. 79). ...
Preprint
p>This article reports on narrative interviews conducted as part of the Rights for Children and Youth Partnership Project exploring the experiences of 25 Black Caribbean youth (ages 16-26) who have navigated the child protection system in Ontario, Canada. An introduction to transracial fostering in Ontario is provided, and participants’ reflections on the significance of caregiver’s race in their experiences of out-of-home care are presented. Critical Race Theory and AntiBlack Racism are used as theoretical frameworks to guide the discussion. Themes discussed include adapting to White environments and community visibility; appropriate haircare, skincare, and food in placements; navigating whiteness and anti-Black racism; and sense of connection with caregivers. </p
... This critique is echoed in the United States context, where prospective Black foster caregivers are reportedly screened out during selection processes at disproportionate rates (Evans, 2011). Perceptions of anti-Black racism in child welfare in Canada, based on experiences of racist interactions with child protection workers (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Clarke, 2012;OACAS, 2016), and racism in parenting standards (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Williams, 2004), may also work to dissuade Black caregivers from engaging with CAS in Ontario. ...
... Anti-Black racism is used to describe the unique and specific nature of racial discrimination perpetrated against Black communities (Benjamin, 2003). In the Canadian context, anti-Black racism is inextricably linked to Canada's establishment as a White settler nation-state through means of slavery, colonization, dispossession, immigration, segregation, and othering (Benjamin, 2003;Clarke, 2012;Cole, 2020;Maynard, 2017;Walcott, 2019;Walcott & Abdillahi, 2019). Scholars have called attention to Canada's practice of convenient "ahistoricism" (Clarke, 2012, p. 229) regarding its legacy of injustices against Black people and how the realities of Black Canadians in particular "have been distorted and repressed" over time (Henry, 1993, p. 212). ...
... Anti-Black racism in Canada can be seen in the denial of slavery and its economic, social, and psychological impact on subsequent generations; enduring schemes constraining Black people's access to the labour market, healthcare, and education; the hyper-surveillance, criminalization, pathologizing, and policing of Black communities; the minimalizing of Black Canadian heritage; the demonization of Black expressions of resistance; and the failure to acknowledge and celebrate the resiliency of Black Canadians (Benjamin, 2003;Clarke, 2012;Cole, 2020;Maynard, 2017;Walcott, 2019;Walcott & Abdillahi, 2019;Walker, 1985). Scholars advocate differentiating anti-Black racism from other forms of racism in Canada and identifying and addressing issues specific to anti-Black racism as a "form of resistance to White, capitalist hegemony and domination" (Benjamin, 2003, p. 79). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
p>This article reports on narrative interviews conducted as part of the Rights for Children and Youth Partnership Project exploring the experiences of 25 Black Caribbean youth (ages 16-26) who have navigated the child protection system in Ontario, Canada. An introduction to transracial fostering in Ontario is provided, and participants’ reflections on the significance of caregiver’s race in their experiences of out-of-home care are presented. Critical Race Theory and AntiBlack Racism are used as theoretical frameworks to guide the discussion. Themes discussed include adapting to White environments and community visibility; appropriate haircare, skincare, and food in placements; navigating whiteness and anti-Black racism; and sense of connection with caregivers. </p
... In addition to these quantitative findings, scholars have also described how Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario experience their involvement with other workers and within agencies (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. For example, Clarke (2012) qualitative study found that Afro-Caribbean service users, specifically mothers and youth, identified the cumulative and intersectional impact of race, gender, and poverty as contributing to child welfare involvement. ...
... In addition to these quantitative findings, scholars have also described how Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario experience their involvement with other workers and within agencies (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. For example, Clarke (2012) qualitative study found that Afro-Caribbean service users, specifically mothers and youth, identified the cumulative and intersectional impact of race, gender, and poverty as contributing to child welfare involvement. Mothers also articulated difficulties meeting the often inappropriate expectations of child welfare workers, including being required to attend parenting classes and other therapeutic services that did not address their fundamental material and social concerns, such as housing and child care. ...
... White supremacy operates most effectively when it cloaks itself in neutrality and objectivity, and instead focusing on individual or family-level deficiencies of the subjects of anti-Black and other forms of racism (Bonilla-Silva, 2006;DePouw & Matias, 2016). Studies with Black caregivers in Canada who are contending with these dynamics as they negotiate either the threat of or actual involvement in the child welfare system speak to the ways in which these values are imposed on family life and the persistent spectre of disavowed anti-Blackness that permeates their interactions with child welfare workers (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Alaazi et al., 2018;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Phillips & Pon, 2018). ...
Article
Background The overrepresentation of Black children in the child welfare system is a social problem that has received longstanding attention in the United States, but has recently received increasing attention in Canada. Objective This qualitative study explores the findings of two quantitative studies (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020, 2021) in order to interpret them through the perspectives of child welfare workers and community service providers. The aim is to gain a deeper understanding on the potential factors that contribute to the overrepresentation of Black children in Ontario's child welfare system. Participants and setting The study involved twenty-one child welfare workers from two child welfare organizations in Ontario serving lots of Black families and thirteen community service providers in Toronto. Methods Six focus groups were completed with thirty-four participants. Each of the focus groups was audio recorded and manually transcribed verbatim. Constant comparison analysis was used to analyze the transcribed data. Results Themes that emerged from the study include the following concerns: racism and bias from referral sources; racism and bias from child welfare workers; lack of cultural sensitivity; lack of workforce diversity/training; lack of culturally appropriate resources; assessment tools; duty to report; fear of liability; lack of collaboration; and poverty. Conclusions The results from this study reinforce the need to shift practice that acknowledges Black families as valuable stakeholders and experts of their own lives and involves them in the development and implementation of policies and practices that affect them.
... At the conclusion of child welfare investigations, Black children are more likely than White children to be substantiated (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Antwi-Boasiako, Fallon, King, Trocmé, & Fluke, 2021;Boatswain-Kyte, Esposito, & Trocmé, 2020;King et al., 2017), transferred to ongoing services (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;King et al., 2017), and placed in out-ofhome care (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020;King et al., 2017). Canadian qualitative studies also reveal that factors such as lack of cultural understanding, differential treatment, poverty, mental health, inadequate support system, and lack of diversity among workers place Black youths, mothers, and families at increased risk of child welfare involvement (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Cénat et al., 2021;Cénat, Noorishad, Czechowski, McIntee, & Mukunzi, 2020;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012. Gosine and Pon (2011) also found that workplace discrimination inhibited Black child welfare workers from making decisions that could have better served racial minorities. ...
... In addition to qualitative studies, some quantitative studies have revealed that race is a significant factor in child welfare decision-making, even after controlling for poverty and risk factors (Dettlaff et al., 2011;Rivaux et al., 2008). Apart from individual biases, institutional racism could also be found in child welfare organizations where policies and practices are based on the dominant Eurocentric norms that use the same measure to treat everyone Adjei & Minka, 2018;Cénat et al., 2021;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Gosine & Pon, 2011;Miller et al., 2013). Such policies and practices could result in Black children's overrepresentation as their differences and strengths in their community may not be taken into consideration in assessments and decision-making Adjei & Minka, 2018;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Gosine & Pon, 2011;Miller et al., 2013). ...
... Apart from individual biases, institutional racism could also be found in child welfare organizations where policies and practices are based on the dominant Eurocentric norms that use the same measure to treat everyone Adjei & Minka, 2018;Cénat et al., 2021;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Gosine & Pon, 2011;Miller et al., 2013). Such policies and practices could result in Black children's overrepresentation as their differences and strengths in their community may not be taken into consideration in assessments and decision-making Adjei & Minka, 2018;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Gosine & Pon, 2011;Miller et al., 2013). Black families may also experience overrepresentation where child welfare organizations do not encourage policies and practices that promote workforce diversity (Cénat et al., 2021;Dettlaff & Rycraft, 2010) and enhance their relationship with the Black community (Dettlaff & Rycraft, 2008). ...
Article
Background The overrepresentation Black children experience in the child welfare system is well documented in the United States, but such studies are now emerging in Canada. In Ontario, there are few studies that address this issue concerning Black families. Objective This study is to explore the insights of child welfare workers and community service providers on how to potentially address Black children's overrepresentation in Ontario's child welfare system. Participants and setting Twenty-one child welfare workers from two child welfare organizations in Ontario that serves many Black families and thirteen community service providers in Toronto participated in the study. Methods Six focus groups were conducted with thirty-four participants. Audio recording from each of the focus groups was manually transcribed verbatim. We utilized constant comparison analysis to analyse the transcribed data. Results Potential solutions to overrepresentation that emerged from the focus group discussions included viewing Black families as experts of their own lives; increasing workforce diversity; educating referral sources and Black families on child welfare practices; subjecting referral sources to detailed questioning; stopping harmful record keeping on families; providing cultural sensitivity training and education; partnering with community organizations; and providing mentorship opportunities. Conclusions The findings from this study emphasize the need for changes related to child welfare assessment tools, workforce development, and shifts in system orientation to address systemic racism and Black children's overrepresentation in the child welfare system.
... It is also possible for financial stress and poverty to cause parenting stress that may lead some Black families to use corporal punishment (Ispa & Halgunseth, 2004;Pinderhughes et al., 2000;Taylor et al., 2011). These cultural and structural issues could result in reports of corporal punishment allegations to child welfare authorities in disproportionate numbers (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012Kim & Drake, 2018;Lavergne et al., 2008;Maguire-Jack et al., 2018) and child welfare workers investigating and substantiating such reports as physical abuse (Durrant et al., 2009(Durrant et al., , 2017. ...
... Consistent with King et al. (2017), our study showed that Black children are more likely to be reported or investigated for exposure to intimate partner violence than their White counterparts. This may suggest that Black families may be more likely to be monitored and reported to child welfare authorities because of over surveillance and biases (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. Biased reporting may be worsened by mandatory reporting laws in Ontario where the public and professionals have a duty to make a report to child welfare authorities if they suspect that a child *significant at p < 0.05; **significant at p < 0.01; ***significant at p < 0.001. ...
... The child may be seen as being at risk of physical or emotional harm. While intimate partner violence can affect families from all races, Black families are more likely to be reported and investigated because of over surveillance and differential treatment (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. Child welfare workers could also rate Black families at high level of harm than White families (Font et al., 2012). ...
