X-COLLAR WORKERS IN THE NEW ECONOMY – THE ROLE OF METONYMY IN COINING NEW TERMS IN ENGLISH

Abstract

Within the theoretical framework of Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy Theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff and Turner 1989; Radden and Kövecses 1999; Radden 2000; Barcelona 2000) in this paper we deal with the role of metonymy in coining new terms in English, focusing on the figurative use of colours for naming various types of workers which have emerged in the new economy (e.g. gold-collar / grey-collar / green-collar / pink-collar workers, etc.). In this process of naming metonymy plays a major role in that it helps, via a stand-for process to identify people belonging to a socially accepted group. Such metonymic meanings are not ad hoc meanings but are deeply motivated by culturally dependent aspects, resulting in metonymically based metaphors coined according to an already existing formation pattern. We also discuss some pedagogical implications of our analysis for the teaching of ESP.

Full text

NADEŢDA SILAŠKI
X-COLLAR WORKERS IN THE NEW ECONOMY – THE ROLE OF
METONYM IN COINING NEW TERMS IN ENGLISH
1
Abstract:
Within the theoretical framework of Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy Theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980;
Lakoff and Turner 1989; Radden and Kövecses 1999; Radden 2000; Barcelona 2000) in this paper we deal with
the role of metonymy in coining new terms in English, focusing on the figurative use of colours for naming
various types of workers which have emerged in the new economy (e.g. gold-collar / grey-collar / green-collar /
pink-collar workers, etc.). In this process of naming metonymy plays a major role in that it helps, via a stand-for
process to identify people belonging to a socially accepted group. Such metonymic meanings are not ad hoc
meanings but are deeply motivated by culturally dependent aspects, resulting in metonymically based metaphors
coined according to an already existing formation pattern. We also discuss some pedagogical implications of our
analysis for the teaching of ESP.
Keywords: conceptual metaphor, conceptual metonymy, colours, ESP.
1. INTRODUCTION
The traditional and long established classification of work force into white-collar and blue-collar
workers (the former referring to office workers in professional, managerial or administrative position
and the latter to those who typically perform manual labor and earn an hourly wage) has in the last few
decades been challenged by a rapidly changing and ever more complex economy and consequently, by
the newly emerging types of workers. Management and human resources experts have realised that
two colours are not sufficient to differentiate between the multitude of job types in toНКв‟s
employment market. These job types, therefore, needed a name as they did not fit into the narrow, now
completely obsolete, division of increasingly diverse work force. This need has now added many other
colours to the traditionally viewed work force. Thus nowadays there are not only blue-collar and
white-collar, but also gold-collar, grey-collar, green-collar, pink-collar, brown-collar, scarlet-collar,
ОtМ. аorkОrs, so tСКt tСО МoХour oП ОКМС “МoХХКr” is intended to identify a specific subsector of the
working population.
Within the theoretical framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980;
Lakoff and Turner 1989) and Conceptual Metonymy Theory (Radden and Kövecses 1999; Radden
2000; Barcelona 2000; Niemeier 1998, 2007) in this paper we focus on the figurative use of colours
for naming various types of workers which have emerged in the new economy. In this process of
naming metonymy plays a major role in that it helps, via a stand-for process (e.g. SALİENT FEATURE
FOR PERSON, COLOUR FOR PERSON, etc.), to identify people belonging to a socially accepted and
recognisable group. Such metonymic meanings are not ad hoc meanings but are deeply motivated by
culturally dependent aspects, resulting in metonymically based metaphors, thus once again proving
that many (if not all) metaphors are grounded in underlying metonymies. An attempt will be made to
establish whether the same cognitive processes and mappings, responsible for coining the two already
lexicalised terms, white-collar and blue-collar workers, participate in the meaning construction of the
newly coined X-collar terms, where X stands for a colour.
In conclusion, we point out some pedagogical implications of our analysis for the teaching of
Business English, arguing the following: because ESP students seem to frequently misinterpret
metaphors since they use different cultural references when attempting to interpret them, teachers need
to help them establish the metonymic link which may be missing due to different cultural stereotypes.
