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Sustainable rural electrification using rice husk biomass energy: A case study of Cambodia
Abstract
The role of energy in overall social and economical developments is well recognized. However, most energy providers are reluctant to venture in rural regions of developing countries. These regions are generally characterized by: low-income populations, minimum access to electricity, rare access to financial services or loans. In this paper we present the potential of rice husk for rural electrification in Cambodia. Rice husk is locally abundant at almost no cost, with a production over 9.3 million tons paddy rice in 2014 for a total population of about 15 million people. The conversion of rice husk into electricity through gasification or thermally generated electricity is a well-known technology. Rice husk can contribute in a sustainable manner to grant access to electricity to Cambodian rural population and is more reliable and competitive with reference to other renewable energy sources of electricity. The present investigation focuses on the study of self-sustaining energy service model to provide grid quality power to rural populations without the need of subsidies. In Cambodia, many rice mills are operating in rural and semi-urban areas. Some of these mills are now using rice husk for electricity production for industries and rural households, generally for lighting at low cost. We believe that the power systems focusing on both power requirements for the industry such rice mills and power requirements for the people living in the neighboring villages/rural areas at affordable tariff could become the most appropriate solution for the sustainable rural electrification. Along with the potential of rice husk for rural electrification in Cambodia, we present a financially viable business model to provide the grid quality power to rural population without grant or subsidy.
... Electricity predominantly serves urban areas. Phnom Penh itself accounts for approximately 85% of the country's total electricity consumption but has only 10% of the population (Pode et al., 2015), whereas nearly 80% of Cambodia's population is rural (National Institute of Statistics, 2013). Indeed, almost 100% of urban households are electrified, while only 22.62% of rural households have access to grid electricity (this percentage of electrification for rural households has not changed significantly over the past 10 years, despite the consistently high GDP growth rates-although there are ambitious plans for improving rural electrification (EAC, 2015 andPode et al., 2015)): 10% use batteries, 3% use small diesel generators (500 W-5 kW) with the remaining using kerosene, candles, biomass, or other sources, and 30% of households have no energy access whatsoever (MIME, 2013 andPode et al., 2015). ...
... Phnom Penh itself accounts for approximately 85% of the country's total electricity consumption but has only 10% of the population (Pode et al., 2015), whereas nearly 80% of Cambodia's population is rural (National Institute of Statistics, 2013). Indeed, almost 100% of urban households are electrified, while only 22.62% of rural households have access to grid electricity (this percentage of electrification for rural households has not changed significantly over the past 10 years, despite the consistently high GDP growth rates-although there are ambitious plans for improving rural electrification (EAC, 2015 andPode et al., 2015)): 10% use batteries, 3% use small diesel generators (500 W-5 kW) with the remaining using kerosene, candles, biomass, or other sources, and 30% of households have no energy access whatsoever (MIME, 2013 andPode et al., 2015). The Electricity Authority of Cambodia (EAC) is supporting rural electrification through a program that provides interest-free loans to meet costs associated with connecting to the electricity grid and another program that provides access to a fund for licensees to facilitate their investment into expanding electricity supply infrastructure in rural areas (EAC, 2015). ...
... Phnom Penh itself accounts for approximately 85% of the country's total electricity consumption but has only 10% of the population (Pode et al., 2015), whereas nearly 80% of Cambodia's population is rural (National Institute of Statistics, 2013). Indeed, almost 100% of urban households are electrified, while only 22.62% of rural households have access to grid electricity (this percentage of electrification for rural households has not changed significantly over the past 10 years, despite the consistently high GDP growth rates-although there are ambitious plans for improving rural electrification (EAC, 2015 andPode et al., 2015)): 10% use batteries, 3% use small diesel generators (500 W-5 kW) with the remaining using kerosene, candles, biomass, or other sources, and 30% of households have no energy access whatsoever (MIME, 2013 andPode et al., 2015). The Electricity Authority of Cambodia (EAC) is supporting rural electrification through a program that provides interest-free loans to meet costs associated with connecting to the electricity grid and another program that provides access to a fund for licensees to facilitate their investment into expanding electricity supply infrastructure in rural areas (EAC, 2015). ...
This paper examines Cambodia’s current carbon pathway and considers if Cambodia could move towards a low carbon future. We do so by examining two of Cambodia’s largest carbon emitting sectors: energy and transportation. We argue that Cambodia has a unique window of opportunity to pursue a low carbon pathway
given that, despite significant economic growth, the country is currently producing less CO2 per capita compared to most other countries across Asia. Cambodia could benefit greatly (in economic, social, and environmental terms) from adopting a low carbon pathway. Promising harbingers are present, such as recent shifts to hydropower, adoption of urban master plans, and citizen frustration with traffic congestion and poor air quality that may enable public buy-in for innovative low carbon solutions. Achieving this will require sharpened and harmonized policy, approaching all planning activities from a low-carbon perspective, and support
(both institutional and financial) from regional bodies and multilateral organizations.
... Rice husk bioenergy systems in particular are proliferating rapidly in Cambodia. While Abe et al. [25] were only able to identify a handful of small systems in 2007, by 2015 Pode et al. [26] found more than 50 gasification systems of <1 MW capacity, in addition to five larger steam turbine systems in the 1-10 MW range (a more efficient option at these larger scales [21]). Such systems use gasifiers imported from India or a variety of locally-made designs [27]. ...
... SME Renewable Energy provides financing for 70% of system equipment cost at a 5-year fixed rate of 13% APR. Price estimates used in the analysis were based on those reported by SME Renewable Energy, supplemented as necessary with those reported in the literature for similar systems [26,27] to define parameter uncertainty ranges (see Section 2.6). Future costs and revenues were discounted at 15%. ...
... Distributed rice residue energy systems are potentially very attractive for sustainable development in Cambodia [26]. The country has a low per capita income [25], Energy Development Index [45], and electrification rate [46] compared to its neighbors. ...
Small-scale distributed gasification can provide energy access for low-carbon sustainable development, though current understanding of the economic and environmental performance of the technology relies mostly on assumption-heavy modeling studies. Here we report a detailed empirical assessment and uncertainty estimation for four real-world gasification power systems operating at rice mills in rural Cambodia. System inputs and outputs were characterized while operating in both diesel and dual-fuel modes and synthesized into a model of carbon and energy balance, economic performance, and greenhouse gas mitigation. Our results confirm that the best-performing systems reduce diesel fuel use by up to 83%, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and recouping the initial system capital investment within one year. However, we observe a significant performance disparity across the systems observed leading to a wide range of economic outcomes. We also highlight related critical sustainability challenges around the management of byproducts that should be addressed before more widespread implementation of the technology.
... There are different types of Rice husk gasifier (down draft, updraft, cross draft gasifiers and fluidized bed gasifiers) and each has its area of application. A down graft gasifier is relatively cheap and produces a high quality syngas during the gasification process [15]. It is flexible and most suitable for large gas production. ...
... Fluidized bed rice husk gasifiers are more complex to operate than the fixed bed gasifiers. Also, the gas produced from the fluidized bed gasifiers has more heating effect than others [15]. Using this gasifier, the initial operation will require an external ignition which is normally done using liquefied petroleum gas. ...