Article
In examining 20 years of data using the first five cycles of the Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect (OIS-1993 to OIS-2013), Antwi-Boasiako, King, Fallon, Trocmé, Fluke, et al. (2020) found that the incidence of child welfare investigations in the province doubled for White families between 1998 and 2003; the incidence of child welfare investigations for Black families quadrupled for the same period. This paper continues to examine the overrepresentation of Black families in Ontario by focusing on the implementation of standardized decision-making tools, specifically the Ontario Risk Assessment Model. The results from this study suggest that reports of physical abuse and exposure to intimate partner violence may be key factors for the overrepresentation of Black children in Ontario’s child welfare system over time and they may be potential explanations for the quadrupling of the number of Black children investigated by Ontario’s child welfare system. The rate of physical abuse investigations involving Black families tripled significantly between 1998 and 2003, from a rate of 11.25 per 1,000 Black children in 1998 to 34.68 per 1,000 Black children in 2003. Exposure to intimate partner violence investigations dramatically and significantly increased 29 times for Black families, from 0.57 per 1,000 Black children in 1998 to 16.16 per 1,000 Black children in 2003. The use of the Ontario eligibility spectrum and the lowering of risk threshold have likely contributed to a greater proportion of Black families investigated by the Ontario child welfare system. Key recommendations include the involvement of the Black community in the development of decision-making tools so that the tools can account for both risk and culturally-based protective factors in the Black community. Both public and private sector institutions also have a role to play in addressing the cultural and structural issues that may be the root cause of the challenges Black families face.
... In addition to these quantitative findings, scholars have also described how Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario experience their involvement with other workers and within agencies (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. For example, Clarke (2012) qualitative study found that Afro-Caribbean service users, specifically mothers and youth, identified the cumulative and intersectional impact of race, gender, and poverty as contributing to child welfare involvement. ...
... In addition to these quantitative findings, scholars have also described how Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario experience their involvement with other workers and within agencies (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. For example, Clarke (2012) qualitative study found that Afro-Caribbean service users, specifically mothers and youth, identified the cumulative and intersectional impact of race, gender, and poverty as contributing to child welfare involvement. Mothers also articulated difficulties meeting the often inappropriate expectations of child welfare workers, including being required to attend parenting classes and other therapeutic services that did not address their fundamental material and social concerns, such as housing and child care. ...
... White supremacy operates most effectively when it cloaks itself in neutrality and objectivity, and instead focusing on individual or family-level deficiencies of the subjects of anti-Black and other forms of racism (Bonilla-Silva, 2006;DePouw & Matias, 2016). Studies with Black caregivers in Canada who are contending with these dynamics as they negotiate either the threat of or actual involvement in the child welfare system speak to the ways in which these values are imposed on family life and the persistent spectre of disavowed anti-Blackness that permeates their interactions with child welfare workers (Adjei & Minka, 2018;Alaazi et al., 2018;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Phillips & Pon, 2018). ...
Article
Racial disparities in child welfare involvement between Black and White children have been well-documented in the United States, but research in this area is relatively underexplored in Canada. Emerging evidence from Canadian studies indicates that Black families are far more likely to be reported for maltreatment concerns, and that these initial disparities persist as families move deeper into the system. Scholars have begun to identify the factors associated with those disparities in Canada, but there is a need for understanding the larger structural and historical context that shapes the opportunities and constraints for Black families living in Ontario. This analysis will situate child welfare in a nexus of anti-Black policy and structure with respect to immigration restrictions, income disparities, residential segregation, and the functioning of linked institutions such as the mental health, education, and legal systems. The cumulative burden of navigating and contending with these larger systemic forces leave Black families vulnerable to a relatively low threshold for reporting maltreatment concerns and risk of harm to Ontario child welfare agencies. This paper documents the alignment between the circumstances created by anti-Black racism at institutional, provincial, and federal levels and the seemingly race-neutral eligibility criteria embedded within Ontario child welfare, which results in disproportionate reporting of Black families.
... Alongside these quantitative findings, there is also qualitative research that highlights how experiences of Black families and Black child welfare workers in Ontario are characterized by anti-Black racism (ABR) (Bonnie & Pon, 2015;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Hasford, 2015). ABR is a specific type of violence aimed at Black individuals and their resistance to such violence (Phillips & Pon, 2018;Pon et al., 2011). ...
... There have been efforts to highlight and address the overrepresentation of Black families in the child welfare system. In Ontario, this has been achieved through community initiatives (Hasford, 2015; Ontario Association of Children's Aid Societies, 2016), qualitative empirical studies (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012Phillips & Pon, 2018), and quantitative research (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;King et al., 2017) but to our knowledge there has been no effort to systemically research, disaggregate and organize these issues within the literature. This significantly limits the ability to tackle issues of overrepresentation, disproportionality and disparity for Black families in the child welfare systems in a manner that is inductively grounded in research. ...
... Bringing all these data points together can considerably help to understand how overrepresentation manifests across child welfare systems in multiple international contexts and support in addressing this absence in knowledge. Most research regarding to racial disparities has come from the US which has a specific socio-political context but is not unique in terms of the experiences of ABR within the child welfare system (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012Phillips & Pon, 2018). In order to tackle this gap in knowledge regarding the overrepresentation of Black families in the child welfare system, this comprehensive scoping review aims to systematically organize the literature in order to understand how this issue manifests and to fill this gap in research. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: The overrepresentation of Black families in child welfare systems across the various geographical locations (e.g. America, Canada, United Kingdom) is a growing concern. There are competing explanations for the causes of overrepresentation and recommendations for eliminating racial disproportionalities and disparities in child welfare system. This systemic scoping review will provide a succinct synthesis of the current literature on Black disproportionality and disparity in child welfare. Methods/Design: This systemic scoping review will employ Arksey and O’Malley’s (2005) five stage framework. This will direct our search of the seven academic databases (EBSCO: Criminal Justice Abstracts OVID: Social Work Abstracts Pro Quest: PsychINFO, ERIC, Sociological Abstracts, International Bibliography of Social Sciences and Web of Science Core Collections). These seven databases have been chosen due to their interdisciplinary resources on the issue of overrepresentation of Black families in the child welfare sector. The thematic findings will be systemically synthesized using qualitative analysis and presented visually through a chart. Eligible articles for this scoping review include literature that speaks directly to the experiences of Black families involved with the child welfare system. The results of this scoping review will increase the understanding of how racial disproportionalities and disparities emerge, common outcomes and ways to begin tackling this phenomenon for Black families. Discussion: In order to tackle this gap in knowledge regarding the overrepresentation of Black families in the child welfare system, this comprehensive scoping review will systematically organize the literature in order to understand how this issue manifests and to fill this gap in research. This methodological approach will allow for the development of practical and intentional methods to move forward in mitigating this issue.
... (2012( , Clarke, 2011Pon, Gosine, & Phillips, 2011). This issue has had substantial impact on Black children at each major stage of child welfare involvement such as the initial report (Fluke, Yuan, Hedderson, & Curtis, 2003;Krase, 2013;Lavergne, Dufour, Trocmé, & Larrivée, 2008), investigations (Harris & Hackett, 2008;Hill, 2007), substantiation (Barth et al., 2005;Fluke et al., 2003;Hill, 2007), out-of-home placement (Rivaux et al., 2008;Summers, 2015;Wulczyn & Lery, 2007), and exit from care (Harris & Hackett, 2008;Hill, 2005;Lu et al., 2004). ...
... They further found that police and school personnel were more likely to report Black children than White children and that Black children were more likely to be reported for physical abuse by school personnel. Qualitative studies in Ontario have also focused on the experiences of Black families and Black child welfare workers (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012. The next section of this paper will review the literature on racial disproportionality and disparity around key decision-points in the child welfare system. ...
... Such risk factors may not only increase their maltreatment risk, but may in turn increase their susceptibility of being reported to child welfare organizations. Regardless of their maltreatment risk, Black families' social location, such as being Black and living in poverty, could also contribute to their differential treatment and place them at increased risk of being involved in the child welfare system (2012( , Clarke, 2011Roberts, 2002). Changes in the threshold for risk of harm might have also contributed to the study's findings. ...
Article
Background Black-White disparities in child welfare involvement have been well-documented in the United States, but there is a significant knowledge gap in Ontario about how and when these disparities emerge. Objective This paper compares incidence data on Black and White families investigated by Ontario’s child welfare system over a 20-year period. Methods Data from the first five cycles of the Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect (OIS) (1993–2013) were used to examine trends in child maltreatment investigations involving Black and White families. Incidence rates were calculated. T-tests were conducted to assess statistically significant differences between and within cycles. Population and decision-based enumeration approaches were also used to examine child welfare disparities. Results The incidence of investigations involving White families almost doubled between 1998 and 2003, but for Black families the incidence increased almost fourfold during the same period. These increases and the difference between Black and White families in 2003 were statistically significant. The results further indicate that Black families experience disparate representation in Ontario’s child welfare system over time for most service dispositions. Conclusions Several possible explanations are offered for the study’s outcome, including changes in risk related to social safety net, the threshold for risk of harm, and bias and racist institutional policies and practices. This study invites policy-makers and child welfare authorities to rethink service delivery in addressing the disparate representation of Black families in the child welfare system.
... The Black family unit has deep rooted historical significance that has enabled the survival of Black people during periods of enslavement as well as their current continued resilience (Gray & Nybell, 1990). Despite this, the preservation of the Black family unit remains under threat by the child welfare system, particularly in the United States and Canada (Clarke, 2012;Dettlaff et al., 2020). In Canada, the child welfare system has the authority to intervene and apprehend a child when social workers believe they are unsafe and it is in their "best interest" to be placed in out-of-home care (OOHC) (Child, Youth and Family Services Act, 2017). ...
... Although there are instances where the child protection system may be helpful to families, research has consistently documented the shortcomings of Ontario's child welfare system to adequately support Black families (Akuoko- Barfi et al., 2021;Clarke, 2012;. Black families have described how navigating the child welfare system can at times be traumatizing and unhelpful, leading them to question the necessity of OOHC as an intervention (Clarke, 2011;Taussig & Munson, 2022). ...
Article
Full-text available
The Black family unit and community plays a critical role in Black youths’ self-development, cultural socialization, and ability to navigate the impacts of structural anti-Black racism embedded in Canadian society. However, Black families are at an increased risk of separation from their children in Ontario’s child welfare system. Utilizing anti-Black racism theory, this study investigates the narratives of 27 Black Caribbean youth in the Greater Toronto Area with lived experience in out-of-home care. Using a narrative inquiry as a methodological approach, the findings reveal that Black youth in out-of-home care experienced; (1) social, psychological, and cultural isolation; (2) the disregard of their hygiene and unique hair needs and; (3) a critical conscious awareness of anti-Black racism. Recommendations for practice, research, and policy are discussed to adequately respond to the needs of Black children and their families.