1 The paper is the result of research conducted within project no. 178002 Languages and cultures across space
and time funded by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
According to the originators of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980),
metaphor and metonymy are regarded not only as a textual decoration which contributes to the
expressiveness of the text, but as having important roles in structuring our thinking and therefore
language. As “mОtКpСor КЧН ЦОtoЧвЦв oПtОЧ „ЦООt‟ Кt МoЧМОptuКХ КЧН ХТЧРuТstТМ МrossroКНs”
(Barcelona 2000: 1), a strict difference between them cannot be drawn easily. Lakoff and Johnson
(1980) define metaphor as understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another or as
a partial mapping or set of correspondences between two conceptual domains which they term the
source and target domains. Metonymy, on the other hand, is understood as a conceptual projection
whereby one domain is partially understood in terms of another domain included in the same
experiential domain (Barcelona 2000). Many authors claim that all metaphors are essentially
metonymy-based (see e.g. Barcelona 2000; Radden and Kövecses 1999; etc.). A metonymy-based
metaphor is defined as “a mapping involving two conceptual domains which are grounded in, or can
ЛО trКМkОН to, oЧО МoЧМОptuКХ НoЦКТЧ” (RКННОЧ 2000: 93). Metaphor used to be claimed to be based
on similarities ЛОtаООЧ uЧХТkО ОЧtТtТОs. HoаОvОr, rОsОКrМС СКs sСoаЧ tСКt soЦО ЦОtКpСors “МКЧЧot ЛО
traced back to experiential correlations, but rather have their basis in perceived similarities or
rОsОЦЛХКЧМОs” (SОЦТЧo 2008: 7). MОtoЧвЦв, oЧ tСО otСОr СКЧН, Тs ЛКsОН oЧ МoЧМОptuКХ contiguity,
аСТМС Тs РrouЧНОН ТЧ “ОбtrКХТЧРuТstТМ ОбpОrТОЧМОs КЧН МoЧЧotКtТoЧs КЧН Тs tСОrОПorО МuХturО-dОpОЧНОЧt”
(Niemeier 1998: 123).
Most metaphors and metonymies are motivated by bodily experience, i.e. they are embodied.
However, although bodily experience is universal, the conceptual domains of experience are not
necessarily the same in all cultures, which means that both ЦОtКpСors КЧН ЦОtoЧвЦТОs КrО “to К ХКrРО
extent culture-spОМТПТМ” (BКrМОХoЧК 2000: 6). “IП „culture‟ is understood in its broadest sense, it could
ЛО КrРuОН tСКt ОvОrв КspОМt oП СuЦКЧ ОбpОrТОЧМО Тs ПТХtОrОН tСrouРС Тt” (DОТРЧКЧ 2003: 255), which
has already been proved by numerous cross-cultural studies of metaphors and metonymies (see e.g.
Boers 2000).
Deignan (2003: 257) claims that, as far as metaphors are concerned, tСОrО КrО “tаo МХosОХв
connected factors [that] underlie the differОЧМОs ЛОtаООЧ ХКЧРuКРОs”, (1) НТППОrОЧt МuХturОs ЦКв СoХН
different folk beliefs about attributes of the source domain; and (2) the source domain may be less
sКХТОЧt ТЧ НТППОrОЧt МuХturОs. LТttХОЦorО (2003: 273) КРrООs tСКt ЦОtКpСors КrО “tвpТМКХХв МuХturally-
loaded expressions, whose meaning has to be inferred through reference to shared cultural
kЧoаХОНРО”, КЧН tСКt “ДМ]oЧПusТoЧ Тs pКrtТМuХКrХв ХТkОХв to КrТsО аСОЧ, Пor МuХturКХ rОКsoЧs, tСО spОКkОr
and listener attach different connotations to the sourcО НoЦКТЧs” (Littlemore 2003: 274). The
МoЧЧotКtТoЧs oП К ХКЧРuКРО ОбprОssТoЧ, ТЧ turЧ, КrО НОПТЧОН Кs “prКРЦКtТМ ОППОМts tСКt КrТsО ПroЦ
encyclopaedic knowledge about its denotation (or reference) and also from experiences, beliefs, and
prejudices about thО МoЧtОбts ТЧ аСТМС tСО ОбprОssТoЧ Тs tвpТМКХХв usОН.” (AХХКЧ 2007: 1047). However,
although “Дt]СО МuХturО-specific nature of certain figurative expressions may (initially) be a stumbling
block for foreign language learners” (Boers 2003: 234), there are ways in which this problem may be
overcome in the ESP classroom. These ways will also be discussed in the text that follows.
