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A Closer Examination of the Academic Benefits of AP
The Journal of Educational Research
Abstract
The authors sought to better understand the relationship between students participating in the Advanced Placement (AP) program and subsequent performance on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). Focusing on students graduating from U.S. public high schools in 2010, the authors used propensity scores to match junior year AP examinees in 3 subjects to similar students who did not take any AP exams in high school. Multilevel regression models with these matched samples demonstrate a mostly positive relationship between AP exam participation and senior year SAT performance, particularly for students who score a 3 or higher. Students who enter into the AP year with relatively lower initial achievement are predicted to perform slightly better on later SAT tests than students with similar initial achievement who do not participate in AP.
... A line of research related to the College Board's psychometric work is the noteworthy number of non-experimental group comparison studies of the academic performance of non-AP students and AP students. College Board studies have shown that AP students score higher on standardized test scores than non-AP students (Ewing, Camara, & Millsap, 2006;Mattern, Shaw, & Xiong, 2009;McKillip & Rawls, 2013). AP students also attend college at higher rates (Chajewski, Mattern, & Shaw, 2011;Wyatt & Mattern, 2011), earn higher grades in college (Keng & Dodd, 2008;Morgan & Klaric, 2007;Murphy & Dodd, 2009;Patterson, Packman, & Kobrin, 2011;, are less likely to drop out of college (Mattern et al., 2009;Wyatt & Mattern, 2011), and graduate from college at higher rates than non-AP students . ...
... 170) In response to these concerns, more researchers are controlling for confounding variables to ascertain the causal impact of the AP program. Most authors have found that controlling for covariates reduces the apparent impact of the AP program on academic achievement (e.g., Klopfenstein & Thomas, 2010;McKillip & Rawls, 2013;Sadler & Sonnert, 2010;Warne, Larsen, Anderson, & Odasso, 2015) or makes the impact of AP participation vanish completely (e.g., Geiser & Santelices, 2004;Schumacker, 2014). ...
... Instead of matching subjects on exact values of all covariate values (as in traditional methods), the researcher only matches on the propensity scores (Fan & Nowell, 2011;Guo & Fraser, 2010;Yanovitzky, Zanutto, & Hornik, 2005). Researchers studying the AP program have begun to embrace propensity score modeling, both within the College Board (McKillip & Rawls, 2013) and among independent researchers (Jackson, 2010;Long, Conger, & Iatarola, 2012;Sadler & Sonnert, 2010;. The results of studies using propensity score analysis are promising, and these studies bring scholars to a more realistic understanding of the actual benefits of the AP program. ...
With more than 3 million participants per year, the Advanced Placement (AP) program is one of the most popular programs in the United States for exposing high-achieving high school students to advanced academic content. Sponsored by the College Board, the AP program provides a framework in which high school teachers can teach introductory college-level courses to high school students. These students then take one of 34 standardized tests at the end of the year, and students who score well on their course’s AP test can receive college credit from their university in which they later enroll. Despite the popularity of the AP program, remarkably little independent research has been conducted on the academic benefits of AP. In this article, I summarize the state of knowledge about the academic benefits of AP. Previous research and descriptive data indicate that AP students outperform non-AP students on a variety of academic measures, but many other aspects of the program are poorly understood, partially due to variability across AP subjects. These aspects include the causal impact of AP, which components of the program are most effective in boosting academic achievement, and how students engage with the AP program. I also conclude by making suggestions for researchers to use new methodologies to investigate new scientific and policy questions and new student populations to improve the educational scholars’ and practitioners’ understanding of the AP program.
This study explores the sense of efficacy, perceptions of benefits, and concerns among high school students participating in an AP Research course during the 2021–2022 academic year. The investigation includes an evaluation of students’ satisfaction with course materials and delivery. Data, gathered through surveys and individual essays, underwent analysis to assess improvements in students’ research efficacy and overall satisfaction. The findings reveal that, despite encountering challenges, most students demonstrated notable improvement and expressed satisfaction with the course's pedagogical approach. Identified benefits include enhanced critical thinking, improved research skills, and increased confidence in conducting independent research projects. This study contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the effectiveness and impact of the AP Research program on student learning and engagement. To build on these insights, further research is recommended to explore best practices for optimizing student experiences and outcomes in AP Research.