... In Ontario, the issue of disproportionality and disparity for Black children, youth and families is increasingly recognized as a policy and practice concern (Mohamud et al., 2021;OHRC, 2018). Research has explored the experiences of Black workers, mothers, and youth involved with child welfare, and a consistent concern about the pervasiveness of anti-Black racism has been documented (Clarke 2011(Clarke , 2012Hasford, 2015;Pon et al., 2011). Given these concerns, our study aimed to amplify the voices and counter-narratives of Black youth regarding the often pathologizing understanding of their difficult or aggressive behaviors, which can lead to their multiple placement transitions. ...
... As previously noted, research highlights that Blackness is often associated with risk and the Black body is both discriminated against and perceived as aggressive and violent (James, 2012;Maynard, 2017;Wotherspoon et al., 2001). These perceptions are exacerbated in the context of child welfare, where there seems to be a lack of critical consciousness and empathy towards Black families (Akuoko- Barfi et al., 2021;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Maynard, 2017;Mohamud et al., 2021;Pon et al., 2011). The pathologizing of Black families spans across time, seeps into child welfare policy, and subsequently shapes and situates child welfare decision-making practices (Mohamud et al., 2021). ...
Preprint
p>The child welfare system has a responsibility for maintaining young people’s safety and permanency when they are taken from their guardians. Many young people living in out-of-home care (OOHC) experience placement instability, which can negatively impact their development. The overrepresentation of Black families in the child welfare system has also been a longstanding issue across North America, where Black families are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality of placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their families. Given the known negative impacts of placement instability and the disparities experienced by Black families, these concerns may be more urgent for Black youth in care. This article shares the findings from a qualitative narrative analysis conducted on 27 interviews with Black Caribbean youth who have lived experiences navigating OOHC in Ontario’s child welfare system. Utilizing Critical Race Theory and Anti-Black Racism Theory as theoretical frameworks, three main narratives were identified: (1) difficult behaviors during placement transitions; (2) disposability; and (3) a pursuit of safety and belonging. These narratives capture the phenomenon of Black youth navigating placement instability in OOHC. Implications for policy, practice, and research are discussed.</p
... In Ontario, the issue of disproportionality and disparity for Black children, youth and families is increasingly recognized as a policy and practice concern (Mohamud et al., 2021;OHRC, 2018). Research has explored the experiences of Black workers, mothers, and youth involved with child welfare, and a consistent concern about the pervasiveness of anti-Black racism has been documented (Clarke 2011(Clarke , 2012Hasford, 2015;Pon et al., 2011). Given these concerns, our study aimed to amplify the voices and counter-narratives of Black youth regarding the often pathologizing understanding of their difficult or aggressive behaviors, which often lead to their multiple placement transitions. ...
... As previously noted, research highlights that Blackness is often associated with risk and the Black body is both discriminated against and perceived as aggressive and violent (James, 2012;Maynard, 2017;Wotherspoon et al., 2001). These perceptions are exacerbated in the context of child welfare, where there seems to be a lack of critical consciousness and empathy towards Black families (Akuoko- Barfi et al., 2021;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Maynard, 2017;Mohamud et al., 2021;Pon et al., 2011). The pathologizing of Black families spans across time, seeps into child welfare policy, and subsequently shapes and situates child welfare decision-making practices (Mohamud et al., 2021). ...
Article
The child welfare system has a responsibility for maintaining young people’s safety and permanency when they are taken from their guardians. Many young people living in out-of-home care (OOHC) experience placement instability, which can negatively impact their development. The overrepresentation of Black families in the child welfare system has also been a longstanding issue across North America, where Black families are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality of placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their families. Given the known negative impacts of placement instability and the disparities experienced by Black families, these concerns may be more urgent for Black youth in care. This article shares the findings from a qualitative narrative analysis conducted on 27 interviews with Black Caribbean youth who have lived experiences navigating OOHC in Ontario’s child welfare system. Utilizing Critical Race Theory and Anti-Black Racism Theory as theoretical frameworks, three main narratives were identified: (1) difficult behaviors during placement transitions; (2) disposability; and (3) a pursuit of safety and belonging. These narratives capture the phenomenon of Black youth navigating placement instability in OOHC. Implications for policy, practice, and research are discussed.
... In Ontario, the issue of disproportionality and disparity for Black children, youth and families is increasingly recognized as a policy and practice concern (Mohamud et al., 2021;OHRC, 2018). Research has explored the experiences of Black workers, mothers, and youth involved with child welfare, and a consistent concern about the pervasiveness of anti-Black racism has been documented (Clarke 2011(Clarke , 2012Hasford, 2015;Pon et al., 2011). Given these concerns, our study aimed to amplify the voices and counter-narratives of Black youth regarding the often pathologizing understanding of their difficult or aggressive behaviors, which can lead to their multiple placement transitions. ...
... As previously noted, research highlights that Blackness is often associated with risk and the Black body is both discriminated against and perceived as aggressive and violent (James, 2012;Maynard, 2017;Wotherspoon et al., 2001). These perceptions are exacerbated in the context of child welfare, where there seems to be a lack of critical consciousness and empathy towards Black families (Akuoko- Barfi et al., 2021;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012Maynard, 2017;Mohamud et al., 2021;Pon et al., 2011). The pathologizing of Black families spans across time, seeps into child welfare policy, and subsequently shapes and situates child welfare decision-making practices (Mohamud et al., 2021). ...
Article
This article reports on narrative interviews conducted as part of the Rights for Children and Youth Partnership Project exploring the experiences of 25 Black Caribbean youth (ages 16–26) who have navigated the child protection system in Ontario, Canada. An introduction to transracial fostering in Ontario is provided, and participants’ reflections on the significance of caregivers’ race in their experiences of out-of-home care are presented. Critical Race Theory and Anti-Black Racism are used as theoretical frameworks to guide the discussion. Themes discussed include adapting to White environments and community visibility; appropriate haircare, skincare, and food in placements; navigating Whiteness and anti-Black racism; and sense of connection with caregivers.
... In fact, it is not far-fetched to argue that Child Welfare practices including recurring assessment procedures and follow-up investigative methods are evidence seeking strategies that put Black and Indigenous children at risk (Blackstock, 2009(Blackstock, , 2011Chistian, 2010;Kline, 1992;Pon et al., 2011). This position is based on a considerable scholarly research that has examined current Western ideals of childhood development often presented as universal standards for child rearing as well as evidence of overrepresentation of Black and Indigenous children in the Child Welfare System in Canada (Blackstock, 2009(Blackstock, , 2011Clarke, 2002Clarke, , 2011Clarke, , 2012Dettlaff et al., 2011;Dumbrill, 2010;Greenbaum, 2014;Hill, 2005;Osterling, D'Andrade, & Austin, 2008;Pon et al., 2011). Research carried out across Canada suggests that Black and Indigenous families are reported to Child Welfare Agencies at a higher rate than any other group despite the fact that there is no evidence to suggest that Black and Indigenous parents abuse or neglect their children at higher rates than other racial parents (Greenbaum, 2014;Peters, 2002;Rambally, 1995;Sinha & Kozlowski, 2013). ...
... Christie (2010) argues that through its child protection regulations and practices Child Welfare System in Ireland has moved from a 'racial state,' whose policies used to have no intended negative effects on racial minority groups, to a 'racist state' whose policies are intentionally targeting Blacks and racial minority groups. In Canada, Black families have similarly expressed concerns about what they perceived to be racist treatments from Child Welfare Services workers Clarke, 2012;One Vision One Voice, 2016). Kiki Ojo, the manager of "One Vision One Voice," reiterates that systemic anti-Black racism is real and rampant in Child Protection system in Ontario (Monsebraaten, 2018, para. ...
Article
Where children grow up has a major impact on what they become as adults. Towards achieving what is optimal for one's children, parents across cultures carry out different parenting practices. Despite this, Black parents in Canada feel their parenting practices are unfairly targeted by Child Welfare Agencies (CWA), resulting in the overrepresentation of Black children in the welfare system. This study presents qualitative findings on Black parents' knowledge, perceptions, and experiences of navigating through complex Child Protection Rules and processes in Toronto, Canada. Results revealed that Black parenting experiences are shaped and influenced by cultural knowledge and perceived anti-Black racism in Canada, yet Child Welfare Agencies hardly consider this information in their engagements with Black families. Further, most participants had negative perceptions of Child Welfare Agencies as people who disunite families and racially target Black families. The study reifies that Child Welfare Agencies in Canada need to take necessary steps to understand the complex contexts of Black parenting in order to engage Black parents positively in the child protection process, perhaps enabling more Black children to remain at home safely. Even where removal (protective custody) is the preferred plan, Child Welfare agencies will develop strategies to make better use of the potentials that birth parents possess in order to enhance Black children's lives.
... Disregard of this reality implies that certain parenting behaviors considered to be effective and functional among one group could easily be construed as "aberrant" behavior by another group (Maiter & George, 2003). For example, Hill and Bush (2001) note that whereas authoritarian and harsher parenting styles may imply out-of-control parenting to many European American/ Canadian families, many African/Caribbean Canadian parents may see permissive and non-punitive styles of parenting as an abdication of parental responsibilities (Ho, Bluestein, & Jenkins, 2008) Despite such differences in understanding and approach to parenting between European American/Canadian families and Black families in Canada, the parenting style of the latter is heavily scrutinized by child welfare agencies, which has resulted in over-representation of apprehended Black children in care in Toronto (Clarke, 2011(Clarke, , 2012De Finney, Dean, Loiselle, & Saraceno, 2011;Greenbaum, 2014;Hughes, 2014;Pon, Gosine, & Phillips, 2011). According to the Toronto Star, within Greater Toronto Black children are apprehended and placed into foster care at much higher rates (41%) than any other social group, aside from Indigenous people of Canada (Contenta, Monsebraaten, & Rankin, 2014). ...
... This theory emerged in the mid-1970s from the critical legal scholarship of Derrick Bell and Alan Freeman, which challenged racial oppression and injustices in the law against African Americans in the United States (Bell, 1976(Bell, , 1979Freeman, 1977Freeman, , 1981. Today, CRT is being used in many academic disciplines, including the fields of education (Ladson-Billings, 1998) and social work (Clarke, 2012;Jeffery, 2005) to examine racist ideas and to challenge racial oppression and injustices that continue to prevail in Western society. In our study we employed CRT for two purposes. ...