In the next section we deal with several expressions which have emerged in English owing to the
need to name and identify so far non-existent types of workers in the new economy, showing the role
metonymy plays in this process of naming. Such expressions, metaphor- and metonymy-based
compounds, as Benczes (2009: 51) calls them, МКЧ “ЛО КЧКХвгОН rОЦКrkКЛХв аОХХ аТtСТЧ К МoРЧТtТvО
linguТstТМ ПrКЦОаork”, аСТМС аТХХ ЛО КttОЦptОН ТЧ tСТs pКpОr Кs аОХХ.
3. X-COLLAR WORKERS AND THE ROLE OF METONYMY
In addition to the obvious reason why colours have been chosen to name the newly formed
groups of workers (the already existing division of work force into blue- and white-collars), as well as
to tСО ПКМt tСКt “ДМ]oХours КrО МОrtКТЧХв К vОrв proНuМtТvО ЦОtoЧвЦТМ ПТОХН” (NТОЦОТОr 1998: 126),
another reason is also very important, especially when this process of naming is viewed from a
cognitive aspect. NКЦОХв, Кs NТОЦОТОr (1998: 122) МХКТЦs, “ДТ]Ч МoЧtrКst to „pХКТЧ‟ ХКЧРuКРО,

metonymies are also endowed with more surprise effects or expressivity insofar as superficially they
КppОКr to sКв sТЦТХКr tСТЧРs Д...] Кs tСОТr „ЧОutrКХ‟ ОquТvКХОЧts Д...]
2 but iЧ КННТtТoЧ to „МoХour‟ tСО
utterances with nuances of cultural norms and values, attitudes, beliefs, etc, i.e. with an inherent world
vТОа.” As colours (together with shapes) are among the first concepts we register as they are
“rОХКtТvОХв ОКsв to НОsМrТЛО, Кt ХОКst аТtСТЧ К spОМТПТМ МuХturО” (NТОЦОТОr 2007: 141), tСОв “МКЧ ЛО
regarded as a concept widely internalised and widely shared within a language community [...] prone
to РТvО rТsО to ЧuЦОrous ЦОКЧТЧР ОбtОЧsТoЧs ТЧ НТvОrsО tвpОs oП ЦОtoЧвЦв.” (NТОЦОТОr 1998: 124).
Moreover, as Benczes points out (2009), metaphorical compounds are able to express complex ideas
in a compact form as well as to evoke richer images than their usually much longer literal equivalents.
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, most newly formed expressions have been created by means of
КЧКХoРв, Т.О. pОopХО МrОКtО ЧОа аorН МoЦЛТЧКtТoЧs Лв ЦКkТЧР “КpproprТКtО suЛstТtutТoЧs ТЧ prОvТousХв
ХОКrЧОН МoЦЛТЧКtТoЧs usОН Кs ОбОЦpХКrs” (LКЦЛ 1998: 265, quotОН ТЧ BОЧМгОs 2009). TСТs КЧКХoРв Тs
oПtОЧ “ЛКsОН upoЧ spОКkОrs‟ rОЦotТvКtТoЧ oП sОЦКЧtТМКХХв ХОбТМКХТгОН МoЦpouЧНs” (BОЧМгОs 2009: 58),
of which the prime examples are white-collar and blue-collar workers. Speakers are, therefore, able to
analyse the composition and meaning of compounds in tОrЦs oП tСОТr МoЧstТtuОЧt pКrts, КЧН “Дt]СТs
„НТssОМtТoЧ‟ oП ЦОКЧТЧР Тs tСОЧ usОН to МrОКtО ЧovОХ МoЦpouЧНs, oЧ tСО ЛКsТs oП КХrОКНв ОЧtrОЧМСОН
sМСОЦКs” (BОЧМгОs 2006:143).