Students of color and low-income students face external barriers that prevent them from reaching equal representation in Advanced Placement (AP) classes in the United States. Internal barriers, like self-doubt, however, may be just as effective at decreasing enrollment likelihood for these populations. This trend has been noticed even in regions of the U.S. that have very diverse high school populations. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects that a growth mindset can have on historically-underrepresented students’ self-perceived AP enrollment likelihood. A growth mindset intervention was administered to five standard level freshman English classes via PowerPoint presentation. These classes were chosen based on a calculated diversity score to examine historically-underrepresented populations. Two surveys were completed by students before and after the intervention. The surveys collected information on students’ self-perception of their likelihood of enrolling in an AP class in their future high school years. The analysis revealed that students who struggled to use a growth mindset had a significant increase in self-perceived AP enrollment likelihood. Based on the gap in research regarding growth mindset and AP enrollment, these analyses provide evidence that growth mindset interventions could potentially help more students overcome their internal barriers and have the confidence to enroll in AP classes.
This study analyzes the correlation between required years of Bible courses and academic rigor at select private Christian schools. These findings, derived from the author’s doctoral research, show a threshold of under 4 years of required Bible courses for optimal academic perception among these schools. This threshold correlates with a medium to strong effect size and demonstrates a tension between academic strength and integration of faith and learning. This finding calls attention to Christian schools’ need to examine their priorities as both Christian and academic institutions. Theological and practical implications include extensions of the doctrine of sovereignty and curricular design.
High school students enroll in Advanced Placement (AP) courses and take AP exams for a variety of reasons. However, a lack of information about the extent to which there are incremental benefits associated with taking multiple AP exams has fostered a perception that students must take many APs to be prepared for college. Conversely, many American students graduate from high school without even one AP, raising questions about whether such experiences should have been more strongly encouraged. Our article investigates the incremental gains in college student outcomes that are associated with taking and performing well on numerous AP exams. Using postsecondary transcript records, we examine the relationships between college outcomes (first‐year grades and bachelor's degree attainment) and AP (number of AP exams taken and number of AP exams with passing scores of 3 or higher). After controlling for achievement, demographic characteristics, and other factors, we find that the biggest predicted boost in first‐year grades and on‐time bachelor's degree attainment are associated with AP participation changing from zero to one AP exam and from one to two AP exams. Taking and performing well on more than four to six AP exams does not markedly alter predicted first‐year college grades and on‐time bachelor's degree attainment rates.
This qualitative study explored Latina/o students’ sense of belonging in majority White and Asian Advanced Placement (AP) and honors classes in a diverse suburban high school. Using self-determination theory as a framework, I focused on three aspects of sense of belonging: social belonging, teacher–student relationships, and academic belonging. Ten Latina/o tenth- and eleventh-grade students participated in classroom observations, guided journaling sessions, and interviews to capture their sense of belonging in AP and honors classes. Although all of the participants expressed a lack of sense of belonging, they reported that they leveraged their experiences to motivate themselves, increase their engagement, and build resilience.
This paper explores the issue of social justice through the lens of equitable access to Advanced Placement courses inthe City of New York High Schools, with focus on Advanced Placement Environmental Science. A criticalcomponent of the Advanced Placement Environmental Science course is the incorporation of environmentalfieldwork. The National Research Council (2014) suggest that field stations are important for STEM education andprovide opportunities to engage students in the natural environment and get them excited about science. Through theCurriculum and Community Enterprise for Restoration Science, an NSF funded opportunity, students in theAdvanced Placement Environmental Science course are integrating their field station work in Oyster Restoration inthe New York City Harbor. These interactions with the environment offer unique experiences which engagemarginalized students in both rigorous coursework and affords equity in science learning. In turn, it affords allstudents the opportunity for upward mobility and increased career opportunities in the area of STEM.
This article explains how issues regarding dual credit and Advanced Placement high school science courses could be mitigated via a flipped classroom instructional model. The need for advanced high school courses will be examined initially, followed by an analysis of advanced science courses and the reform they are experiencing. Finally, it will conclude with an explanation of flipped classes as well as how they may be a solution to the reform challenges teachers are experiencing as they seek to incorporate more inquiry-based activities.