Article
Full-text available
In the fragility of goodness, Nussbaum recounts an ethical dilemma of King Agamemnon to decide either to sacrifice his daughter to save his army or to watch his army perish. Nussbaum (1986) asks, how does one measure ‘goodness’ when all ethical choices lead to evil outcomes? In the essay, we employ Nussbaum’s ‘fragility of goodness,’ Critical Race Theory, and data from SSHRC funded study — in which we critically examine the parenting experiences of black families in Toronto, Winnipeg, and St John’s — to answer these questions. Our findings suggest that Black parenting is unique and has become what Spivak Gayatri describes as the unavoidable usefulness of something that is equally dangerous. We also noted how racist ideas in Canada function as “colour-blind” laws and policies that affect and shape the everyday lives of Black people including their parenting practices. We also noted a high level of apprehension and placement into care of Black children among Black families resulting in a growing mistrust and distrust of Child Welfare Services (CWS) workers in Black communities. Our study calls on CWS in Canada to develop a comprehensive understanding of Black parenting practices, perhaps enabling more Black children to remain home safely.
... Other studies have focused on the perspectives of Black families involved with the child welfare system and Black child welfare workers (Clarke, 2012;. For example, Clarke (2011) has described the perception of differential treatment among Afro-Caribbean mothers and youth receiving child welfare services in Toronto, including increased surveillance, control and criminalization, as well as inadequate resources available to support these families. ...
... Poverty is a well-documented correlate of child maltreatment because of its association with other risk factors for abuse and neglect (Sedlak et al., 2010), which may contribute to a greater likelihood that Black children will be reported for maltreatment. This finding aligns with the results of an exploratory study conducted in Toronto in which Afro-Caribbean caregivers, youth, and child protection workers reported that the contexts under which Black families experience involvement with child welfare are characterized by the intersectional impact of poverty, racism, and sexism, which they believed influenced differential treatment within the system (Clarke, 2012). Previous research has documented an association between social disadvantage and neglect (Carter & Myers, 2007;Schumaker, 2013), and it is notable that after adjusting for socioeconomic circumstances and other risk factors, Black children in this study had higher odds of case transfer if they were investigated for neglect (White children had lower odds) compared to a risk-only investigation. ...
Article
Despite the substantial body of literature on racial disparities in child welfare involvement in the Unites States, there is relatively little research on such differences for Canadian children and families. This study begins to address this gap by examining decision-making among workers investigating Black and White families investigated for child protection concerns in Ontario, Canada. Using provincially representative data, the study assessed whether Black children were more likely than White children to be investigated by child welfare, if there was disparate decision-making by race throughout the investigation, and how the characteristics of Black and White children contribute to the decision to transfer to ongoing services. The results indicate that Black children were more likely to be investigated than White children, but there was little evidence to suggest that workers in Ontario child welfare agencies made the decision to substantiate, transfer to ongoing services, or place the child in out-of-home care based on race alone. Black and White children differed significantly with respect to child characteristics, characteristics of the investigation, caregiver risk factors, and socioeconomic circumstances. When adjusting for these characteristics, Black families had 33% greater odds (OR=1.33; 95% CI: 1.26, 1.40; p=<0.001) of being transferred to ongoing services compared to White families. Among Black families, the assessed quality of the parent-child relationship and severe economic hardship were the most significant and substantial contributors to the decision to provide child welfare services. Implications for practice, policy, and research are discussed.
... Within the Canadian context, there is emerging literature discussing the overrepresentation and experiences of Black families within the child welfare system (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020;Bonnie et al., 2022;Clarke, 2011Clarke, , 2012King et al., 2017;Mohamud et al., 2021; One Vision One Voice [OVOV], 2016) and how residential care settings pathologize the needs of Black youth-turning their behaviours into matters for police (Akuoko-Barfi et al., 2021;Contenta et al., 2015;Edwards et al., 2022). However, there is little no empirical research on Black youth's experience in out-of-home care (OOHC) and no studies that have explored theme of racialized criminalization within the child welfare system; this study seeks to fill this gap in knowledge by employing anti-carceral theory as a theoretical framework to examine the intersections and paradoxes between jail and out of home "care". ...
... The limited research available indicates that Black youth are placed in OOHC at a rate of 2.16 per 1,000 children, whereas their white counterparts are placed at a rate of 0.98 per 1000 children (Bonnie et al., 2022). Scholars have linked the disparities that Black families encounter in the child welfare system to anti-Black racism (Clarke, 2012;Maynard, 2017;Mohamud et al., 2021). ...
Preprint
p>Black youth have consistently reported that when they are transitioning from out-of-home care (OOHC) into independence, they are not supported or included in decision-making, and they feel isolated and vulnerable as they face an uncertain future. Previous research has documented the ways in which Black youths’ experiences in care are characterized by unpredictability and loss, but then care ends—and they continue to struggle. For Black youth in care, this transition can be exceptionally difficult as they are contending with the additional strain of doing so within the child welfare system and larger social context characterized by a loss of community and the persistence of anti-Black racism. Presently, there are no empirical studies in Ontario that investigate Black youth’s narratives transitioning from OOHC; this manuscript seeks to fill this gap in knowledge. Employing Adultification and Anti-Black Racism Theory as theoretical frameworks, this qualitative study investigated the narratives of 27 Black youth with lived experiences navigating OOHC in Ontario’s child welfare system. This study utilized narrative inquiry as a methodological approach. Three main narratives were identified: (1) the need for finances and a financial literacy; (2) narratives of aging out and (3) the challenges of navigating funding. To better support Black youth in their transition out of care and in independent living, recommendations for policy and practice include earlier transitional support, ensuring youth have a practical understanding of financial literacy, and educating youth about resources and their rights.</p
... Although American studies on racial disparities in child welfare have been conducted for approximately 50 years, Canadian studies to understand this social problem and the racial issues surrounding it in child welfare services are more recent Clarke, 2012;Lavergne et al., 2008;Pon et al., 2011). Racial issues in child welfare refer to all concerns surrounding race in the services provided by child protective institutions (e.g., racial discrimination, overrepresentation of Black children, differential treatment in care between Black and other children) and other forms of racial discrimination experienced at different levels of the society Cénat, Hajizadeh, et al., 2022;Cénat, Kouamou, et al., 2022;Dettlaff & Boyd, 2022;Pon, Gosine, & Phillips, 2011;Cénat, Dalexis, Darius, Kogan, & Guerrier, 2022;Kogan et al., 2022). ...
Article
Background: In studies exploring racial disparities in the Canadian child welfare systems, evidence is still lacking on the reasons for admission of children to service. Objective: This study investigates the reasons for admission to service in Ontario child welfare based on racial identities. Methods: We analyzed three-time points (2018, 2019, and 2020) of the Ontario Looking After Children (OnLAC) project. The sample included 4036 children (Mage = 14.30, SD = 2.21; 39.22 % girls). Univariate and multiple random-effects (REs) logistic regressions were performed to analyze the admission to service according to racial identities. Results: The results showed that the most frequent reason for admission to service was caregiver capacity in 2018 (56.02 %), 2019 (57.76 %), and 2020 (55.49 %). The results revealed few differences between racial groups on the reasons for their admission to service. There were more differences between racial groups in 2019 and 2020. The three-year cohort analyses showed that Black youth were less likely to have admission to service due to harm by omission (AOR = 0.41, 95%CI 0.18-0.93, z = -2.14, p < .05) and emotional harm (AOR = 0.40, 95%CI 0.17-0.92, z = -2.12, p < .05) than other racial groups. Results from the multiple random-effects logistic regression showed that in 2019 (AOR = 1.83, 95%CI 1.28-2.62, z = 3.32, p < .01) and 2020 (AOR = 2.13, 95%CI 1.41-3.21, z = 3.58, p < .01), youth were particularly at risk of having been admitted to service for caregiver capacity. Conclusions: The present study reveals a comprehensive description of the reasons for admission in child welfare in Ontario according to racial identities. Implications for research, prevention, and intervention are discussed.
... The limited research available indicates that Black youth are placed in OOHC at a rate of 2.16 per 1,000 children, whereas their white counterparts are placed at a rate of 0.98 per 1000 children (Bonnie et al., 2022). Scholars have linked the disparities that Black families encounter in the child welfare system to anti-Black racism (Clarke, 2012;Maynard, 2017;Mohamud et al., 2021). ...
Article
Black youth have consistently reported that when they are transitioning from out-of-home care (OOHC) into independence, they are not supported or included in decision-making, and they feel isolated and vulnerable as they face an uncertain future. Previous research has documented the ways in which Black youths’ experiences in care are characterized by unpredictability and loss, but then care ends—and they continue to struggle. For Black youth in care, this transition can be exceptionally difficult as they are contending with the additional strain of doing so within the child welfare system and larger social context characterized by a loss of community and the persistence of anti-Black racism. Presently, there are no empirical studies in Ontario that investigate Black youth’s narratives transitioning from OOHC; this manuscript seeks to fill this gap in knowledge. Employing Adultification and Anti-Black Racism Theory as theoretical frameworks, this qualitative study investigated the narratives of 27 Black youth with lived experiences navigating OOHC in Ontario’s child welfare system. This study utilized narrative inquiry as a methodological approach. Three main narratives were identified: (1) the need for finances and a financial literacy; (2) narratives of aging out and (3) the challenges of navigating funding. To better support Black youth in their transition out of care and in independent living, recommendations for policy and practice include earlier transitional support, ensuring youth have a practical understanding of financial literacy, and educating youth about resources and their rights.
... The National Association of Social Workers (NASW; 2021) determined that BIPOC service recipients experience over-identification in the child welfare system, under-resourcing of social support services, and over-diagnosing of certain mental illnesses. These factors contribute to present harms such as mental health clinician's over-diagnosis of disruptive behaviors and schizophrenia amongst Black male clients (Gara et al., 2019;Merino & Hall, 2018) and BIPOC children with psychological disorders (Mayes & Rafalovich, 2007;Ramirez, 1999), and the mistreatment of BIPOC families in child welfare (Clarke, 2015;Saraceno, 2012). ...
Article
Full-text available
The social inequities highlighted by the racial injustice protests of 2020 and the COVID-19 pandemic challenge the social work profession to respond to the past and present social consequences that disproportionately impact Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC). We argue that social work's commitment to social justice has not taken up an explicit anti-racism mission to eradicate white supremacy, racism, and coloniality in the profession. We further argue that although social service agencies often include a commitment to cultural competence/humility, practices continue to be rooted in color-blind approaches to service and treatment. Social work's failure to address racism poses challenges for those from racialized backgrounds experiencing psychological distress due to racism and other inequities. Building upon the theoretical foundations of Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Anti-Colonialism, we provide a conceptual framework for practice and service delivery with BIPOC clients through social work praxis. This conceptual framework offers three overarching directives that include integrated critical race and anti-colonial theoretical concepts for social work practice and service delivery. We discuss the implications for application of this conceptual framework in practice and service delivery.