The naming process involved in the traditional division of work force into white- and blue-collar
workers relies on metonymy. Namely, in the process of naming the metonymy PART FOR WHOLE
largely structures our thinking about a group of workers whose uniforms served as a trigger for this
type of metonymy, in which a PART OF CLOTHES STANDS FOR CLOTHES (COLLAR STANDS FOR
UNIFORM). In the expression white-collar workers3, аСТtО МoХХКr stКЧНs Пor tСОsО аorkОrs‟ МХОКЧ КЧН
pressed white shirts, which matched well with their higher-paid positions. The colour white usually
connotes cleanliness and white-МoХХКr аorkОrs КrО МХКТЦОН to ЛО “soМТКХХв supОrТor to ЛХuО МoХХКr
аorkОrs” (AХХКЧ 2009: 3). The expression blue-collar workers, on the other hand, probably derives
from the blue colour of boilersuit coveralls, a sturdy manual worker uniform made of denim, whose
collar has been chosen as the most salient part of that uniform, as opposed to the white shirts typically
worn by professionals and clerical workers. TСus, “soЦО sКХТОЧt КspОМts oП МОrtКТЧ pОopХО‟s МХotСТЧР
come to stand for the people themsОХvОs” (NТОЦОТОr 1998: 128), sТЧМО МХotСТЧР Тs К ПrОquОЧtХв usОН
metonymic source. Both expressions, however, involve another metonymy, DEFINING PROPERTY FOR
CATEGORY, so that the characteristic of one worker wearing a blue/white collar stands for the whole
category of workers. This metonymy may also be termed MEMBER OF A CATEGORY FOR THE
CATEGORY, “К vОrв МoЦЦoЧ ЦОtoЧвЦв ТЧ МrОКtТЧР soМТКХ stОrОotвpОs” (Benczes 2006a: 145). By
ЦОКЧs oП tСТs ЦОtoЧвЦв, “ЛХuО-collar worker and white-collar worker came to stand for the categories
oП pСвsТМКХ КЧН МХОrТМКХ proПОssТoЧs, rОspОМtТvОХв” (BОЧМгОs 2006К: 145).
As can be seen, metonymy as a cognitive mechanism played a major role in the original naming
of the two traditional groups of workers. What about the other, newly formed metaphorical terms? Do
they use the same metonymic pattern, or do some other cognitive mechanisms determine the process
of naming? In other words, why has X-collar (X standing for colour) become a productive pattern in
English, exhibiting the metonymic salience in the modifier?4
3.1. Green-collar workers
Green-collar workers are defined as workers who are employed in the environmental sectors of
the economy. Dealing with the connotations of colours in Business English vocabulary, we have
argued elsewherО (SТХКškТ 2011) tСКt “ДТ]n by far the largest number of expressions in business
vocabulary containing the colour green [...] green metonymically stands for nature, ecology, concern
for the environment, the conservation of natural resources, and the like”, reflected in expressions such
2 Thus, for exКЦpХО, “РrООЧ ТНОКs” Тs sТЦТХКr to “uЧrТpО ТНОКs” or “ТНОКs КЛout tСО prОsОrvКtТoЧ oП ЧКturО” (sОО
Niemeier 1998: 122).
3 In figurative senses, white-collar is first attested 1919; blue-collar from 1950 (www.etymonline.com).
4 In this paper we focus only on those expressions which have a colour name in them. A number of other creative
expressions of the X-collar type (where X does not exclusively stand for a colour) have been created: open-
collar, no-collar, steel-collar, fuel-collar, frayed-collar workers, etc. (found by means of an Internet search).