AP Potential ™ is a data-driven tool offered by the College Board that uses scores from the PSAT/NMSQT ® to identify students who have the potential to succeed in Advanced Placement Program ® (AP®) courses (College Board, 2007). Research showing a moderate-to-strong correlation between PSAT/NMSQT scores and AP Exam scores serves as the basis for this tool (Camara and Millsap, 1998; Ewing, Camara, and Millsap, 2006). The PSAT/NMSQT is a shorter version of the SAT ® designed to measure reasoning and thinking skills in the areas of critical reading, mathematics, and writing. In 2006, changes to the writing scale were made because it was the first year in which the PSAT/NMSQT writing scale was linked to the new SAT writing scale. This scale change had implications for AP Potential in that the AP Exams that
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Using national transcript data, the authors examine inequality in access to an advanced curriculum in high school and assess the consequences of curricular intensity on test scores and college entry. Inequalities in curricular intensity are primarily explained by student socioeconomic status effects that operate within schools rather than between schools. They find significant positive effects of taking a more intense curriculum on 12th-grade test scores and in probabilities of entry to and completion of college. However, the effect sizes of curricular intensity are generally modest, smaller than advocates of curricular upgrading policies have implied.
The propensity score is the conditional probability of assignment to a particular treatment given a vector of observed covariates. Both large and small sample theory show that adjustment for the scalar propensity score is sufficient to remove bias due to all observed covariates. Applications include: (i) matched sampling on the univariate propensity score, which is a generalization of discriminant matching, (ii) multivariate adjustment by subclassification on the propensity score where the same subclasses are used to estimate treatment effects for all outcome variables and in all subpopulations, and (iii) visual representation of multivariate covariance adjustment by a two- dimensional plot.
The causal role of students' self-efficacy beliefs and academic goals in self-motivated academic attainment was studied using path analysis procedures. Parental goal setting and students' self-efficacy and personal goals at the beginning of the semester served as predictors of students' final course grades in social studies. In addition, their grades in a prior course in social studies were included in the analyses. A path model of four self-motivation variables and prior grades predicted students 'final grades in social studies, R = .56. Students' beliefs in their efficacy for self-regulated learning affected their perceived self-efficacy for academic achievement, which in turn influenced the academic goals they set for themselves and their final academic achievement. Students' prior grades were predictive of their parents' grade goals for them, which in turn were linked to the grade goals students set for themselves. These findings were interpreted in terms of the social cognitive theory of academic self-motivation.
Prior research estimating the effect of Catholic schooling has focused on high school, where evidence suggests a positive effect of Catholic versus public schooling. In this article, we estimate the effect of attending a Catholic elementary school rather than a public school on the math and reading skills of children in kindergarten through fifth grade. We use nationally representative data and a set of matching estimators to estimate the average effect of Catholic schooling and the extent to which the effect varies across educational markets. When we use public school students nationwide or within the same county to provide a counterfactual estimate of how Catholic school students would have performed in public schools, we find strong evidence indicating that Catholic elementary schools are less successful at teaching math skills than public schools (Catholic school students are 3–4 months behind public school students by third and fifth grade), but no more or less successful at teaching reading skills. Moreover, unlike prior research, we find no consistent evidence that the effects of Catholic schooling vary substantially by race or urbanicity, though our power to detect such differences is weak.
The propensity score is the conditional probability of assignment to a particular treatment given a vector of observed covariates. Previous theoretical arguments have shown that subclassification on the propensity score will balance all observed covariates. Subclassification on an estimated propensity score is illustrated, using observational data on treatments for coronary artery disease. Five subclasses defined by the estimated propensity score are constructed that balance 74 covariates, and thereby provide estimates of treatment effects using direct adjustment. These subclasses are applied within subpopulations, and model-based adjustments are then used to provide estimates of treatment effects within these subpopulations. Two appendixes address theoretical issues related to the application: the effectiveness of subclassification on the propensity score in removing bias, and balancing properties of propensity scores with incomplete data. Statistics Version of Record
This study focused on the relationship between students' Advanced Placement (AP) English language performance and their subsequent college success. Targeted students were divided into three groups according to their AP English Language performance. Subsequent college success was measured by students' first-year college GPA, retention to the second year, and institutional selectivity. The demographic characteristics of the three AP performance groups with regard to gender, ethnicity, and best language spoken are provided. Results indicated that, after controlling for students' SAT scores as a measure of prior academic performance, AP English Language performance was positively related to all three measures of college success.