... CRT's assertion that race is a social construct instead of a biological construct manifests in practices designed to create a distinction between White families and those of color. Specifically, race as a social construct is often revealed in those policies and practices developed as a means of surveilling and controlling families of color (Clarke, 2012) and maintaining white supremacy. ...
Article
Full-text available
Positive permanency, or leaving foster care to a permanent family setting, is a priority for children in care. Yet, there are barriers to achieving permanency, particularly among children of color. This study examined child and state factors that impacted permanency outcomes, with a particular focus on racial disparities. The researchers utilized a sample of n = 208,742 children who entered care in 2016 from the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System (AFCARS). A series of multi-level survival analyses were conducted to examine child and state system factors associated with positive permanency, with a focus on child race/ethnicity and state disparity indexes. Results confirmed ongoing disparities for Black, American Indian, Hispanic, Pacific Islander, and Multi-Racial children in care. Implications for practice, policy, and future research are explored.
... The results of the current study suggest that this stereotyping can lead to false accusations against families of color, which can result in the involvement of child protective services and other legal actions. Previous studies have documented how these types of interactions can be traumatic, invasive, frightening, and unfair (Clarke, 2012;Miller et al., 2016;Woods-Jaeger et al., 2020). The potential harmful impacts of stereotypes and resulting discrimination, including potential traumatic and invasive interactions with social services, were highlighted by parents as an important reason for lack of family engagement. ...
Article
Full-text available
Students of color are disproportionately affected by exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), racial trauma, and traumatic stress. Trauma-informed interventions in schools can promote healing among ACE-impacted students of color. These interventions require collaboration with family members to decide upon services and referrals; however, educators commonly face challenges with engaging families. The study purpose is to understand barriers and facilitators to engaging families in trauma-informed mental health interventions for ACE-impacted students of color. As part of a larger school-based trauma-informed trial (Link for Equity), 6 focus groups were conducted with parents/guardians of color and school staff (n = 39) across 3 Midwestern school districts. Participants were asked open-ended questions about trauma, discrimination, school supports, and family engagement. Transcripts were coded by two team members, and thematic analysis was used to identify barriers/facilitators to family involvement. Results indicated that families of ACE-impacted students of color commonly experienced racism including microaggressions and stereotypes from the school community, which deterred engagement and prevented trusting relationships between families and school staff. Parents highlighted feeling excluded from decisions related to their child’s education and that their voices were not heard or understood. Participants discussed the need for schools to consider how family obstacles (such as mental health and trauma) may prevent families from engaging with staff, and they recommended structural changes, such as anti-racism trainings for educators. Findings highlight the need for anti-racist work that addresses interpersonal and structural racism in schools, in order to promote family engagement in trauma-informed mental health interventions.
... Although the Indian Child Welfare Act was established to provide supports to American Indian/ Alaskan Native children experiencing or at risk for maltreatment, insufficient funding and other policy-related problems have prevented its full implementation, leading to inadequate services (Cross, Earle, & Simmons, 2000). Qualitative studies indicate that families and children of color experience contact with child protective services as invasive, disruptive, frightening, and unjust (Clarke, 2012;Miller et al., 2012). These experiences may reflect implicit biases and institutional discrimination that persist despite the positive intentions of individual professionals within child welfare (Hill, 2004). ...
Article
Full-text available
Social determinants of health, such as poverty, lower parental education, parental unemployment, and racism, are critical but often overlooked factors that contribute to racial inequities in mental health. The effects of social determinants on mental health persist despite positive intentions of individual professionals within psychology. A new approach is required to address mental health inequities by training psychologists to understand how power, privilege, and oppression relate to racial disparities in mental health. Currently, many psychology training programs do not provide instruction related to the social determinants of mental health. We advocate for a shift in the paradigm of psychology training programs to prepare psychologists to address social determinants of mental health. We present 2 approaches to support this shift in psychology training programs—cultural humility and community-based participatory research—and describe concrete examples of how these approaches can facilitate psychologists’ active involvement in disrupting mental health inequities.
... Sometimes, the treatments work for a while, but 3/4 times (Ward, 2012), they do not and without alternatives, the teachers, youth, and parents begin the cycle again. For racialized youth, these cycles can lead to apprehension and prison (Abdillahi, Meerai, & Poole, 2017;Clarke, 2012;Meerai, Abdillahi, & Poole, 2016). For black youth, these cycles can lead to increasingly high rates of "schizophrenia" diagnosis (Fernando, 2012). ...
Chapter
The medical model of mental illness/health is based on a system that often locates the “problem” within an individual, takes that individual out of their context and community, and seeks to treat and change. In the name of “best practice,” those treatments may be iatrogenic, involve multiple rights violations, as well as perpetuation of a kind of discrimination known as sanism. The “insane,” once labeled, or suspected of being thus are often incarcerated, and if released, surveilled in multiple ways.
... Hence it is not surprising that until the past few decades, African-Canadians were virtually ignored in social work and social welfare literature. While scholars such as Bernard, White, and Moore (1993), Christensen, (2001Christensen, ( , 1998, Christensen and Weinfeld (1993), Clarke (2012), Daenzer (1997), Este and Bernard (2003), Pon, Gosine, and Phillips (2011) have begun to fill this void; the African-Canadian experience from a social work perspective continues to be marginalized. This group only represents 2.9% of the total population yet their exclusion from Canadian social work literature is not justified (Statistics Canada, 2013). ...
Article
To date, there is limited literature documenting contributions of people of African descent to Canadian social welfare history. Based on both secondary and archival sources, we critically explore from anti-Black racism and African-Canadian feminist perspectives, the contributions of the Coloured Women’s Club of Montreal (CWCM) from 1902-1940 to the social wellbeing of Montreal’s Black community. The CWCM played a major role as one of the leading supports for members who encountered harsh challenges in a society where racism prevailed and opportunities for men and women were severely restricted. Club members organized several events that enabled community members to survive in an environment that was hostile to people of African descent, therefore becoming a “pillar of strength” that fostered a stronger sense of community among Blacks living in Montreal. We contend that through their contributions during this time period, these African-Canadian women emerged as key players in the community and secondly, as early social welfare practitioners. It is imperative for social workers to acknowledge the contributions of the women who were involved in the CWCM as a means of interrupting the historical narratives shaping our profession that have predominantly been told from the perspectives of a hegemonic, white culture.
Article
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Despite the plethora of research on inner-city policing, little is known about how women experience and make sense of involuntary police encounters. Based upon interviews with women who had their homes raided by police in Toronto’s inner-city, this paper explores how these marginalized women perceive, navigate, and resist normative gender expectations in their interactions with police officers during raids. Our findings demonstrate that women believed officers treated them according to gendered stereotypes, and in response, women strategically deployed gendered presentations in an effort to resist, negotiate, and temper anticipated raid related harms. However, participants’ positionality constrained their efforts.
Article
Critical race theory (CRT) has recently been imported into social work knowledge and included in the title or search term of 20 published social work studies, but little is known about how it is impacting social work practices. This study describes the experiences and perceptions of 21 diverse graduate students in a public, urban university with a nationally accredited MSW program using CRT as its theoretical foundation. Students unanimously embraced CRT as a theory for their careers, but found it confusing and extremely challenging to learn, resulting in contentious and unresolved questions about its applications in social work practices. Despite its resonance in their personal lives as well as those of their clients, these students could not describe how their CRT-infused MSW education would help them reduce racism, marginalization, and oppression or increase social, economic, and environmental justice, and many were frustrated by this gap. Recommendations to clarify, refine, and expand CRT imported in social work practices are offered to enhance its usefulness in accomplishing goals of increasing social justice for social work client populations.
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The disproportionality and disparity faced by Black children and youth in the child welfare system are now well-documented and visible in public discourse, along with explanations for these phenomena (Clarke, Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 2, 2011, Journal of Progressive Human Services, 23, 3, 2012; Dunbar & Barth, 2007; Fallon et al., 2015; Gosine & Pon, Journal of Progressive Human Services, 22, 2, 2010; Hill, 2006, 2007; Pon, Gosine, & Phillips, International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies, 3 & 4, 2011; Roberts, Shattered bonds: The color of child welfare. New York, NY: Civitas Books, 2002; Stahmer et al., 2005; Teklu, Canada’s forgotten children: Written submissions to the committee on the rights of the child on the third and fourth reports of Canada. Toronto, ON: African Canadian Legal Clinic, 2012). This chapter explores the factors that are hidden behind the disproportionate numbers and considers the mental health impact of child removal on Black children, youth, and families in Ontario. It draws on the literature and our professional experiences to explore the impact of removal on Black children, youth, and families in Ontario’s child welfare system.
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Obtaining parent views on child protection services is an essential part of evaluating service quality and effectiveness. It also promotes the principles of listening to parents and involving them in decision-making. The present review analysed published research that investigated parental perspectives on the child protection services they received. It identified 52 studies published between 2000 and 2016 on parent satisfaction. Most used qualitative methods, and eight standardised survey instruments were used in quantitative studies. Factors related to parent satisfaction or dissatisfaction related to the attitudes and skills of workers, the interventions provided, and aspects of the child protection system. The body of research provides guidance for policymakers and practitioners about strategies to measure and improve client satisfaction.
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In 1987, the Canadian Association of Schools of Social Work adopted policies and accreditation standards that reflect the profession's commitment to address issues of race, ethnicity, and cultural diversity in its programs and curricula. Task force recommendations to emphasize antiracism in schools of social work were contested and resisted. Since then, various shifts in perspectives have emerged and adopted in social work to varying degrees. Despite efforts to advance antiracism, and more specifically anti-Black racism and anticolonialism in social work education, anti-oppression has been more palatable to mainstream social workers. To advance the profession, these perspectives must be understood and addressed.
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Critical race theory (CRT) provides a framework for examining power structures that maintain racial inequities and developing strategies for action and change. Though social work acknowledges racial disparities and the role of racism when identifying and attempting to ameliorate social problems, the profession has not fully incorporated CRT. This article introduces CRT, articulates its alignment with social work’s professional mission and values, describes its central tenets, and applies the tenets to racial disparities within three areas of practice particularly relevant for social work: child welfare system involvement, receipt of public assistance, and access to mental health treatment. CRT’s broader implications for social work practice are identified and discussed.