Some of them are probably one-off creations, perhaps quite unlikely to be conventionalised.

as green bond, green companies, green economics, green fund, green image, green investing, green
marketing, green tech, etc. It, therefore, seemed quite natural that the colour green would sooner or
later be used metonymically to denote workers employed in environmentally conscious sectors of the
economy. According to Niemeier (1998: 131-134), tСТs ЦОtoЧвЦв Тs rОХКtТvОХв ЧОа Кs “Тt oЧХв
НОvОХopОН аТtС tСО ОМoХoРТМКХ ЦovОЦОЧt”, ТЧ tСО ЦТН-1980s, when the colour green аКs “КНopted as
tСО kОваorН Пor КХХ ОЧvТroЧЦОЧtКХ ТssuОs” (NТОЦОТОr 1998: 132). TСО МoХour green in the expression
green-collar workers, owing to the metonymy GREEN STANDS FOR ECOLOGY, has produced a
metaphorical expression, which has now been established and fully lexicalised in English. Therefore,
the collar of green-МoХХКr аorkОrs ТsЧ‟t РrООЧ, whereas the expression itself was created according to
tСО КХrОКНв ОбТstТЧР ПorЦКtТoЧ pКttОrЧ. IЧ КННТtТoЧ to tСО “СТstorТМКХ” ЦОtoЧвЦв rОПОrrТЧР to tСО PART
OF CLOTHES which STANDS FOR CLOTHES (COLLAR STANDS FOR CLOTHES), the expression green-
collar workers is due to the metonymy GREEN STANDS FOR ECOLOGY, involving double or even triple
metonymic meaning – ПТrstХв, tСО КХrОКНв ЦОЧtТoЧОН “СТstorТМКХ ЦОtoЧвЦв” (ТЧСОrТtОН ПroЦ blue- and
white-collar workers), secondly, GREEN STANDS FOR ECOLOGY, and thirdly, a MEMBER OF A
CATEGORY FOR THE CATEGORY, for workers working in environmental sectors of the economy.
5
3.2. Pink-collar workers
Metonymic link may be affected by cultural context i.e. culture-based knowledge (Benczes
2006b). Namely, the most prominent connotation of the colour pink in Anglo-Saxon culture is that of
femininity. Being traditionally the colour of little girls, as opposed to blue for little boys, pink is
thought of as a feminine, delicate colour. This conceptual mapping is clearly reflected in a number
business-related expressions such as a rather sexist term pink-collar worker, denoting someone
employed in a job that is considered to be a female occupation, like teaching and nursing, traditionally
pink-collar jobs. The term is formed by an analogy to blue-collar and white-collar workers, but,
МoРЧТtТvОХв spОКkТЧР, Тt НoОs Чot ПoХХoа tСО sКЦО proНuМtТvО pКttОrЧ. NКЦОХв, tСО “СТstorТМКХ” “PART-
WHOLE metonymy (collar stands for shirt) that played a role both in the meaning of blue-collar worker
and white-collar worker does not operate here anymore; the uniform of pink-collar worker [...] does
Чot pХКв КЧв roХО Кt КХХ ТЧ tСО МoЧstruМtТoЧ oП tСО ЦОКЧТЧР oП tСО МoЦpouЧНs” (Benczes 2006a: 145). It
is the connotation of the colour pink, femininity, that is responsible for the formation of the expression
pink-collar workers. In addition, since pink-collar jobs are frequently considered not only done by
women but underpaid and dead-end jobs, there is another aspect of the colour pink which may be at
work here – pink often stands for frivolous behaviour and unseriousness. Benczes (2006a: 146) even
claims that the low-income aspect of a pink-МoХХКr УoЛ “ЦТРСt ЛО ОбpХКТЧОН аТtС tСО аorН‟s otСОr
association, i.e. that of babies and little girls: a pink-collar job is simply not considered to be a serious
as e.g. a blue-collar or white-collar position, thus it need not be paid well either.”