Bio-energy which is the energy resources derived from organic matter has contributed significantly to primary energy supply in most developed countries of the world. The extensive use of biomass for electricity generation started recently as a more efficient option of providing energy. To encourage investment in this area, detail analysis on the prospect of Biomass energy generation system in Nigeria context need to be carried out. In line with this, this study assesses the viability of setting up a Biomass Energy Plant in Nigeria using rice husk. It determine the availability of rice husk for the project and identify the economic advantage of using rice husk as a feedstock in generating electricity while evaluating the energy conversion technology adopted with consideration on its environmental impact. The proposed plant location is Abakiliki Rice Mill complex and Gasification technology was adopted for the bio conversion process. Data on the feedstock availability was collected by direct measurement of the resources at the various mill dump site in the Rice Mill Complex and analyzed using Python analytical and visualization tools (Numpy and Seaborn). The primary source of data for the analysis is data gotten from the field and Nigeria Energy Regulatory Council (NERC) while the secondary source of data is data from related work over the internet. The outcome of the study showed that the Rice Complex have the capacity to produce the quantity of rice husk required to generate 499,320KWh of electricity per year using Bio-Energy plant. Also, the mass of rice husk produced is significantly higher in the month of October, November and December due to the weather condition (dry season) and the high demand of rice as the result of the festivity (Christmas celebration). When the performance of the existing system and the proposed Bio-Energy plant was compared in terms of per Kilowatt cost of energy generation, it was observed that the new system outperformed the existing one. This is traceable to the good caloric value of rice husk and its availability in very large quantity at no cost. To determine the system’s sustainability, the financial feasibility of operating a Biomass plant in Nigeria was also carried out; levelised cost, simple payback period and return on investment (ROI) as important financial metrics were calculated using real data.
... Energy's role in social and economic development is vital and acknowledged worldwide (Pode, Diouf, & Pode, 2015). However, the global demand for energy and resources is increasing continuously due to industrialization, rapid population growth, and consumption of goods and services (Lim et al., 2012;Quispe, Navia, & Khhat, 2016). ...
... We can assume that majority of the authors that cited the GL were from Asia because of the potential and abundance of rice husks, an agricultural waste that can be utilized for alternative biomass energy since the region is also leading in rice production (GRiSP, 2013). This is supported by Pode, Diouf, & Pode's (2015) statement that biomass energy was being developed and widely used in Asian countries. Moreover, Quispe, Navia, and Kahhat (2017) discussed in their paper the energy potential from rice husk per year per region, where Asia leads, followed by America, Africa, and Europe. ...
Rice is a major staple crop in the Philippines, which produces a large amount of rice each year. On the other hand, rice production generates biomass waste in the form of rice husks. In consideration of the rice husks' potential as a biomass energy source and support the development of the rice husk gas stove technology in the Philippines, Engineer Alexis T. Belonio had published a grey literature (GL) entitled "Rice Husk Gas Stove Handbook." Hence, to fully understand the impact of the technology, a citation analysis was conducted. The works that cited the GL were retrieved from Google Scholar using Harzing's Publish or Perish software. The complete title of the GL was used as keywords for the search string. Results revealed that the GL was cited by 155 literatures written by 398 authors from 31 countries. Seventy-five (48.4%) of the 155 literatures were cited 797 times. The results showed the wide utilization and the impact of locally-published GL, thereby confirming GL's value in research and development.
... Different studies worldwide have focused on the use of biomass gasification as a form of energy distribution in rural areas. [25] Presents how through the gasification of rice husk, it is possible to supply electric power in a sustainable way to rural populations in Cambodia, being the most viable option in comparison with other renewable sources. Chauhan, in [26], shows how the electrification of rural areas in India and other developing countries, based on renewable sources such as biomass, is a feasible alternative although it also faces barriers in its development. ...
... The cost for generation in total operation, for generation in operation without accumulation and using the energy stored, and, the weighted energy cost, are presented in Fig. 17 for the respective cases of 600 • C and 800 • C of gasifier temperature for the different hours in a day. The cost estimation made by mean exergoeconomic analysis was evaluated for 15 years in the CRF formula, in equation (25). The unit cost of each current, c [$/kJ ex ], has been converted to the unit cost of each kWh. ...
An exergetic and exergoeconomic analyses of a power generation system based in biomass gasification in a downdraft gasifier and internal combustion engine, with surplus syngas accumulation in a storage tank in a non-interconnected zone (NIZ) in Colombia, has been made utilizing the Thermoflex software to obtain data of streams and properties and the EES software to solve the energy, exergy and exergoeconomic balances. The effect of gasifying temperature on the performance of the system has been studied as well as its effects on the cost of energy generated to the locality. The results obtained on irreversibilities, the cost of energy, and the exergoeconomic parameters are explained by graphs. for every hour of power demand in the locality selected. The results indicate that the accumulation of energy in the tank does not have a high rate of exergy destruction, but the discharge process does have a high value of irreversibilities or exergy destruction. According to the exergoeconomic balance, the weighted cost of energy is affected by the large irreversibilities in the accumulation of syngas in the tank, increasing this weighted cost as the gasification temperature is higher.
... The use of biomass fired small-scale generators in microgrids for rural electrification projects has also been proposed. In most cases, gasification technologies are adopted, as in [15] where gasification is proposed in order to exploit waste from rice cultivation (rice husk). In [16] and [17], hybrid systems comprising PV, wind, storage and biogas fired generators are investigated, with biogas extracted respectively from agricultural and farming waste. ...
... Many rural electrification projects in developing countries have failed because financially viable only through funding and subsidy-policies, thus suggesting the need of self-sustainable business models [15]. Rural communities are characterized by high levels of sociability among their members, facilitating community involvement in energy procurement and system operation. ...
The authors propose a novel small-scale power plant capable of generating electricity and thermal energy from both solid and gaseous biomass, to be employed in rural electrification projects. The proposed system is based on mature and cheap technology, derived from the automotive sector, ensuring very low capital costs and minimum maintenance. The presence of an externally fired gas turbine permits to achieve great fuel flexibility and avoid possible problems of fuel supply in remote and isolated rural communities. The proposed solution makes rural communities capable of achieving energy autonomy targets, following a circular economy paradigm. Three possible configurations have been studied with a thermodynamic analysis in order to estimate system efficiency. Thanks to the reduced fixed and variable costs, the system allows to achieve performances comparable with those of other state-of-the-art technologies usually adopted for rural electrification. A prototype of the proposed system is developed at Politecnico di Bari (LabZERO).
... Rice husk (RH) or its other name also known as rice hull is the protective cover of paddy grain that can be obtained after being separated from the rice grain during the milling process. In country that produce rice there are numerous factories had begun to use the RH as the energy source for milling operation and as the source of household lighting at the rural areas [1]. ...
... Black rice husk ash (BRHA) and white rice husk ash (WRHA) is an ash that can be obtained after burning the RH. Researchers had found that the WRHA contains for about of silica [1]. The most important is by having the abundance amount of silica is this WRHA can be used as the silica precursor for development of glazes for ceramic tiles. ...