We study a set of programs implemented in Philadelphia high schools that focus on boosting high school graduation, and especially college attendance, using data from the Philadelphia Educational Longitudinal Study (PELS). We examine the effects of these programs on a set of schooling-related outcomes during and after high school. The PELS data-set contains an unusually large amount of information on individuals prior to program placement. We use this information, in the context of both linear models and propensity score-matching estimators, to attempt to correct for selective participation in these programs. We find evidence of positive effects of these programs on high school graduation and on both academic and non-academic awards in high school, and similar negative effects on dropping out of high school. The results also suggest positive effects on attitudes and expectations about college attendance, and on college attendance.
The propensity score is the conditional probability of assignment to a particular treatment given a vector of observed covariates. Previous theoretical arguments have shown that subclassification on the propensity score will balance all observed covariates. Subclassification on an estimated propensity score is illustrated, using observational data on treatments for coronary artery disease. Five subclasses defined by the estimated propensity score are constructed that balance 74 covariates, and thereby provide estimates of treatment effects using direct adjustment. These subclasses are applied within sub-populations, and model-based adjustments are then used to provide estimates of treatment effects within these sub-populations. Two appendixes address theoretical issues related to the application: the effectiveness of subclassification on the propensity score in removing bias, and balancing properties of propensity scores with incomplete data.
SAS PROC MIXED is a flexible program suitable for fitting multilevel models, hierarchical linear models, and individual growth models. Its position as an integrated program within the SAS statistical package makes it an ideal choice for empirical researchers and applied statisticians seeking to do data reduction, management, and analysis within a single statistical package. Because the program was developed from the perspective of a "mixed" statistical model with both random and fixed effects, its syntax and programming logic may appear unfamiliar to users in education and the social and behavioral sciences who tend to express these models as multilevel or hierarchical models. The purpose of this paper is to help users familiar with fitting multilevel models using other statistical packages (e.g., HLM, MLwiN, MIXREG) add SAS PROC MIXED to their array of analytic options. The paper is written as a step-by-step tutorial that shows how to fit the two most common multilevel models: (a) school effects models, designed for data on individuals nested within naturally occurring hierarchies (e.g., students within classes); and (b) individual growth models, designed for exploring longitudinal data (on individuals) over time. The conclusion discusses how these ideas can be extended straighforwardly to the case of three level models. An appendix presents general strategies for working with multilevel data in SAS and for creating data sets at several levels.
Key Findings The 2000 and 2001 high school baseline assessment data provide evidence that the one change in school practices that can have the greatest impact on student achievement is to have every student complete a challenging academic core and either an academic or a career/technical concentration. This one change in school practices is effective regardless of students' racial and socioeconomic backgrounds. The 13 rural high schools with the greatest proportion of stu-dents completing the recommended academic core had significantly more students with mean achievement scores at the proficient or higher levels and significantly fewer students at the below basic level in reading, mathematics and science as measured by National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)-referenced exams. (See Table 3.) n Students who completed the recommended academic core and either an academic or a career concentration had higher mean reading, mathematics and science achievement scores than students who failed to meet either or both conditions. n Students completing the academic core and a concentration were more likely to have mean scores at the basic and proficient levels. n Most high schools have about one-half of their students completing the HSTW-recom-mended curriculum. (See page 2 for the recommended curriculum.) Schools that take steps to get more of their students to complete the recommended academic core and either an academic or career/technical concentration improve student achievement. I n 2000 and again in 2001, the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) conducted an audit of course-taking patterns by a total of 4,244 graduating seniors from 51 rural high schools in 12 states. 1 Each school provided data from a random sample of 100 seniors, includ-ing special needs students unless they required accommodation for participation in state stan-dardized tests. At least 90 of the 100 seniors in each sample must have completed the HSTW achievement tests in reading, mathematics and science as well as the student survey, or the school was dropped from the study. Because the study is a baseline study, the samples and schools in 2000 were different from those in 2001. Students were assisted by the site-testing coordinator in completing the course-taking portion of the survey. 1 These 51 high schools are part of an SREB initiative to assist clusters of middle grades and high schools in adopting the HSTW and Making Middle Grades Work (MMGW) comprehensive reform design, with an emphasis on improving the transition from middle grades to high school and from high school to post-high school for all students. The intent is to determine if providing more intensive staff development, technical assistance and coaching services will enable these schools to accelerate the pace at which they successfully implement school and classroom practices that result in greater gains in academic achievement. This work is supported by a contract between SREB and the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), U. S. Department of Education.