3.3. Grey-collar workers
There appear to be three contrasting definitions of the expression grey-collar workers. The first
one refers to workers who continue to work beyond the age of retirement. Cognitively speaking, the
expression itself has been formed due to the metonymy SALİENT FEATURE FOR PERSON, which can be
understood as an application of the PART-WHOLE image schema, where a grey hair of the ageing
population is taken to stand for a person who possesses this feature.6 However, for this metonymy to
ПuЧМtТoЧ propОrХв, “tСО rОХКtТoЧ ЛОtаООЧ КttrТЛutО КЧН person/object alone is not sufficient: it is
essential that the person or object must be a member of an identifiable and socially accepted concept,
аСТМС sОrvОs Кs К ЦКppТЧР sМopО Пor tСО ЦОtoЧвЦв” (UЧРОrОr & SМСЦТН 2006: 155). TСТs ЦОКЧs tСКt
another metonymy is at work here: MEMBER OF A CATEGORY FOR THE CATEGORY. In the expression
grey-collar workers, therefore, the colour grey stands for the hair of ageing populations continuing to
work beyond retirement age, whereas the expression itself denotes an identifiable group of people
sharing the same salient feature.
5 See Benczes (2006a: 145-6) for a detailed account of the constructional schema of white- and blue-collar
workers.
6 The expression silver-collar workers is sometimes used as synonymous to grey-collar workers, being founded
on the same part-whole metonymy and the similarity between the colours grey and silver.

Another definition of grey-collar worker refers to an employee classified as neither white or
blue-collar. It is a worker in an occupation that incorporates some of the elements of both blue- and
white-collar jobs. A question which arises here is the following: why has the colour grey been chosen
to metonymically stand for jobs whose description cannot be neatly classified into neither groups
(white and blue-collar)? This is probably due to the concept of indeterminability, which is one of the
connotations of the colour grey, as evidenced by the expressions grey area or grey economy. This in
turn means that the PART FOR WHOLE metonymy, owing to which the expressions blue-collar and
white-collar workers were originally created, does not have a role in meaning construction here.
Yet another, third, definition of a grey-collar worker states that it is an “underemployed white
МoХХКr аorkОr, suМС Кs soЦОoЧО аТtС К ЛКМСОХor‟s НОРrОО ТЧ EЧРХТsС ХТtОrКturО аorking as a customer
service representative”.
7 Which meaning of grey-collar worker will prevail and perhaps become
lexicalised in English will depend on the perception of saliency – does the colour grey better embody
and stand for the old age, indetermination or some other salient feature or association which will show
up in the process of naming? The mere existence of three parallel terms using the same colour but with
three disparate definitions confirms that human preferences as regards the connotation of colours
differ, the fact which may have important implications for ELT. Which meaning will prevail is rather
dependent of the “strength” of the undelying metonymy. In other words, it will in time become evident
which salient feature of a person belonging to the same group will sustain.
3.4. Other X-collar expressions
Several other X-collar expressions have been found by means of an Internet search, such as
yellow-collar, gold-collar, brown-collar, scarlet-collar, light-blue-collar, red-collar, black-collar
workers, etc. However, no straightforward and unambiguous definition has yet been established for
each of these expressions, which indicates several things. Firstly, it may be the case that some of these
expressions are merely one-off results of language creativity of their creators which will never be
lexicalised. Alternatively, they may be the rОsuХt oП tСОТr МrОКtors‟ ТНОoХoРТМКХ stКЧМО (sОО LКХТć Krstin
2010: 15), or pОrСКps МoТЧОН Пor tСО purposОs oП КЧ ТЧНТvТНuКХ rОsОКrМС ТЧto toНКв‟s аorkПorМО. In
other words, these expressions have in all likelihood been neither consolidated (accepted by a
language community) not established (they still have not become a part of lexicon and normal use of a
language community) (see PrćТć 1997: 71-72), having one or more different definitions, just like the
above expression grey-collar workers.