In this research, the fabrication of willemite based glass-ceramics doped cobalt oxide (Co3O4) are successfully derived from ZnO-SiO2 glass system by using melt-quenching technique and controlled heat treatment process. The physical, structural and optical properties were measured by using electronic densitometer, X-Ray diffraction, Fourier Transform Infrared, absorption spectroscopy and Photoluminescence spectroscopy. The densities of the samples are increase with increase of heat treatment temperature due to the increase in crystallinity and structure rearrangement of the samples. The crystallinity of the Co-doped samples started at 800 °C and α-Zn2SiO4 peak positions can be observe after heat treated at 900 °C while in FTIR spectra showing all typical band around 510 and 580 cm⁻¹ indicating the formation of ZnO-SiO2 bonding phase. Besides, the transition for Co²⁺ ions had been found from ⁴A2 → ⁴T1 and from the analysis optical band gap of Co-doped samples are decreasing with increasing of heat treatment temperature. Co²⁺ doped Zn2SiO4 revealed a red emission at 717 nm.
... Solar energy potential. In most countries, rural electrification is being carried out, with monthly average daily solar radiation level in the range of 3-6 kWh/m 2 [33]. It has very high potential to use solar grid for household electrification. ...
... Thus, potential of energy from the produced rice husk is about 81 GJ. From literature review, it has been found that 2 kg of rice husk can produce 1 kWh of electricity [22] [33], and hence, the expected electricity production from rice husk gasifier is 3.0 MWh. In this study, the surplus factor has been considered from another study, Hiloidhari and Baruah [13], has already calculated for Assam and the estimated surplus potential fraction is 0.25 for cereal in Assam. ...
Energy is the vital input for sustainable development of a country as it is directly related to the country’s economic growth. Even though energy use has doubled since 2000, but energy consumption per capita is still only around one-third of the global average and some 240 million people have no access to electricity. This study investigates the present energy demand scenario of a rural village and finds the possibilities of achieving energy access by the available alternate energy in rural areas. A detailed survey was done on the energy demand and available energy resources in a village of Assam in the Northeastern part of India. Energy demands on different sectors were calculated and the sources of energy were studied. The total technical bioenergy potential is 3.0 MWh per year from available rice husk only. The result implies that there are abundant of untapped bioenergy resources available in the village and alternatives to diversify its source of energy. This research concludes that the energy demand of households varies intensely with national averages. This bottom-up approach study of a rural village is to understand the domestic scenario of villages in developing countries, as it can be related to other villages to a much extent.
... Syngas can be utilized to produce heat, electricity or fuel transportation. Some different generic types of gasifiers have been demonstrated or developed for the conversion of biomass feedstock, namely fixed bed, fluidized, entrained flow and muti-stage gasifier [2]. Previous researches showed that rice husk has great potential for the electricity production using gasification technology in Cambodia [2,3]. ...
... Some different generic types of gasifiers have been demonstrated or developed for the conversion of biomass feedstock, namely fixed bed, fluidized, entrained flow and muti-stage gasifier [2]. Previous researches showed that rice husk has great potential for the electricity production using gasification technology in Cambodia [2,3]. Is a similar development possible in Vietnam, which compares to Cambodia in term of rice husk production and utilization? ...
Article pré-publication à la conférence "International Forum on Green Technology and Management IFGTM 2015" à Hue, Vietnam
... where the intake pressure drop (∆P intake ) was taken to be 0.005 bar, and the intake temperature was modeled as the ambient temperature [56]. The process on the temperature-entropy diagram [42] is represented in Figure 1. ...
The results show that Wood Chips of Acacia Nilotica trees available in Sudan lands can be successfully used in the gasification process and, on the same basis, as a bio-renewable energy resource. Simulation models were used to characterize the air gasification process integrated with a Regenerative Gas Turbine Unit. The results revealed that at a moisture content of 12%, gasification temperature of 1500 K, pressure of 20 bar, and air-like gasification medium, the biomass gasifier’s flow rate is higher at higher syngas rates. The results verified that there is an optimum ER for each syngas rate, in which the slow growth of the ER revealed the maximum gasifier biomass flow rate. For ER growth at lower levels, the specific fuel consumption (SFC) of the RGT Unit declines sharply from the maximum value reached at 0.27 kg/kW·h at an ER of 5% to the minimum value reached at 0.80 kg/kW·h at an ER of 25% for the lowest gasification temperature of 1000 K. Moreover, ER growths at low levels have a significant effect on the RGT plant’s performance, leading to increased RGT thermal efficiency. The increase in the biomass moisture content led to a sharp decrease in the RGT thermal efficiency. The RGT thermal efficiency remains high at higher gasification pressure. The results revealed that the syngas lower heating value remains high at lower produced syngas rates. At the optimum ER, the H2 mole fraction depicted a value of 1.25%, 0.85% of CO, and 10.50% of CH4 for a lower heating value of 38 MJ/kg syngas. It is shown that the gasification air entered into the gasifier decreases amid the increase in the biomass moisture content. At different syngas rates (3–10 kg/s) and optimum ER, the results predicted that the Wood Chip biomass flow rates decrease when the gasifier efficiency increases. The simulation model revealed that ER growths at lower levels have a significant effect on increasing the power of the RGT plant.
... With regard to electrification of remote and isolated areas using renewable sources of energy, some works have been carried out in different parts of the world, such as Malaysia [25], Cambodia [26], Sub-Saharan African countries [27], west China [17], India [28][29][30], Pakistan [31], Mexico [32], Venezuela [33], the Amazon region [34], Algeria [35], Myanmar [36], Ethiopia [37], Benin [38], and the Philippines [39]. For Iran, Mostafaeipour et al. [40] examined the techno-economic feasibility of harnessing wind energy for electrifying a tribal region, called Gachsaran, in the south-west of Iran. ...
This study investigates the techno-economic feasibility of an off-grid integrated solar/wind/hydrokinetic plant to co-generate electricity and hydrogen for a remote micro-community. In addition to the techno-economic viability assessment of the proposed system via HOMER (hybrid optimization of multiple energy resources), a sensitivity analysis is conducted to ascertain the impact of ±10% fluctuations in wind speed, solar radiation, temperature, and water velocity on annual electric production, unmet electricity load, LCOE (levelized cost of electricity), and NPC (net present cost). For this, a far-off village with 15 households is selected as the case study. The results reveal that the NPC, LCOE, and LCOH (levelized cost of hydrogen) of the system are equal to $333,074, 0.1155 $/kWh, and 4.59 $/kg, respectively. Technical analysis indicates that the PV system with the rated capacity of 40 kW accounts for 43.7% of total electricity generation. This portion for the wind turbine and the hydrokinetic turbine with nominal capacities of 10 kW and 20 kW equates to 23.6% and 32.6%, respectively. Finally, the results of sensitivity assessment show that among the four variables only a +10% fluctuation in water velocity causes a 20% decline in NPC and LCOE.
... Rice husk, an agricultural waste with great potential for bioenergy production, is abundantly available at virtually zero costs in several developing countries (Ramchandra et al., 2015;Ramchandra, 2016). In Brazil, based on current unmilled rice production (ABIARROZ, 2017) rice husk generation is approximately 3.3 million t/year, and 75% of production is concentrated in the country's south region. ...