While the association between teenagers' work and academic performance continues to be debated in studies of adolescent employment, many researchers have found that “intensive” involvement in paid work increases the risk of high school dropout. It is still unclear, however, whether this relationship is spurious owing to preexisting differences in socioeconomic background, school performance, aspirations, and orientations toward work and school. Using propensity- score matching techniques, the authors address this issue and assess variation in the effects of work hours on the probability of dropping out of high school. The results suggest that long hours on the job do not encourage high school dropout among all students.
Matching members of a treatment group (cases) to members of a no treatment group (controls) is often used in observational studies to reduce bias and approximate a randomized trial. There is often a trade-off when matching cases to controls and two types of bias can be introduced. While trying to maximize exact matches, cases may be excluded due to incomplete matching. While trying to maximize cases, inexact matching may result. Bias is introduced by both incomplete matching and inexact matching. Propensity scores are being used in observational studies to reduce bias. It has been shown that matching on a propensity score can result in similar matched populations. This paper will describe how to reduce matched-pair bias caused by incomplete matching and inexact matching. Cases will be matched to controls on the propensity score using the presented matching algorithm. SAS/STAT LOGISTIC procedure code will be given to create the propensity score. A user-written SAS macro will be given to create a propensity score matched- pair sample using greedy matching techniques. The results of using the presented code, run on a large observational database of myocardial infarction patients, will be given as an example.
Both the research literature and the experiences of many educators indicate that unequal access to academic curricula produces inequities in student learning of mathematics. "Algebra for everyone" has become a popular slogan of reform in response to these inequalities. Do all students benefit from taking algebra, regardless of their prior math performance? If so, then systems that track students away from algebra are preventing students from realizing their potential for learning. This study uses national survey data to examine the impact of high school algebra among students who differ in their math skills prior to entering high school. Regression analysis with over 12,500 students indicates that all students benefit from taking algebra; among those with very low prior achievement, the benefits are somewhat smaller, but algebra is still worthwhile for all students. These results do not derive from unwarranted extrapolation, and they are not an artifact of ceiling effects. The analysis suggests that a given student who has not taken algebra would have achieved more by doing so, but it does not say what would happen if the whole system were changed to include all students in high school algebra. However, additional analysis indicates that students gain no less from algebra when their schools include more diverse populations of algebra-takers, compared to schools with more homogeneous populations of students taking algebra.
The authors provide (a) an introduction to multilevel modeling, a framework from which one may interpret and evaluate multilevel models and (b) a brief review of multilevel modeling studies published in The Journal of Educational Research over the last decade. To accomplish the 1st purpose, we offer an illustrated multilevel analysis of educational data, then present recommendations for consideration by readers who are interested in understanding and evaluating research that employs multilevel models. We then review 8 studies published in The Journal of Educational Research during 1992-2002 that incorporate multilevel modeling, one of which was written by the 1st author.
Using panel data from a census of public school students in the state of Florida, the authors examine the associations between students’ high school course-taking in various subjects and their 10th-grade test scores, high school graduation, entry into postsecondary institutions, and postsecondary performance. The authors use propensity score matching (based on 8th-grade test scores, other student characteristics, and school effects) within groups of students matched on the composition of the students’ course-taking in other subjects to estimate the differences in outcomes for students who take rigorous courses in a variety of subjects. The authors find substantial significant differences in outcomes for those who take rigorous courses, and these estimated effects are often larger for disadvantaged youth and students attending disadvantaged schools.