The colour golden derives its name from gold, a precious metal of intrinsic value once used as a
medium of exchange. However, the connotation of this precious metal results in a meaning extension,
such that the colour golden stands for monetary value, which is reflected in numerous business-related
expressions in English. In the expression gold-collar worker, the colour gold metonymically stands for
money, so that the meaning of the ОбprОssТoЧ Тs “КЧ ОЦpХoвОО аСo ОКrЧs К vОrв СТРС sКХКrв КЧН
ЛoЧusОs”. TСТs ЦОtoЧвЦТМ ХТЧk ЛОtаООЧ tСО precious metal and anything of monetary value may be
said to be universal, which may facilitate the teaching of this expression to ESP students. Again, the
PART FOR WHOLE metonymy, operational in white-collar and blue-collar worker, does not have a role
in the meaning construction of the term gold-collar worker. However, the same term is also used to
НОsМrТЛО аorkОrs “аТtС СТРС ТЧtОХХТРОЧМО аСo ЦТРСt Чot ХТkО to ПoХХoа trКНТtТoЧКХ МorporКtО ruХОs”, or
КХtОrЧКtТvОХв, “in a derogatory way to refer to workers without college degrees who choose to spend
tСОТr НТsposКЛХО ТЧМoЦО oЧ НОsТРЧОr МХotСОs КЧН Хuбurв МКrs”.8
Similarly, the term black-collar worker was formerly used to refer the workers whose collars
were black (i.e. dirty, involving the BLACK FOR DIRTY metonymy) by the nature of their jobs (e.g.
miners, whose collars often got dirty from coal, or oil workers). Nowadays, however, this definition
has changed to denote a group of workers who usually do creative jobs such as artists, graphic
designers and video producers. It would be interesting to see which one of these definitions will
prevail in English, i.e. which conceptual mapping will prove to be the strongest in the process of
naming.
7 http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06223/712702-28.stm#ixzz1a2IZrF5O, August 11, 2006.
8 http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06223/712702-28.stm#ixzz1a2IZrF5O, August 11, 2006.

4. PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
It СКs ХoЧР ЛООЧ ОstКЛХТsСОН tСКt “tСО КЛТХТtв to uЧНОrstКЧН КЧН usО ЦОtКpСors ТЧ tСО tКrРОt ХКЧРuКРО Тs
ХТkОХв to ЦКkО К suЛstКЧtТКХ МoЧtrТЛutТoЧ to ДПorОТРЧ] ХКЧРuКРО proПТМТОЧМв” (LТttХОЦorО 2010: 293),
which is a finding which has had a profound effect on the teaching of English for Specific Purposes.
Moreover, research has sСoаЧ tСКt “ТП ХКЧРuКРО ХОКrЧОrs КrО sОЧsТtТгОН to tСО МoЧМОptuКХ ЦОtКpСors
underlying aspects of the language that they are learning, then they tend to be better at understanding
and retaining them.” (Littlemore 2004b). AХtСouРС “Цost oП tСО МoЧЧotКtТvО ЦОКЧТЧРs КssТРЧОН to
МoХours sООЦ to ЛО РrouЧНОН, Кt ХОКst to soЦО ОбtОЧt, ТЧ rОКХТtв” (PСТХХТp 2006: 88), ЦОtoЧвЦТМКХХв-
based metaphorical expressions containing the colour term in them often involve transference of
ЦОКЧТЧРs. TСОsО ЦОКЧТЧРs ЦКв ЛО МuХturКХХв НОpОЧНОЧt КЧН “Дo]ЧО rОКsoЧ аСв stuНОЧts tОЧН to
misinterpret metaphors may be that they use different cultural references when attempting to interpret
tСОЦ” (LТttХОЦorО 2003: 273). As fas as Serbian ESP economics students are concerned, research
(SТХКškТ 2011) СКs sСoаЧ tСКt “both in English and Serbian, there are a number of cross-domain
mappings generated by unique cultural stereotypes, which facilitates teaching special lexis with
colour-rОХКtОН аorНs to SОrЛТКЧ stuНОЧts”.