The construction industry causes significant negative environmental impact, partly due to the vast amounts of building materials used, and rice husk ash (RHA) is a solid waste produced in thermal power stations with potential applications as a partial replacement to Portland cement. Due to the increasing demand for research on environmental issues, the life-cycle approach emerges as an important tool in such investigations. This study evaluates the environmental performance of RHA as a replacement material for cement during the life-cycle of concrete. Environmental aspects and impacts associated with the combustion of rice husk biomass in a grate furnace and in a fluidized bed reactor, the transportation of the RHA produced, and its use in concrete production were evaluated. The most significant environmental impact caused by RHA production processes was global warming potential. The replacement of 20% Portland cement by RHA produced by combustion on fluidized bed reduced CO2eq emissions by 24%. Even though this ash type had to be transported for 400 km to its destination, its use remained environmentally advantageous. But the replacement of 20% Portland cement by RHA produced by combustion on a grate furnace led to a reduction of only 7.7% in CO2eq emissions. Introduction One of the most relevant aspects concerning the environmental quality of concrete production is its share in climate change, especially the CO2 emissions generated in the manufacturing of Portland cement (Teixeira et al., 2016). For example, the cement industry alone produces between 5% and 7% of global CO2 emissions (Damineli et al., 2010; Le Quéré et al., 2016). Estimated by Lima (2010) at 659 kg CO2/t of cement, CO2 emissions in Brazil were also assessed by a major cement production company operating in the country, which found a similar value (627 kg CO2/t of cement). However, due to widespread use of supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash and blast-furnace slag in the country, these values are significantly lower than mean global CO2 emissions in the production of cement, which vary between 800 and 880 kg CO2/t of cement (John, 2010). Such number should be interpreted in view of perhaps one of the main challenges faced by the industry: to decrease the amounts of construction materials currently used (John, 2010).
... However, adequate studies on the energy conversion potential of many biowastes are not established and due to the non-availability of suitable technologies, only a limited quantity is utilized . In the population without the access to electricity, 84% of them are living in rural areas (Pode et al. 2015). For instant, 19% of the villages in India do not have access to electricity; however, these villages are rich in agricultural activities (Nouni et al. 2008). ...
Thermochemical conversion is a promising technology to generate producer gas (PG) from different types of agroforestry biomass residues. To use an existing open-core biomass gasifier for different feedstocks available in a agroforestry region, its viability must be studied systematically. Cocoa pod husk (CPH) is one of the promising agricultural wastes, widely available in tropical farmlands of hilly regions. In this study, a commercial 115 kWth biomass gasifier is used in both numerical and experimental methods to find the potential of CPH as a feedstock. The moisture of CPH is varied from 5 to 25%, and the performance of gasifier is investigated for ER between 0.20 and 0.40. The results show that compositions of CO, H2 and CH4 in PG are 20–24%, 12.0–16.5% and 2.0–3.2%, respectively, for the tested conditions. The best equivalence ratio and moisture content are identified as 0.25 and 5%, respectively. The calorific value, conversion efficiency and cold gas efficiency are found as 6.13 MJ/Nm³, 82% and 68%, respectively. The predicted performance parameters and temperature distribution are compared with experimental values and literature. Thus, CPH is identified as a promising feedstock for an open-core gasifier.
Graphic abstract
... Some of those might be conventional renewable energy sources, such as solar PV, which have found strong policy support for nearly a decade now (Sarraf et al. 2013). Others might be more specifically related to the particularities of Cambodia's economy, such as using rice husks to power thermal power plants or, through anaerobic digestion of the husks, producing methane that could then power gas-fired thermal power plants (Pode et al. 2015). By virtue of its wartime history, which left much of the country's rural infrastructure decimated, including its power grid, the country is ripe for distributed renewables as a solution for rural electrification. ...
Development of energy infrastructure has long been pivotal in shaping contemporary issues in China, and geographically uneven development is a perennial challenge for central, provincial, and local government organs. As China has moved away from reliance on coal power in favour of renewable electricity generation, hydroelectricity development has increased substantially, notably over the last decade. Though many large dams have become mired in a range of social, political, and environmental concerns, small operations have proliferated rapidly. One valuable but insufficiently understood factor in this rapid development of small dams is government rhetoric linking electrification with social change in underdeveloped rural areas, particularly among ethnic minority groups. Consequently, small hydropower-based electrification now reflects an integral component for initiatives promoting development and the modernisation of communities deemed ‘backward’. A lack of empirical field-based research, however, has left gaps in our understanding of on-the-ground outcomes, specifically how electrification has influenced the everyday lives of rural and ethnic minority households. This chapter reflects on seven years of ethnographic fieldwork conducted in the Nu River Valley of Yunnan Province, providing insights into how small, rural ethnic minority communities navigate and negotiate modernisation processes resulting from the development of small hydroelectric operations and electricity provision.
... Some of those might be conventional renewable energy sources, such as solar PV, which have found strong policy support for nearly a decade now (Sarraf et al. 2013). Others might be more specifically related to the particularities of Cambodia's economy, such as using rice husks to power thermal power plants or, through anaerobic digestion of the husks, producing methane that could then power gas-fired thermal power plants (Pode et al. 2015). By virtue of its wartime history, which left much of the country's rural infrastructure decimated, including its power grid, the country is ripe for distributed renewables as a solution for rural electrification. ...
Studies of dam resettlement in China tend to focus on those who remain in resettlement sites, producing a distorted discourse of life after resettlement. Households and individuals often move out of resettlement sites but, because they are difficult to trace, there is limited research about them. It is estimated that 30 per cent of resettled households emigrated from the Three Gorges Dam resettlement site. To explore this and contribute to the limited research about emigration after resettlement, this chapter asks: Who left the Three Gorges after resettlement? Why did they leave? Where did they go? To understand what may have led to emigration we analyse the livelihoods of 178 households who responded to a survey in 2003, but were no longer living at the same resettlement site in 2012. We find low-income rural households and higher income urban households were more likely than their cohort averages to have left the resettlement between 2003 and 2011. This provides initial evidence that a range of push and pull factors influence the decision to leave resettlement sites. These dynamics have been overlooked in the resettlement literature, potentially skewing assessments of resettlement outcomes.
... Some of those might be conventional renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaics, which have found strong policy support for nearly a decade now (Sarraf et al. 2013). Others might be more specifically related to the particularities of Cambodia's economy, such as using rice husks to power thermal power plants or, through anaerobic digestion of the husks, producing methane that could then power gas-fired thermal power plants (Pode et al. 2015). By virtue of wartime history, which left much of the country's rural infrastructure decimated (including its power grid), the country is ripe for distributed renewables as a solution for rural electrification. ...
Southwestern China has an abundance of hydroelectricity thanks to favourable geography, hefty government investment, and skilled workers and professionals at all levels of the hydropower sector. Yet even as new dams are being built across the region, existing ones are often under-utilised due to grid bottlenecks, seasonal variations in runoff, and technologies that have developed faster than markets and policies. This chapter examines the reasons behind “wasted” hydropower in Yunnan and neighbouring provinces, as well as the potential for Chinese hydropower to serve as a cornerstone of a highly renewable electricity sector across the Mekong region that incorporates wind and solar, rather than simply every possible dam site on the Mekong and its tributaries. Specifically, hydropower’s suitability for balancing or “firming” intermittent renewables such as solar and wind leave Yunnan well-positioned to complement major solar installations downstream, particularly in sun-drenched Cambodia. Such a plan is not without hurdles, but may offer the best chance for a lower-carbon energy future in the Lower Mekong that does not jeopardise food security in the world’s richest inland fishery.