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This article asserts that despite the salience of race in U.S. society, as a topic of scholarly inquiry, it remains untheorized. The article argues for a critical race theoretical perspective in education analogous to that of critical race theory in legal scholarship by developing three propositions: (1) race continues to be significant in the United States; (2) U.S. society is based on property rights rather than human rights; and (3) the intersection of race and property creates an analytical tool for understanding inequity. The article concludes with a look at the limitations of the current multicultural paradigm.
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Anti-oppression emerged in the 1990s as a perspective for challenging inequalities and accommodating diversity within the field of social work, including child welfare in Canada. Using the concepts of white supremacy, anti-Black, and anti-Native racism in conjunction with the notion of the exalted national subject (Thobani, 2007), we contend that any understanding of the overrepresentation of Aboriginal and Black children in the care of child welfare services must be located within the wider narrative of white supremacy that has underpinned the formation of the post-war welfare state. This overrepresentation highlights the need to shift from anti-oppression to critical race feminism and anti-colonialism perspectives in order to address more effectively anti-Black and anti-Native racism and the economy of child welfare.
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This article examines common areas of misunderstanding between professionals and low‐income Latino families concerning issues of physical abuse. It argues that low‐income immigrant children deserve the same protection from harsh physical punishment as all other children. This ar ticle suggests culturally competent ways for counselors to work with Latino families to eliminate all forms of violence toward children including corporal punishment. Finally, this article argues that the systemic stresses on low‐income Latino immigrant families must be acknowledged and reduced when addressing child discipline and abuse.
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This study compares child welfare services provided to Aboriginal (Indian) and Caucasian children in Canada. The findings suggest that child welfare reports involving Aboriginal children are more likely to be classified as suspected or substantiated than reports for Caucasian children. Aboriginal children also are twice as likely to be placed in foster care. This overrepresentation in out-of-home placement is explained statistically by socioeco-nomic, child, parent, and maltreatment characteristics. In addition, these variables play a significant role in accounting for higher rates of case substantiation among Aboriginal children. These factors may reflect the multiple disadvantages experienced by Aboriginal families.
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The purpose of this article is to understand how Mexican parents' perceive their voices (their concerns, dissatisfaction, and opinions) as integrated in child welfare cases and what factors hinder or promote this process. The focus is on parents' interactions with their child welfare worker during routine monthly home visits. Nineteen parents, with a history of immigration, participated in in-depth interviews for this qualitative study. Grounded theory methods were used to complete the content analysis. The findings indicate that there are three principal factors that affect parents' decisions to exercise their voice: 1) parent's perceptions of how workers received their voice; 2) case context, including immigration status and fear of loosing children; and 3) the lack of parental knowledge and understanding of the child welfare case process and support/advocacy agents. Recommendations include utilizing empowerment models and culturally grounded practices that facilitate the integration of parents' voices in the parent–worker interactions and case process, and continued support for peer support interventions and formal forms of advocacy.
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What is Critical Race Theory (CRT) and what does it offer educational researchers and practitioners outside the US? This paper addresses these questions by examining the recent history of anti-racist research and policy in the UK. In particular, the paper argues that conventional forms of anti-racism have proven unable to keep pace with the development of increasingly racist and exclusionary education polices that operate beneath a veneer of professed tolerance and diversity. In particular, contemporary anti-racism lacks clear statements of principle and theory that risk reinventing the wheel with each new study; it is increasingly reduced to a meaningless slogan; and it risks appropriation within a reformist “can do” perspective dominated by the de-politicized and managerialist language of school effectiveness and improvement. In contrast, CRT offers a genuinely radical and coherent set of approaches that could revitalize critical research in education across a range of inquiries, not only in self-consciously “multicultural” studies. The paper reviews the developing terrain of CRT in education, identifying its key defining elements and the conceptual tools that characterize the work. CRT in education is a fast-changing and incomplete project but it can no longer be ignored by the academy beyond North America.
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In 1994 the legal scholarship movement, critical race theory (CRT), was introduced in education. Since that time, a variety of scholars have taken up CRT as a way to analyze and critique educational research and practice. In this brief summary the author addresses the themes of the articles found in this issue and offers words of encouragement to a new generation of scholars who see CRT as a valuable tool for making sense of persistent racial inequities in US schools. The articles that comprise this issue come from a symposium held at the annual meet-ing of the American Educational Research Association (AERA) in April 2004. The title of the session was 'And we are still not saved'. This title has two sources. One source is critical race theory (CRT) legal scholar, Derrick Bell (1992), who used it in the title of his book on the 'elusive quest for racial justice'. The other source is its true source—the Biblical passage from the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. 8: 20) who mourned for his people's lack of deliverance with the words, 'The harvest is past, the summer is ended, and we are not saved'. Bell used this scriptural passage because he felt it appropriately described the plight of people of colour, particularly African-American people, in this present age. The session organizers amended the title to say, 'And we are still not saved' as an indicator of the limited progress that we have made in educational equity since William Tate and I raised the issue of critical race theory in education 10 years ago at AERA and subsequently in a paper published in Teachers College Record (1995). It seems hard to believe that a decade has gone by since the term 'critical race theory' was introduced into educational scholarship and at the same time a very appropriate interval at which to take stock of where we are. The articles in this issue take different approaches to explain where we are and where we need to go. Two articles address the state of the literature to this point.
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The research in child protection and in work with other involuntary clients suggests that the use of certain skills by child protection workers is likely to be related to positive client outcomes. In particular, effective practice involves: helping clients and client families to understand the role of the child protection worker; working through a problem-solving process which focuses on the client's rather than the worker's definitions of problems; reinforcing the client's pro-social expression and actions; making appropriate use of confrontation; and using these skills within a collaborative client/worker relationship. This study attempts to identify the extent to which child protection workers make use of these skills and how these skills relate to client outcomes. Data were sought through 50 interviews with child protection workers and 282 interviews with family members. The child protection workers provided information about 247 client families. It was clear that when workers used the skills, their clients had better outcomes—the workers believed their clients showed better progress, the clients were more satisfied with the outcomes and the cases were more likely to have been closed 16 months later. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Nationally representative child welfare data collected between October of 1999 and December 2000 were utilized to explore those variables that would predict the likelihood of American Indian/Alaskan Native children being placed into out-of-home care compared to non-Indian families. In comparison to non-Indian children, American Indian/Alaskan Native children came from poorer homes, and had caregivers with greater mental health and alcohol abuse service needs compared to non-Indian caregivers. Possible bias by child protective services workers may have affected the decision-making that led to the removal of American Indian/Alaskan Native children from their homes. Acknowledgement of past and present instances of racism in the child welfare system can lead to a decrease of American Indian/Alaskan Native children being placed into out-of-home care.
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This paper uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to explore the effects of income, family structure, and public policies on several indicators of child maltreatment. Results suggest that income and family structure affect a family's overall risk of child maltreatment, and that these factors differentially affect various outcome measures. In particular, income impacts routine medical and dental care, the quality of the caregiving environment, and to a lesser extent, spanking behaviors. Single-parent families and families with a biological mother and non-biological father figure tend to have lower quality caregiving environments than mother–father families, and single-mother families with working mothers are at even greater risk of poor caregiving. Finally, this analysis provides some tentative evidence that higher welfare benefits and lower unemployment rates may serve as protective factors for children.
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The problem of child abuse has become increasingly evident in North America and Western Europe. Many countries are now struggling with issues involving the definition of child maltreatment, reporting requirements, processes for responding to reports, substantiation rates, and services to abused children and their families. This book illustrates alternative approaches to dealing with these problems by examining and comparing the designs of child abuse systems in nine countries: the US, English, Canada, Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Belgium, and Sweden.
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In the debates about finding a new balance between child protection and family support, there has been silence on the issue of the impact of gender on child protection work. Using data from one of the studies in the Department of Health (1995) child protection research programme, this article examines the impact of gender at each stage of the child protection process. It shows that mothers have tended to be under-represented in relation to offers of service and over-included in respect of agencies' efforts to control them. When social work practice in cases of physical abuse by men focuses exclusively on mothers, this allows men's violence to their female partners to be ignored. This practice has been sustained in recent years, even though the child protection system itself developed in response to public anxiety about child deaths caused by men.
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Child protection investigations and the number of children on Child Protection Registers are high and constantly rising. In the UK, professionals are bound by legislation to uphold the rights of children and young people in matters that concern them and impact upon their lives. Previous research that examined young people's perceptions of the Child Protection System (CPS) has shown many areas of dissatisfaction. In this current Scottish study, eleven children and young people (six aged between twelve and fifteen years, five aged sixteen years or over) were consulted about their experience of the CPS in a Scottish local authority. Each participant had been the focus of a CPS investigation within the previous eighteen months. This current study used semi-structured individual interviews to elicit the views of children and young people about the CPS and their views about improvements that could make the CPS more effective. This study found that young people are willing and able to discuss their perceptions of child protection services. The results highlight areas of deficit in the CPS that could be amended in order to engage young people more effectively. In addition to confirming areas of dissatisfaction and revealing key anxieties, the participants made positive suggestions for improvement.
Article
The proportion of low-birth-weight infants born to women of Mexican descent is consistently low despite adverse social and economic conditions. This is particularly true among immigrant Mexican women, who have better birth outcomes than do women of Mexican descent born in the United States. This qualitative study explores pregnancy and childbearing among a sample of 41 Mexican immigrants in Chicago, including women with low-birth-weight babies and women with normal-birth-weight babies. In-depth interviews focused on social, economic, and cultural contexts of childbearing. Family support, especially support of a woman's mother, may help explain why women of Mexican descent have relatively few low-birth-weight infants compared with other groups. Implications for future research and policy development are suggested.