This study investigated how the organization of the mathematics curriculum in U.S. high schools affects how much students learn in that subject. The study used data on the background and academic proficiency of 3,056 high school seniors in 123 public high schools from the 1990 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in mathematics. These data were linked with information from students’ high school transcripts and with information from their high schools about courses offered during that period. To accommodate the nested structure of the data and research questions, we used Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) methods, including a subroutine (HLM2PV) that simplifies the proper use of multiple plausible values estimates for NAEP proficiency scores. Results provide support for our hypothesis about curriculum constraint: Students learn more in schools that offer them a narrow curriculum composed mostly of academic courses. Difficulties in conducting school effects studies using NAEP proficiency score outcomes, particularly the procedures for estimating plausible values, are discussed.
Although limited research exists on the appropriateness of Advanced Placement (AP) and International Baccalaureate (IB) Programs for gifted secondary learners, these courses serve as the primary methods of meeting the needs of gifted students in most high schools. This qualitative study employed a grounded theory approach to investigate how teachers conceptualize and implement curriculum and instruction in AP and IB courses and how students enrolled in AP and IB classes perceive and evaluate their learning experiences in these environments. Interviews with and observations of 200 teachers and 300 students in 23 high schools revealed that the end-of-course AP and IB exams drove most teachers' curricular and instructional decisions. Most AP and IB teachers also perceived the students in their courses as a homogeneous group of successful, self-motivated, and driven students. Accordingly, the curriculum and instruction within AP and IB courses was largely one-size-fits-all and fast-paced. Most AP and IB students perceived these courses to be the most challenging and satisfying of any courses they had taken, and described them as a welcome "escape" from general education and even honors courses. However, some students, including students from traditionally underrepresented populations and students who did not fit the "AP/IB mold" of long-time school success--did not perceive the one-size-fits-all, fast-paced courses to be a good fit for their needs. Many AP and IB students also noted that the very heavy workload in these courses left them little time for sleep or other activities; however, most students believed that the benefits they would accrue from completing these courses, such as admission to elite colleges and universities and earning college credits, was worth the hard work. Implications of these findings and recommendations for increasing the goodness of fit of AP and IB courses for--and consequently increasing the participation of--students from a wide variety of backgrounds are discussed. Eight appendixes are included: (1) Demographics by School; (2) Observation Protocol; (3) AP Teacher Interview Questions; (4) IB Teacher Interview Questions; (5) AP Student Interview Questions; (6) IB Student Interview Questions; (7) Former AP Student Interview Questions; and (8) Former IB Student Interview Questions. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)
This report examines whether a high school curriculum organized around the five "new basics" suggested by the National Commission on Excellence in Education is likely to enhance student achievement. Data from the ETS Growth Study reveals that completion of the core curriculum has sizable effects on senior-year test performance, even when prior levels of test performance are controlled. It is also shown that completing the entire core curriculum enhances test performance beyond the effects of coursework in a particular outcome area alone. Importantly, though, completion of the core is effective only if students perform at relatively high levels in their courses. It is concluded that the new basics can be effective in promoting generic skills in the verbal and quantitative domains. For this, the commission gets high marks. However, it is also the case that the commission has failed to provide a comprehensive stocktaking on the condition of American education. This is discussed in the concluding comments. An appendix shows course categories used to construct the new basics core curriculum. (Author/TE)
The authors investigated the extent to which taking specific types of Advanced Placement (AP) courses and the number of courses taken predicts the likelihood of passing subject benchmarks and earning a score of 19 on the composite score on the ACT test, and examined the role gender plays in the projection. They found evidence that taking an AP mathematics course and taking more AP courses derives a positive benefit. Results suggest young men are more likely to succeed in passing ACT mathematics and ACT science tests than are young women, but no gender difference was found on ACT Reading and ACT social studies.
Educational researchers frequently study the impact of treatments or interventions on educational outcomes. However, when observational or quasiexperimental data are used for such investigations, selection bias can adversely impact researchers’ abilities to make causal inferences about treatment effects. One way to deal with selection bias is to use propensity score methods. The authors introduce educational researchers to the general principles underlying propensity score methods, describe 2 practical applications of these methods, and discuss their limitations.