... Several methods for energy recovery have been used to extract energy and value-added goods from biomass, such as incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, transesterification, anaerobic digestion and fermentation (Demirbas, 2004a;Saxena et al., 2009;Younes and Mohammed, 2013). One of the major benefits of biomass over fossil fuels is that there is a lower level of nitrogen and sulfur in lignocellulose biomass, leading to lower emissions in the atmosphere of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) (Pode et al., 2015). Depending on the application, biomass is converted into heat, gas, electricity, and liquid biofuel (bio-oil) in thermochemical processes (e.g. ...
The aim of the current review is to examine the effect of process conditions on biochar characteristics and their impacts on a wide range of potential biochar applications for its commercialization. Biochar is a solid residue produced by thermochemical conversion from different biomass. In this study, a comprehensive discussion has been made on physiochemical characteristics of biochar such as carbon content, mineral content, volatile matter, surface area, pore structure, pore distribution, and electrical conductivity that are depend on several critical factors, including process temperature, heating rate, type of gasifier and biomass, and biomass composition. In addition, some other unique properties of biochar like high surface area and porous structure make it a promising cheap source for the production of carbon-based catalysts for energy recovery technologies like gasification, anaerobic digestion, and pyrolysis, adsorbents material in wastewater treatment, activated carbons, microbial fuel cells (MFC) electrodes, energy storage material, and the preparation of supercapacitors has been reviewed. Most importantly, the status of char technology for different application and the barriers, problems, and research gaps are also mentioned for future research and development for researchers, private and public investors.
... These data demonstrate how the energy use of rice husk can be advantageous in both economic and environmental spheres. Pode, Diouf and Pode (2015) also indicate rice husks as a sustainable alternative for rural electrification in Cambodia. Some authors have also investigated the generation of electricity from rice husks in Brazil. ...
Brazil is one of the most prominent rice producing nations in the world, with an annual output of more than 11 million tons. Rice husk is one of the main byproducts in rice processing. Large volumes of this residue are generated when processing the grains. This byproduct has great calorific value, and thus possesses significant potential for electrical energy generation. This study presents a thorough economic and energy analysis of rice husk energy production on a regional and national scale in Brazil. Furthermore, economic viability analysis was assessed through a variety of scenarios. Data were collected from rice cultivation areas throughout the country, including every Brazilian city where rice is grown, in order to identify the minimum planting area to enable power generation from rice husks. Then, economically viable energy potential was calculated. The minimum area for rice cultivation in order to guarantee economic viability varied from 700 to 26,700 ha, depending on the economic scenario. Levelized costs of electricity and net present values varied from 53.71 to 164.94 USD/MWh, with an average of 112.2 USD/MWh, and −1 to 7.3 10⁶ USD, being highly influenced by the planting area. In more optimistic scenarios, the viable energy potential of this biomass in Brazil can exceed 2.5 TWh/year, which represents around 5% of the country’s total bioenergy production. Such results demonstrate that energy generation from rice husks can be an important resource to increase bioenergy generation in Brazil. This tendency was particularly pronounced in the South, where rice production is more concentrated.
... In 2011, the Cambodian government installed 12.000 MW of solar energy systems in seven provinces. But awareness, acceleration, and empowerment are the main obstacles facing Cambodia is [130][131][132]. As per wind energy report in Southeast Asia which includes Cambodia, Vietnam, and Thailand, wind power amount to 1380 MW [133][134][135]. ...
In the latest years, nations in Southeast Asia such as Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia have experienced significant economic growth. The tropical climate in the region enables the potential for using renewable and sustainable energies. This discussion provides an overview of the Southeast Asian region's renewable energy resources like solar energy, wind power, geothermal, hydropower, biomass, by considering their national resource potential. This study also discusses the present and future energy demands, renewable energy targets and economic perspectives. However, the energy potency cannot be managed optimally, because it is hampered by several challenges to fulfil the nations' renewable energy's target. The present reorganization of traditional energy utilities to introduce renewable energy systems will have a tremendous effect on the region's social, political and environmental circumstances.
... Similarly work was carried out in reference (Gabbar et al., 2017). Pode, Diouf and Pode (Pode et al., 2015), examined sustainable rural electrification using rice husk biomass energy; Cambodia was used as a case study. Gasification technology was used for the power generation. ...
Nigeria is purely an agrarian nation and the people depend on agriculture for survival. One of the missing links to wealth creation in Nigeria is lack of economic exploitation of abundant agricultural wastes. Instead of wealth creation, rice husk has become a serious threat to the environment. The unutilized rice husks in rice mills in Nigeria generate millions of tons of C02 when burnt. This increases environmental degradation and deaths associated with respiratory diseases. The sustainable use of this rice husk for bioenergy applications such as electricity generation at low cost, to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions is imperative. In this paper, an off-grid gasification power supply option for Adani, in Uzo-Uwani Local Government Area of Enugu state, of eastern Nigeria is presented. A detailed load assessment and availability of rice husk for power generation in the study area was conducted. This information was used to design the gasification system. The gasification system was designed based on the mass flow rate of producer gas required to power the gas engine at full load. The gasifier was designed downdraft with air and steam as the oxidizing agent, in order to maintain uniform temperature in the oxidation and reduction zones. Furthermore, techno-economic analysis approach was used to determine the economic viability of the designed power system considered in this study. The estimated total load demand of the study area is 850.054 kW. The estimated total daily, monthly and yearly energy demands of the study area are: 8991 kWh, 269736.42 kWh and 3236837.04 kWh. The annual availability of rice husk in the study area is 3,636 t/y and it has potential of 1.52 MW power generation with daily, monthly and yearly energy generation of: 36.48 MWh, 1,094.4 MWh and 13,132.8 MWh. This potential of electricity generation has power station capacity of 1.9 MVA, which is approximately equal to 2 MVA. The Levelized Cost of Electricity of the designed power system is 3.6 Naira/kWh, which is cheaper than 30.93 Naira/kWh tariff bill by Enugu Electricity Distribution Company to its R2S customers. Based on the proposed rice husk gasification system, a community could generate power to meet their electricity demand in most economical way, thereby reducing emission, waste and saving cost translating to sustainable development.
... In Cambodia, hydropower and coal are the sources from which electricity is generated and the country suffers from a low rate of electrification [150]. Thus, the government seeks to develop renewable energies [151,152]. ...