Article
Context Child maltreatment is a significant problem within US society, and minority children have higher rates of substantiated maltreatment than do white children. However, it is unclear whether minority children are abused more frequently than whites or whether their cases are more likely to be reported.Objectives To determine whether there are racial differences in the evaluation and Child Protective Services (CPS) reporting of young children hospitalized for fractures.Design, Setting, and Patients Retrospective chart review conducted at an urban US academic children's hospital among 388 children younger than 3 years hospitalized for treatment of an acute primary skull or long-bone fracture between 1994 and 2000. Children with perpetrator-admitted child abuse, metabolic bone disease, birth trauma, or injury caused by vehicular crash were excluded.Main Outcome Measures Ordering of skeletal surveys and filing reports of suspected abuse.Results Reports of suspected abuse were filed for 22.5% of white and 52.9% of minority children (P<.001). Abusive injuries, as determined by expert review, were more common among minority children than among white children (27.6% vs 12.5%; P<.001). Minority children aged at least 12 months to 3 years (toddlers) were significantly more likely to have a skeletal survey performed compared with their white counterparts, even after controlling for insurance status, independent expert determination of likelihood of abuse, and appropriateness of performing a skeletal survey (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 8.75; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.48-22.03; P<.001). This group of children was also more likely to be reported to CPS compared with white toddlers, even after controlling for insurance status and likelihood of abuse (adjusted OR, 4.32; 95% CI, 1.63-11.43; P = .003). By likelihood of abuse, differential ordering of skeletal surveys and reporting of suspected abuse were most pronounced for children at least 12 months old with accidental injuries; however, differences were also noted among toddlers with indeterminate injuries but not among infants or toddlers with abusive injuries. Minority children at least 12 months old with accidental injuries were more than 3 times more likely than their white counterparts to be reported for suspected abuse (for children with Medicaid or no insurance, relative risk [RR], 3.08; 95% CI, 1.37-4.80; for children with private insurance, RR, 3.74; 95% CI, 1.46-6.01).Conclusion While minority children had higher rates of abusive fractures in our sample, they were also more likely to be evaluated and reported for suspected abuse, even after controlling for the likelihood of abusive injury. This suggests that racial differences do exist in the evaluation and reporting of pediatric fractures for child abuse, particularly in toddlers with accidental injuries.
Article
Few researchers have set out to explore parents’ feelings about their experiences with Child Protective Services (CPS) particularly as they relate to the relationship between workers and parents who come to the attention of CPS. Yet the worker-client relationship is a central aspect of social work intervention, contributing to positive case resolutions. Understanding aspects of this relationship can contribute to improved CPS. This article reports findings from a qualitative study that used in-depth interviews to explore the experiences of 61 parents who had involvement with CPS. ¹ Parents appreciated workers who were caring, genuine, empathetic, exceptionally helpful, non-judgmental, and accepting. Negative qualities of workers identified by parents were being judgmental, cold and uncaring, poor listeners, critical, and insincere. Child protection interventions can result in greater actual and/or perceived power imbalances between the client and the worker compared to other social work interventions. Our findings, however, suggest that a positive alliance can be achieved within the context of the adversarial and complex nature of CPS. Possible ways to maintain relationships or rebuild ‘ruptured’ relationships are suggested.
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ABSTRACT This paper draws on research into child welfare services in France, Germany and England which compares the subjective experience of mothers who have been in contact with family support and child protection agencies in the three countries. The mothers' stories suggest that successful help-achieving strategies differ according to the nature of the child welfare regime, and that behaviour which is effective in getting a good response in one country may work less well elsewhere. The stories of two mothers in each of the countries have been chosen to demonstrate how the structures of different social welfare regimes affect the efforts of welfare users to get the help they need.
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In this article, we draw on critical race theory and critical race feminism to deconstruct contemporary US welfare policy. The political framing of work requirements, single motherhood, and ‘citizenship’ under the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 are used to illustrate the racism, sexism, and classism that pervade current regulations. Drawing on Hurtado’s (1996) conceptualization of the ‘Pendejo Game’, we argue that political elites feign ignorance of poverty and structural inequities to legitimate policies that maintain economic disparities. We conclude with suggestions for disrupting the Pendejo Game and promoting economic justice.
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This paper reports a study in which parents who had received child protection intervention set out to develop a “Service Users' Guide” to help parents newly receiving intervention better understand and cope with the process. The study took place in Ontario, Canada between 2004–2009. Ninety-five parents took part in 13 focus groups and 20 individual interviews. A mix of Participatory Action and grounded theory methods were used to enable parents to develop their service uses guide. As the study progressed it quickly became evident that the biggest issue parents face when receiving intervention is an imbalance in power between themselves and workers. This paper describes the problems this power imbalance causes for parents and presents a potential solution suggested by parents themselves – the development of a child welfare service users' association or union. Parent's ideas about why this association is needed, how it could function, and the benefits it might bring, are discussed. The paper concludes by reviewing the benefits a service users' association might bring not only for those receiving child welfare intervention, but all social work services.
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Using national secondary case file data, this study addressed race, poverty, and service equity in public child welfare. Two research questions were posed: (a) Do poor children and families receive services to meet the conditions of poverty? (b) Does service delivery impact African American and Caucasian children equitably? Answers to questions were framed within the context of institutional discrimination theory. Using descriptive and variance estimation statistics, African American children were found to be poorer on all indicators. Service disparity occurred due to higher African American poverty coupled with low overall rates of poverty-related service. Indirect institutional discrimination was suggested.
Article
Examined perceptions of public child welfare caseworkers by 13 parents who were involuntarily receiving services from 2 units of caseworkers. From qualitative analysis of interviews, a portrait of parental anger, fear, and powerlessness emerged. It is suggested that caseworkers must realize the consequences of any use or abuse of their authority, respect parental rights, and not undervalue or disregard legitimate client dissent if families are to be fairly treated and children effectively protected when left in, or returned to, their own homes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This paper describes the themes which emerged from in-depth interviews with parents of a small number of Australian children who were believed to have been sexually abused. The parents’ experiences in the wake of the abuse, including their involvement with three services - a hospital counselling service, the statutory child protection service, and the police - were explored in home interviews conducted 3 months following termination of the case by these services. The themes include: issues related to trust and authority in the casework relationship; expectations of counselling; contamination of normal sexuality in the family; the perception of the sexually abused child as‘damaged’; and relationships within their family and social network. Some of the implications for practice are discussed.
Article
This paper reviews the research on the referral of minority ethnic children to child and family social work teams because of child protection concerns. Specifically, it focuses on those studies that have researched the referral stage of the child ‘in need’ and child protection systems, and explored differences in patterns of referral between the main ethnic groups that make up the UK population.
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This paper reports from a project investigating reactions within families when intra-familial child sexual abuse was suspected, and family members’ responses to a therapeutic approach. Data were obtained from therapeutic sessions and follow-up interviews with mothers, children and alleged perpetrators. Before treatment the mothers felt uncertain as to how to interpret the children’s unclear signs. The children had severe symptoms, but had seldom disclosed abuse. The alleged perpetrators were often not informed about the suspicions. The families were in a state of crisis and shock, and communication within the family was characterized by uncertainty about what to talk about and whether the suspicions should be shared. In most cases after treatment the conflicts had been reduced, the children had few symptoms, supervised contact had been established, and the clients were satisfied with the treatment. One conclusion is that therapeutic sessions, where family members share information about concerns and take part in the decisions of how to protect children, seem relevant and helpful to the clients in unclear abuse cases.
Article
This paper considers the controversial area of child protection with Black families. It begins by addressing the question of why the issue of child protection and ethnicity is important to social work. It then goes on to consider the current and related research in this field, and supports the arguments that Black families are likely to be over-represented in the child protection system. The reasons for this over-representation are explored in-depth as themes: these include issues around language and interpreting services; child-rearing differences; poverty; and social work assessments. Racism and discrimination are central concepts that underpin each theme. The final section looks at ways forward for social workers and their agencies with regard to working sensitively and appropriately with Black families.
Article
There is a growing and robust child welfare literature on service users' perspectives. However, little attention is paid to the experiences of Afro-Caribbean mothers and youth as service users. The author argues that this lack of attention is problematic given that the literature consistently shows an overrepresentation of Black children in the child welfare system. This article reports on some of the findings of a study that was conducted in Toronto with Afro-Caribbean service users about their experiences in the child welfare system. Findings reveal themes that are common to both groups of service users: mothers and youth, though some themes are unique to each group. Themes generated from interviews with service users show the challenges of structural inequalities and the complexities of racism, classism, sexism and cultural differences on child welfare involvement for Afro-Caribbean families in Toronto. Interviews with child welfare workers also revealed themes that supported service users' perspectives. The article concludes by arguing that research is needed to explicate the relationship between structural inequalities, including culturally different parenting practices on the experiences of Afro-Caribbean services users in the child welfare system in Toronto. Such exploration has the potential to reduce the number of Afro-Caribbean children entering the child welfare system.
Article
Currently, the Hispanic population of the United States is growing very rapidly. Despite the significance of this growth and the fact that it is expected that Hispanics will be soon the largest ethnic minority group in this country, the access to health/mental health care for the Hispanic population is rather limited. Many factors are currently affecting the Hispanics' access to health/mental health care services. Among them, cultural and language barriers, insufficient numbers of Hispanic manpower in the health care professions, low educational and socioeconomic levels, the high number of uninsured Hispanics, and ethnic and racial prejudices and discrimination. In this commentary, I address the factors that interfere with the Hispanics' access to health/mental health care, and advance recommendations geared to alleviate and/or resolve this critical problem.
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This study reviews the records of 3936 children and adolescents under the age of 17 who were referred to the public receiving home for suspected maltreatment. The study examines the correlation between background characteristics (i.e. age, gender, race/ethnicity, reasons for referral), and case outcome decisions (i.e. case open to service, out-of-home placement, and family reunification), using bivariate and multivariate analysis. Racial/ethnic differences are observed. Compared to census data, African Americans are the only over-represented group. Latinos, Asians, and Anglos are all under-represented. Significant differences were detected when race/ethnicity was analyzed with respect to the case opened, length of stay in the foster care, and length of time for family reunification. African American subjects are consistently observed in each outcome category at higher proportions than all other racial/ethnic groups, both mainstream and minority populations.
Article
Sixty-one parents, mainly mothers, in two mid-size Ontario (Canada) cities were interviewed about their experiences with Child Protective Services (CPS) agencies, one in each city. The interviewers took a semi-structured approach that focussed on learning about the challenges in the parents' daily lives (to be reported in a future paper), and their perceptions of CPS interventions. Four researchers, including the three authors, developed a coding scheme to analyze the interviews, using the qualitative software package QSR NUD*IST Vivo. The findings indicated that parents valued good referrals, concrete help, and emotional support, although the latter was mentioned by only a minority of parents. Their most negative experiences were: having their initial requests for help turned down; being accepted for service, but not receiving much help; being unfairly treated or harrassed; and being traumatized by the sudden, police-like removal of their children. The paper discusses how the context of these two agencies may have contributed to the findings: increasing poverty among families with children, and the effects of an ultra-conservative government, who introduced a legalistic, investigative agenda for CPS beginning in 1995. The paper discusses how workers and agencies could modify services to maximize the parents' positive experiences and minimize their negative experiences.