The present study is organized around the central hypothesis that the high school context affects students’ postsecondary
outcomes. Drawing on a nationally representative sample of high school seniors from the Educational Longitudinal Survey (ELS:2002),
this study broadens our empirical understanding of how students’ acquisition of human, social, and cultural capital at the
individual and school level affects 2- and 4-year college attendance. Results highlight the normative role of high schools
in promoting college enrollment, particularly the role of socioeconomics, academic preparation, and access to parent, peer,
and college-linking networks. This study advances our understanding of the secondary-postsecondary nexus and has implications
for policies and practices aimed at realizing the current administration’s promise of providing greater access to postsecondary
education for all students.
The propensity score is the conditional probability of assignment to a particular treatment given a vector of observed covariates. Both large and small sample theory show that adjustment for the scalar propensity score is sufficient to remove bias due to all observed covariates. Applications include: (i) matched sampling on the univariate propensity score, which is a generalization of discriminant matching, (ii) multivariate adjustment by subclassification on the propensity score where the same subclasses are used to estimate treatment effects for all outcome variables and in all subpopulations, and (iii) visual representation of multivariate covariance adjustment by a two-dimensional plot.
Propensity-score matching is increasingly being used to reduce the impact of treatment-selection bias when estimating causal treatment effects using observational data. Several propensity-score matching methods are currently employed in the medical literature: matching on the logit of the propensity score using calipers of width either 0.2 or 0.6 of the standard deviation of the logit of the propensity score; matching on the propensity score using calipers of 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, and 0.1; and 5 --> 1 digit matching on the propensity score. We conducted empirical investigations and Monte Carlo simulations to investigate the relative performance of these competing methods. Using a large sample of patients hospitalized with a heart attack and with exposure being receipt of a statin prescription at hospital discharge, we found that the 8 different methods produced propensity-score matched samples in which qualitatively equivalent balance in measured baseline variables was achieved between treated and untreated subjects. Seven of the 8 propensity-score matched samples resulted in qualitatively similar estimates of the reduction in mortality due to statin exposure. 5 --> 1 digit matching resulted in a qualitatively different estimate of relative risk reduction compared to the other 7 methods. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we found that matching using calipers of width of 0.2 of the standard deviation of the logit of the propensity score and the use of calipers of width 0.02 and 0.03 tended to have superior performance for estimating treatment effects.
2009 state of college admission National Association for College Admission Counseling 7th annual AP report to the nation NY: Author. College Board. (2011b) AP course audit College-bound seniors news release The relationship between Ad-vanced Placement and college graduation
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The role of Advanced Placement and honors courses in college admissions Center for Studies in Higher Education Using propensity scores in ed-ucational research: General principles and practical applications
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Validating Advanced Placement exams using student survey data
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Kaira, L., & Sireci, S. (2010). Validating Advanced Placement exams using student survey data. Unpublished report.
Advanced Placement partic-ipation: Evaluating the policies of states and colleges AP: A critical examina-tion of the Advanced Placement program
- K Klopfenstein
- M K Thomas
Klopfenstein, K., & Thomas, M. K. (2010). Advanced Placement partic-ipation: Evaluating the policies of states and colleges. In P. M. Sadler, G. Sonnert, R. H. Tai, & K. Klopfenstein (Eds.), AP: A critical examina-tion of the Advanced Placement program (pp. 167–188). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
State schools chief agrees too many in AP. St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved from www.tampabay.com/ news/education/k12/florida-education-chief-agrees-states-ap-program-overenrolled
- R Matus
Matus, R. (2010, January 7). State schools chief agrees too many in AP. St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved from www.tampabay.com/ news/education/k12/florida-education-chief-agrees-states-ap-program-overenrolled/1063907
Review of multilevel modeling and multilevel studies in The
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Assessment of Advanced Placement participation and University academic success in the first semester: Controlling for selected high school academic abilities
- T P Scott
- H Tolson
- Lee
The Journal of Educational Research Scott, T. P., Tolson, H., & Lee, Y.-H. (2010). Assessment of Advanced Placement participation and University academic success in the first semester: Controlling for selected high school academic abilities. Journal of College Admission, 208, 26–30.