The adverse environmental effects of traditional ways for producing electricity necessitate accurate and extensive planning for renewable and sustainable energy generation systems. A review of the research in this field shows that no work has been conducted so far to study the condition of solar energies in Asia to find suitable places for installing large-scale solar power plants. Therefore, given lack the general modelling in this case, the purpose of analyzing solar data in Asia in the present work is to support the utilization of large-scale renewable power plants. Along with analyzing the current level of using renewable energies in Asian countries, the present work also identifies suitable places for using solar energy using GIS software and meteorological data taken from NASA website for 2892 stations in 49 Asian countries. Boolean Logic was used for managing and selection of data. Results indicated that, except for Russia, a small area in South of Mongolia, Eastern half and North-western of China, North of Vietnam, Northern half of Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea, Kazakhstan, Northern half of Kyrgyzstan, Northern half of Uzbekistan, North-west of Turkmenistan, North-west of Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and Northern one-third of Turkey, other areas in the Asian continent are totally suitable for using solar energy.
... Sci. 2020, 10, 4938 2 of 11 rice, their factories had started to use the rice husk (RH) as an energy source, especially in milling operations and also for household lighting in the countryside areas [3]. This is because rice husk ash has several properties that, depending on the combustion method, makes it beneficial in many ways. ...
For the very first time, a study on the crystallization growth of zinc silicate glass and glass-ceramics was done, in which white rice husk ash (WRHA) was used as the silicon source. In this study, zinc silicate glass was fabricated by using melt–quenching methods based on the composition (ZnO)0.55(WRHA)0.45, where zinc oxide (ZnO) and white rice husk ash were used as the raw materials. The control crystallization technique was used in which the sample was sintered at 700–950 °C; then, the physical, structural, and optical properties of the glass and glass-ceramics were investigated by using a densitometer, linear shrinkage, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared radiation (FTIR), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL). The density and linear shrinkage increased as the crystallinity increased and the XRD results showed the progression of the crystal formation, in which the sample was still in an amorphous state at 27 °C and 700 °C; the crystalline phase started at 750 °C. Based on the FTIR spectra, all samples showed sharpened absorption bands as the sintering temperature was increased, and the FESEM image showed the progression of crystal growth, indicating the formation of zinc silicate glass-ceramics. Lastly, the PL spectra emitted three emission peaks, at 529, 570, and 682 nm for the green, yellow, and red emission, respectively.
... 6 The large quantity of rice husk obtained as by-product during the milling process is usually discarded by open field burning without energy recovery and results in environmental pollution. 7,8 To improve the efficiency of the parboiling and drying process, many studies have been conducted. To reduce the uneven and over steaming problems, boiler and steaming sections are interconnected with a network of pipes to allow the hot water and steam. ...
Enhancement of efficiency in rice processing mills can help rural farmers to reduce the cost of rice production. Parboiling‐the hydrothermal treatment of paddy rice, accounts for a significant portion of total rice processing costs and its quality. A rice husk powered gasifier‐based parboiling system is an attractive option for rural rice processing mills but has not been widely adopted due to various constraints. Hence, there is a need for technical and economical analysis on gasifier‐based rice parboiling system to generate information on efficiency improvement and the cost‐effective ways in rice processing industries. This paper presents a techno‐economic evaluation of rice husk powered gasifier‐based rice processing systems working in either Producer Gas in Hot Gas Mode (PG‐HGM) or Producer Gas in Cold Gas Mode (PG‐CGM). MATLAB software has been used for mathematical analysis. The research reveals that the biomass gasifier operated rice parboiling system working in both modes can have the overall system efficiency as 49% to 57% with a lowest payback time of 4‐2 years. Positive Net Present Cost is observed for the capacities above 1.5 tons/batch in PG‐HGM. Process flow schemes of the proposed rice husk powered parboiling and drying system in Producer Gas in (a) Hot Gas Mode (PG‐HGM) and (b) Cold Gas Mode (PG‐CGM)
... China, India, Indonesia, and other main rice-producing countries can benefit by using rice wastes as resources of biofuel energy (Lim et al. 2012). Rice husk is used as feedstock for energy or electricity generation in a number of countries like Thailand (Prasara and Grant, 2011), and Cambodia (Pode, Diouf, and Pode 2015). Kwofie and Ngadi (2016) suggested that rice husk can be used to supply the energy requirement for rice parboiling in West Africa. ...
Iran is the fourth biggest producer of crude oil and natural gas in the world. Meanwhile, this country is the largest CO2 emitter among the Middle East countries and 99% of energy in this country is produced from nonrenewable-based resources. Nevertheless, Iran has a promising potential to generate energy from its renewable resources such as biomass. Therefore, renewable energy generation can contribute to increasing the renewable energy share in the country’s energy generation and mitigating the environmental impacts. Thus, the aim of this research was to evaluate the second generation biofuel production potential in Guilan province (as one of the important agricultural areas in the region) of Iran. In this research, energy generation from cow manure, poultry manure, municipal solid wastes, rice wastes, and peanut wastes were studied. The results showed that the total energy generation from second-generation biomass resources in Guilan province of Iran was 76,523,985.50 GJ year⁻¹. The yearly potential of energy generation from cow manure, poultry manure, municipal solid wastes, rice wastes, and peanut wastes were 2,284,529, 352,138, 648,523, 73,238,768, and 27 GJ, respectively. In conclusion, there is a remarkable potential to generate energy from second-generation biomass resources in Guilan province of Iran.
... Due to this, special energy solutions are required that allow an integration of the security and equity of the energy service as well as having environmental protection standards. In [1] it is presented how by means of the energy conversion of the rice husk it contributes in a sustainable way to guarantee the access to electricity to the population, being this the most viable and competitive source compared with other sources of renewable energies. In [2] a model is presented in which different sources of energy, conversion technologies, devices for energy consumption and final use of energy are studied, according to the specific barriers of each rural area and their social, political, environmental and economic characteristics. ...
... Furthermore, combining the two sources of solar and another thing can provide better reliability and their hybrid system becomes more economical to operate since the weakness of one system can be complemented by the strength of the other one. In rural areas of the Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, around 80% of people still use agricultural biomass wastes into solid charcoal and residual woody for their energy need ( Pode et al., 2015;Samiran et al., 2016). Advancement in the biomass-to-energy conversion technologies has revived interest in the use of these feedstock because of its renewable and carbon-neutral nature. ...
Due to the irregular nature of solar resource, solar photovoltaic (PV) system alone cannot satisfy load on a 24/7 demand basis, especially with increasing regional population in developing countries such as Thailand. A hybrid solar PV/biomass based along with battery storage system has been drawing more attention to option since it promises great deal of challenges and opportunities for different rural areas. Thailand rich with higher level of agricultural crops and biomass materials, is a prospective candidate for deployment of bio-power to complement such hybrid systems. To this end, in this study a customized hybrid power system integrating solar, biomass (syngas) power and battery storage system is evaluated a pilot scale for micro off-grid application. This paper shows that for a reliability of a hybrid syngas/solar PV system along with rechargeable batteries, the syngas generator can guarantee a continuous 24 hours electricity supply in case of shortage of energy (during on cloudy day and at the nighttime). Two consecutive days of commissioning phase are necessary for the entire system to operate, which is a solid basis for including the syngas generator in the hybrid system. Furthermore, the generator has to be always synchronized during the commissioning time. Battery state of charge (SOC) in percent (%) connecting with syngas is greater than solar PV and the charging time appears significantly shorter than that one. All possible combinations between an innovation and existing systems can serve as a guideline for making similar studies in the context of different off-grid sites and more. Next, optimal scale up and design of hybrid power system for different off grid applications will be performed including comprehensive uncertainty analysis to facilitate robust and renewable electricity generation.