Article
Latino children and families represent the fastest growing group in the child welfare system. However, research that explores Latinos experiences in the child welfare system is limited. By drawing upon several bodies of literature, this paper introduces a Latino Child Welfare Research and Practice Model that incorporates the physical, individual and social, institutional, socio-political, and subjective environments. The theoretical model posits that the lack of attention to these multiple and interlocking contextual dimensions of environment increases risk for Latino children to enter the child welfare system. Taken together, the five dimensions of environment incorporate contextual pathways to Latino child welfare that are historically situated in time and place, rooted in culture, and ideologically driven by socio-structural institutions. The model is used as a guiding framework to inform effective Latino child welfare practice, research, and policy recommendations.
Article
Understanding key competencies in child welfare practice is a necessary prerequisite to improving practice technology and service delivery. Findings are reported from a series of focus groups which were held in Missouri. Two sets of focus groups were held, five groups consisting of consumers of child welfare services and four groups consisting of child welfare workers. Results show a high degree of agreement between workers and consumers regarding essential competencies. The relevance of findings to practice, policy and social work education are discussed.
Article
Researchers conduct secondary analysis of data collected in community-based focus groups convened to analyze key decision points where racial disproportionality grew wider in child welfare. Analysis confirms findings of other research pointing to referral bias, unclear or problematic policies related to engaging kin, the confounding role of poverty, and racial disparities in the availability of services to ameliorate family problems. A new finding suggested by this work was that lack of professional awareness of the influence of bias is in and of itself a barrier. Authors assert that professionals who believe the court system is fair and rational will not be vigilant in seeking out checks and balances to racial bias and may also be less likely to seek training or consciousness-raising experiences to address their own bias. The research methodology used serves as an example of ways university-based researchers can team with community-based action planning coalitions to stimulate systems change.
Article
Children of color are disproportionately represented in the child welfare system. In 2005 they comprised 53% of the 513,000 children in out-of-home placements in the United States [U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration for Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau (2006). Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System (AFCARS). Retrieved on June 12, 2007 from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/stats_research/afcars/tar/report 13.htm]. On average, they stay in foster care longer than Caucasian children [Hill, R.B. (2006). Synthesis of research on disproportionality in child welfare: An update. Washington, D.C.: Casey—CSSP Alliance for Racial Equity in the Child Welfare System. Retrieved April 11, 2007, from http://www.caseyfamilyservices.org/pdfs/0226_CC_BobHillPaper_FINAL.pdf].There is virtually no empirical research on African American fathers' involvement in permanency planning, which makes it difficult either to understand the relationships among fathers' involvement, agency practices, and children's permanency outcomes or to identify which types of efforts are most effective to involve African American fathers. This study examines the extent to which African American fathers' involvement in permanency planning influences children's placement outcomes using a secondary data analysis of 88 children's child welfare case records. Findings show that children were reunited with birth families more often and had shorter stays in foster care when their fathers were involved. This study contributes to the emerging research on fathers' involvement and explores agency practices that account for extended lengths of stay in foster care for children of color. Recommendations are provided for child welfare policy, practice, and research.
Article
Two hundred and seventy African-American and Caucasian families referred to child protection for alleged maltreatment were compared to assess the degree to which they were differentially referred to and processed by child protection. Results indicated that, although African-Americans were referred to child protection by different sources than Caucasian families, reporter bias was unlikely to account for the differences. Those African-American families referred to child protection were more likely to come from female headed households and presumed to be poorer as a result. However, once reported, they were neither substantiated at a higher rate nor kept open for services at a higher rate compared to Caucasian families. Finally, there was very little evidence of differential caseworker attention to African-Americans compared with Caucasian families. The study concluded that differential referral source and/or differential worker attention were inadequate explanations for the over-representation of African-Americans in the child protection system.
Article
There exists a little research on children of color in the child welfare system (CWS) and most of what we know focuses on provision of child welfare services and system-related outcomes rather than the processes that lead to these outcomes—how families and children of color become and stay involved. Rather than one primary cause, there appear to be numerous interrelated factors associated with the disproportionate rates of involvement of children of color in the CWS. This review focuses on four areas: (1) parent and family-related risk factors and CWS involvement; (2) social factors related to poverty, neighborhood effects and other community-related predictors of children of color entering and staying in the CWS; (3) race and class biases in initial reporting and subsequent processing of children in the CWS, and (4) the impact of recent child welfare policy initiatives on children of color. Limitations of the current body of literature on children of color in the CWS are presented as well as emerging themes and areas for further inquiry.
Article
We examined whether moving to a new home, having a baby, being arrested, or having a child who is suspended or expelled from school increases low-income parents' (n=1137) risk of being investigated for child maltreatment. These events posed a significant risk for investigations that was not explained by parenting stress or material hardship. We hypothesize that caregivers on welfare and those who experience major life events are investigated more often because they are more visible to those placing reports to the child protection system.
Article
Previous studies indicate that the proportion of ethnically diverse children to White children is increasing in public social service agencies. In addition, ethnically diverse children are more likely to receive more intensive and punitive services, are more likely to stay within the system for longer periods of time, and are reported more often to Child Protective Services. The purpose of this retrospective, 2-year, longitudinal, survival analysis of differential child welfare placement outcomes study was to explore how child welfare practices with Hispanic children are different from those applied with White non-Hispanic children.
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This article examines the utility of racial disproportionality and disparity data to measure the performance and outcomes of child welfare systems. Given the differential patterns of entry, exit and service responses for black, indigenous and ethnic minority children in many child welfare systems around the world, the conceptualisation of both quality and outcomes should take account of their needs. Clarity is required about which dimensions of effectiveness are measured by racial disparity indicators, in order to design strategies to address its causes and consequences. The article discusses how data on racial disproportionality and disparity can be used, as part of a suite of performance indicators, to highlight issues regarding the quality, equity and accessibility of child welfare services.
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In this companion volume John van Maanen's Tales of the Field, three scholars reveal how the ethnographer turns direct experience and observation into written fieldnotes upon which an ethnography is based. Drawing on years of teaching and field research experience, the authors develop a series of guidelines, suggestions, and practical advice about how to write useful fieldnotes in a variety of settings, both cultural and institutional. Using actual unfinished, "working" notes as examples, they illustrate options for composing, reviewing, and working fieldnotes into finished texts. They discuss different organizational and descriptive strategies, including evocation of sensory detail, synthesis of complete scenes, the value of partial versus omniscient perspectives, and of first person versus third person accounts. Of particular interest is the author's discussion of notetaking as a mindset. They show how transforming direct observations into vivid descriptions results not simply from good memory but more crucially from learning to envision scenes as written. A good ethnographer, they demonstrate, must learn to remember dialogue and movement like an actor, to see colors and shapes like a painter, and to sense moods and rhythms like a poet. The authors also emphasize the ethnographer's core interest in presenting the perceptions and meanings which the people studied attach to their own actions. They demonstrate the subtle ways that writers can make the voices of people heard in the texts they produce. Finally, they analyze the "processing" of fieldnotes—the practice of coding notes to identify themes and methods for selecting and weaving together fieldnote excerpts to write a polished ethnography. This book, however, is more than a "how-to" manual. The authors examine writing fieldnotes as an interactive and interpretive process in which the researcher's own commitments and relationships with those in the field inevitably shape the character and content of those fieldnotes. They explore the conscious and unconscious writing choices that produce fieldnote accounts. And they show how the character and content of these fieldnotes inevitably influence the arguments and analyses the ethnographer can make in the final ethnographic tale. This book shows that note-taking is a craft that can be taught. Along with Tales of the Field and George Marcus and Michael Fisher's Anthropology as Cultural Criticism, Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes is an essential tool for students and social scientists alike.
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Parental participation and, to a lesser extent, that of children at child protection conferences is seen as an important element in resolving some of the conflicts that beset child protection work. Using data from a study of participation in one metropolitan borough, those outcomes that are generally regarded as positive in this respect are critically examined. Our findings suggest that the optimism of advocates of participation is not wholly justified. While at a basic level, parents are better informed than before, their involvement in all aspects of the decision-making process remains very limited. We conclude by arguing that there is a need for more realism about the extent to which all parents can be actively involved in making decisions about the future protection of their children. We point to the need for greater recognition of conflicts of interests between parents, professionals and children and to the need for changes in the child protection conference system in order to ensure more ethical and effective participation.
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This paper explores the perceptions of social disqualification or ‘stigma’ that service users attributed to public child welfare services in random samples of service users taken from the Netherlands, a part of Spain (Catalonia) and a part of the United Kingdom (Wales). It was found that, in all three samples, foster and residential care invoked the greatest sense of stigma, while the health related and the preventive family services were perceived as the least stigmatizing types of public welfare services. Comparative analysis further revealed that a positive attitude towards the use of public welfare services, a perception of supportive or non-stigmatizing social norms regarding the use of such services, and a perception of public welfare services as helpful correlated in all three samples with higher levels of user satisfaction and involvement in the services. It was further found that, in the British and Spanish samples, a positive attitude towards public welfare services, as well as a perception of public welfare services as helpful for their recipients, were the predominating factors promoting higher levels of satisfactory user involvement in the services, while, in the Dutch sample, a perception of supportive social norms was the factor that most promoted satisfactory user involvement.
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This paper explores black African children’s experiences of the child protection system in the UK. The central focus of the paper is a review of the available literature on the social circumstances and environmental influences affecting many black African families involved in the child protection system; specific parenting practices and care-giving environments; and their experiences of social work and other professional interventions aimed at safeguarding and promoting the needs of African children. This paper examines these themes to elucidate the factors that contribute to the provision of effective, culturally competent interventions with black African children at risk of significant harm. It suggests that there are a number of tensions inherent for professionals in working with culturally diverse African families such as reconciling different beliefs and behaviours concerning child-rearing practices; affirming the parenting practices of these families in the engagement process; adopting a strengths-based orientation whilst at the same time safeguarding and promoting the welfare of vulnerable children. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for practice.
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This paper uses Census and child welfare report data from Missouri (1999, 2000 & 2001) to determine if Whites and Blacks are reported for child maltreatment at similar or different rates while controlling for poverty and racial homogeneity. We do not find evidence for high levels of racial disproportionality once poverty is controlled. Poverty is generally associated with higher rates of reporting for both races. We found some evidence of differential sensitivity, with the relationship between poverty and report rate being somewhat stronger for Whites than for Blacks.
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Part of a larger mixed-method study of engagement in neighborhood-based child welfare services, the qualitative data this article reports on highlights the extent to which parents and workers differ in their views of engagement, the best ways to foster engagement in services, and the importance each group places on it as a process. Strategies designed to improve engagement are offered, including knowledge that can help workers interact more effectively with families and in so doing improve permanency for children.