9 Native speakers have immediate acces to shared cultural
knowledge which can help them in understanding novel metaphors. However, non-native speakers
“КrО ПorМОН to usО strКtОРТОs ТЧvoХvТЧР ТЦКРОrв, ХТtОrКХ ТЧtОrprОtКtТoЧ, tСОТr oаЧ ЛКМkРrouЧН
kЧoаХОНРО, tСО ovОrКХХ МoЧtОбt, КЧН РuОssаork ТЧ orНОr to ТЧtОrprОt tСО ЦОtКpСors”. (LТttХОЦorО
2004a).
When teaching X-collar terms to students whose native tongue is Serbian, however, it is
important to accentuate any cultural differences that exist between English and Serbian with regard to
the connotations certain colour carry in English colour-related terms. It would be useful to carry out a
research which will confirm or refute the hypothesis of the cultural overlap as regards the connotations
of colours in English and Serbian. In this way, ESP teachers would be equipped with the necessary
knowledge which would help them to decide whether the X-collar metaphors may be taught by relying
on this overlap between the two cultures, or, whether, mainly due to cross-cultural differences, the
ЦОtoЧвЦТМ ХТЧk sСouХН ЛО МКrОПuХХв ОбpХКТЧОН to stuНОЧts so tСКt tСОв ЛОМoЦО КаКrО “oП tСО НТППОrОЧt
ЦОtoЧвЦТМ stОps” (NТОЦОТОr 2007: 146) in the creation of the novel X-collar terms.
As PСТХТp МХКТЦs (2006: 72), “Дo]nce the language user becomes aware of the origin and
metonymical motivation for the phrase, his/her perception of the meaning may change slightly, as the
new image contributes an additional layer of literal, compositional meaning to the otherwise non-
НОМoЦposКЛХО strТЧР”. TСТs ЦОКЧs tСКt a lot of extra-linguistic knowledge is needed for understanding
certain colour expressions used in business and economics, which is аСв “ТЧtОrМuХturКХ МoЦpОtОЧМО”
(Niemeier 2007: 153) is of the utmost importance in the teaching/learning process.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper an attempt has been made to explain the process of creation of certain X-collar
worker terms, made according to an analogy with white-collar and blue-collar workers. It turned out
that the cognitive processes which are responsible for the creation of the original, white and blue-
collar terms, may not be at work when it comes to novel expressions denoting newly emerging
categories of workers in the new economy. It is obvious that new terms are frequently coined
according to the already existing constructional schemas present in the expressions blue- and white-
collar workers. The new expressions are ЛКsОН oЧ spОКkОrs‟ rОЦotivation of the already lexicalised
terms. These creation processes involve new types of metonymy, which nevertheless remains one of
the most fruitful instruments in the construction of meaning and coining new terms. We have also
discussed some pedagogical implications, focusing on the teaching of X-collar terms in an ESP
9 SТХКškТ (2011) МoЧtrКstТvОХв prОsОЧts tСО Цost ПrОquОЧt МoЧЧotКtТoЧs oП tСО МoХours green, golden and pink in
English and Serbian in order to establish to what extent the teaching of English colour expressions used in
business may be based on metaphors and metonymies, i.e. how effective a metaphor-based approach is in this
particular case.

economics classroom and giving certain recommendations in this regard. Hopefully, this paper will
shed new light on both the conceptual schemas involved in the creations of new terms in English
based on the already existing formation patterns, and on the teaching of these terms to Serbian
economics students.
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 
X-COLLAR   Ј Ј –  Ј  ЂЊ 
   Ј

             
  ђ      , . 
           
   (. grey-collar / green-collar / pink-collar, gold-collar workers
.).             
     ђ       ђ
  .     ђ   
        (    ,
white-collar  blue-collar),   ad hoc ,     
,      .  
          ђ 
     ђ    .
 
 
  
silaskin@sbb.rs