... Thermochemistry path includes combustion, gasification and pyrolysis while biochemistry path are fermentation and esterification . Thermochemistry is chosen because it is easier to be applied as biochemistry paths are difficult to be installed due to the high content of lignin and silica (Pode et al. 2015). ...
Rice mills consume considerable amount of energy, which is mainly supplied by fossil fuel. It has been approved that such energy is declining, and its negative impacts on the environment has also been significant. A more sustainable energy resource, such as biomass, should be considered to replace fossil energy. This research was aimed to assess energy potential of generated waste and to develop a model of energy self-sufficiency rice mill through by-products utilisation as energy source. The model was based on mass balance principles by assuming that there is a linear relationship of material flows in and out of each process compartment. The simplest model assumed the rice mill as a single compartment, while the complex model used a more detailed step of processes as compartment. The complex model was suitable to represent real process of rice mill. According to this model, head rice yield, rice husk ratio, and bran ratio is 0.572; 0.231, and 0.074 of dried paddy respectively. Energy potential of by-product is about 18,830 MJ/day from processing 20 tons harvested paddy. This energy potential exceeds the need of the rice mill at 28.25% surplus. This research revealed that rice mills can be energy self-sufficient. Therefore, it is possible to propose regulation to limit the use of fossil fuel in rice mill.
... Apart from its environmental concerns related to electricity generation, Indonesia has also experienced great difficulty in expanding its current national grid and related energy services to remote rural areas, largely due to its archipelago geography and forested countryside. Low population density and electricity demand, along with low paying capacity of rural residents, make the long-distance transmission of centralized electricity prohibitively expensive [11]. As a result, there were still over 10 million households without access to electricity in 2016 [12]. ...
... Agricultural products and by-products other than cotton are being exploited for generation of energy and materials [33], serving as a means of recycling and reducing organic wastes in the environment. Biomass from soybean, rice, and sugar cane are examples of agricultural by-products currently utilized for these purposes [34][35][36][37]. Valuable chemical extractives may also occur in some of this agricultural biomass [38], although these potential resources have not been fully exploited. ...
Although cultivated for over 7000 years, mainly for production of cotton fibre, the cotton plant has not been fully explored for potential uses of its other parts. Despite cotton containing many important chemical compounds, limited understanding of its phytochemical composition still exists. In order to add value to waste products of the cotton industry, such as cotton gin trash, this review focuses on phytochemicals associated with different parts of cotton plants and their biological activities. Three major classes of compounds and some primary metabolites have been previously identified in the plant. Among these compounds, most terpenoids and their derivatives (51), fatty acids (four), and phenolics (six), were found in the leaves, bolls, stalks, and stems. Biological activities, such as anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory activities, are associated with some of these phytochemicals. For example, β-bisabolol, a sesquiterpenoid enriched in the flowers of cotton plants, may have anti-inflammatory product application. Considering the abundance of biologically active compounds in the cotton plant, there is scope to develop a novel process within the current cotton fibre production system to separate these valuable phytochemicals, developing them into potentially high-value products. This scenario may present the cotton processing industry with an innovative pathway towards a waste-To-profit solution.
... This agro-waste posed a serious solid waste disposal since the traditional method of disposal (open burning) is no longer accepted as it leads to emissions which is another environmental challenge. Currently, rice husk is being used as a raw material for production of bioenergy and valuable materials via thermochemical and biochemical processes [6][7][8][9]. Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process where biomass materials can be converted into solid (bio-char), liquid (bio-oil) and gaseous products (non-condensable) under inert environment. This process continues to be attractive as it comprises fewer steps, relatively less complex and virtually all kinds of biomass material can be processed. ...
In this study, co-pyrolysis of rice husk with underutilized biomass, Napier grass and sago waste was carried out in a fixed bed reactor at 600 C, 30 C/min and 5 L/min nitrogen flow rate. Two-phase bio-oil (organic and aqueous) was collected and characterized using standard analytical techniques. 34.13–45.55 wt% total boil-oil yield was recorded using assorted biomass compared to pure risk husk biomass with 31.51 wt% yield. The organic phase consist mainly benzene derivatives with higher proportion in the oil from the co-pyrolysis process relative to the organic phase from the pyrolysis of the individual biomass while the aqueous phase in all cases was predominantly water, acids, ketones, aldehydes, sugars and traces of phenolics. This study has demonstrated a good approach towards increasing valorization of rice husk in a single reaction step for the production of high-grade bio-oil, which can be transformed into fuel and valuable chemicals.
... The rice husk is a potential material as an alternative energy, for example, for power generation [3,4]. A rice milling company in Thailand utilizes rice husk for electric power generation. ...
A white rice husk ash with a silica content of more than 99% was produced from a rice husk by a citric acid
treatment before heating the rice husk at 700 oC to 1000 oC. The white ash mostly consisted of an amorphous phase, and
cristobalite usually found after heating rice husk was not detected. The amorphous phase was still formed although the rice
husk was burned at 1000 oC. These indicated that the citric acid dissolved part of the carbon compounds in the rice husk,
followed by releasing of potassium and other alkali cations, and as a result, an amorphous high silica ash was formed
without incorporation of crystal phases such as cristobalite. The white rice husk ash was successfully converted into ZSM-
5, a zeolite widely used as a catalyst in the petroleum industries.
Keywords: amorphous silica, rice husk, rice husk ash, zeolite, zsm-5.
... The rice husk is a potential material as an alternative energy, for example, for power generation [3,4]. A rice milling company in Thailand utilizes rice husk for electric power generation. ...
A white rice husk ash with a silica content of more than 99% was produced from a rice husk by a citric acid treatment before heating the rice husk at 700 oC to 1000 oC. The white ash mostly consisted of an amorphous phase, and cristobalite usually found after heating rice husks was not detected. The amorphous phase was still formed although the rice husk was burned at 1000 oC. These indicated that the citric acid dissolved part of the carbon compounds in the rice husk, followed by releasing of potassium and other alkali cations, and as a result, an amorphous high silica ash was formed without incorporation of crystal phases such as cristobalite. The white rice husk ash was successfully converted into ZSM-5, a zeolite widely used as a catalyst in the petroleum industries.
Keywords: Amorphous silica; Rice husk; Rice husk ash; Zeolite; ZSM-5
... Rice husk is a valuable natural resource that provides a sustainable and abundant source of energy in many Cambodian provinces. Since the energy requirement of rural population is not very high, rural electrification in many villages realized with a small scale gasifier is providing a sustainable solution to improve the access to energy and, at the same time, to guarantee a cheap kW h [39]. ...
Rice husk (RH), an agricultural waste, is abundantly available in rice producing countries like China, India, Bangladesh, Brazil, US, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, and South East Asia. Despite the massive amount of annual production worldwide, so far RHs have been recycled only for low-value applications. In recent years, many rice mills in rice producing countries have started using RH for the energy production for mill operations as well as household lighting in rural regions. Burning of RHs produces the rice husk ash (RHA). The disposal in landfills or open fields can be problematic and may cause a serious environmental and human health related problems due to the low bulk density of RHA. Several ways are being thought of for disposing RHA by making its commercial use. The amorphous silica forms the main component (83-90%) of RHA. The amorphous silica rich RHA has wide range of applications. High-value applications and current research investigations such as the use of RHA in manufacturing of silica gels, silicon chip, synthesis of activated carbon and silica, production of light weight construction materials and insulation, catalysts, zeolites, ingredients for lithium ion batteries, graphene, energy storage/capacitor, carbon capture, and in drug delivery vehicles are presented. Use of RHA in potential future applications is also discussed. It is suggested that the amorphous silica rich RHA could become a potential resource of low cost precursor for the production of value-added silica based materials for practical applications.
... Apart from its environmental concerns related to electricity gen- eration, Indonesia has also experienced great difficulty in expanding its current national grid and related energy services to remote rural areas, largely due to its archipelago geography and forested countryside. Low population density and electricity demand, along with low paying ca- pacity of rural residents, make the long-distance transmission of cen- tralized electricity prohibitively expensive [11]. As a result, there were still over 10 million households without access to electricity in 2016 [12]. ...
An equilibrium dialysis combined with a (14)C-labeling method was used to study the abiotic association of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) with dissolved humic substances (HS) and its influence on the fate of PAEs in landfill leachate. Elemental analysis and FTIR spectral analysis were carried out on the humic acid (HA) and fulvic acid (FA) components of HS to examine the relationship between the structure of HS and the intensity of the association of the PAEs with HS (K(A)). The results show that the association intensity of HS with PAEs depends greatly on both the properties of the PAEs and the source of HS. The HS have a strong association reaction with dibutyl phthalic acid, which might explain the higher concentration of dibutyl phthalic acid detected in landfill leachate. The pH value strongly affects the K(A) of HS, and it decreases radically when the pH increase from 3.0 to 9.0. The non-specific hydrophobic interaction between HS and PAEs plays a more important role in the abiotic association of HS with PAEs. Elemental analysis and FTIR spectra suggest that the high K(A) values are related to the high aromatic content and larger molecular weight of HS.
The agriculture industry has grown dramatically by about three times over the last 50 years due to the rapid population growth, improvements in green production technology and agricultural land development. Rice is the second most-consumed agricultural product globally. The rice husk ash (RHA), attained by burning the husk that is removed in the process of rice production, possesses high pozzolanic activity and therefore is a promising supplementary cementitious material. Despite the numerous studies on the successful incorporation of RHA in concrete in the literature, a comprehensive assessment on the sustainability aspects of these practices has not yet been solely and exclusively addressed. The paper reports findings from the analysis of a large database on the RHA incorporation in concrete. Principal sustainability components such as CO2 emissions, cost efficiency and eco-strength efficiency are described. The database, comprising over 1000 data points has been utilized to assess the key factors that have significant influences on the mechanical properties of concrete comprising RHA using the established set of criteria. Independent determination of the boundary conditions played a vital role in the sustainability assessment. The results showed that the use of RHA along with the other pozzolanic materials can yield a 25% diminution in the CO2 emissions generated during the concrete production in conjunction with a 65% rise in the cost efficiency of such practices. The findings reported in this study demonstrate improved sustainability for construction practice and highlight greener waste management routes that can be established for RHA.
Drying has a significant impact in the preservation of agricultural products. The dried foods have long shelf life because the moisture content is so low and the growth spoilage organisms are reduced. Although solar drying is a popular method, many rural places do not have a suitable climate for it. So it is important to develop a dryer that works with other technologies. This articles presents the design and fabrication of biomass based dryer which can be used to dry agricultural yield in rural areas. The biomass used in the gasifier is cheap and locally available. The dryer is designed to dry Tapioca and to test the effectiveness of the dryer at regular time interval during the whole drying process. The drying was carried between the temperature limits of 60°-70°C at constant mass flow of producer gas. The final moisture content of the Tapioca was recorded as 5% to 12%. The biomass based dryer reduces the drying time by 50% when compared with open sun drying. From experimentation it is observed that the biomass based dryer is more efficient than the traditional open sun drying.
Growth in global energy demand, with major fossil fuel consumption, has induced detrimental environmental and social impacts. Therefore, in recent years, technologies focused on renewable energy utilization, including biomass energy, have evolved to meet the energy requirements. Bioenergy‐based power generation systems are among the best‐unutilized configurations to diminish reliance on fossil fuels. However, it is difficult to select a biomass‐based configuration for economical, sustainable, and reliable power generation. Understanding different possible configurations of biomass‐based energy systems, design parameters, system research gaps, and integration challenges in biomass‐based energy systems are important for further development and propagation. This paper presents a critical review of biomass‐based different hybrid configurations with solar, wind, fuel cell, micro‐hydro, geothermal, and diesel generator, and various designing parameters, challenges, and gaps with future scope. To restrict the scope of the review, only the gasification and anaerobic digestion related biomass electricity generation systems are considered. The analysis indicates that the biomass‐based hybrid energy systems can provide an eco‐friendly and cost‐effective solution, especially for off‐grid rural electrification. The solar radiation, load demand, fuel price, capacity shortage, interest rate, wind speed, biomass quantity, and electricity rate are among the most critical designing parameters in biomass‐based energy systems. The study provides valuable information to designers, researchers, and policy makers on the latest design constraints and relevant policies relating to biomass‐based hybrid energy systems.
The world faces two pressing challenges: on the one hand, limiting global warming to 1.5 °C; on the other hand, enabling socio-economic development that is inclusive and equitable. These two challenges should not be seen as conflicting and should be addressed simultaneously. This is particularly true as we look forward to a post-COVID recovery efforts. The solution may partially rest on the transition to sustainable and renewable energy systems. The energy transition comprises presumptions of energy efficiency, affordability, reliability, and energy independence. And in developing countries, in particular, it also entails expectations of economic development, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability. Since most of the remaining renewable energy potential lies in developing countries, these countries will play a crucial role. This paper reviews the status of the energy transition in the Global South, by surveying scientific and grey literature and synthesising the wide scope of alternatives available to accelerate and enhance the transition to renewable energy systems. The alternatives and approaches found are encapsulated in three dimensions: technology, society, and policy. A roadmap presents the potential synergies that could be established across dimensions and sectors to aid the energy transition in developing countries. Concisely, the transition can be achieved by adopting and implementing technologies already commercially-available that improve the efficiency, affordability, and reliability of energy systems, by redefining and reclaiming citizens’ participation in energy planning and policy-making, and by democratically restructuring institutions and monitoring to boost transparency, accountability, and trust.
In this paper we identify a concept of countries’ biomass-related sustainability through a revision of the literature and the opinion of professionals, and identify the main reasons that prevent biomass from being a major source of energy production (adversities and constraints). The Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) methodology was used for establishing the causal and hierarchical relationships among the variables linked with the adversities and constraints associated with the production of biofuel from biomass and their impact on countries’ biomass-related sustainability. At the base of the concept of biomass related countries’ sustainability we identify an important constraint associated with the high energy production costs, but also the necessity of supporting new investments, which will drive technological innovations in this sector and allow for an increase in efficiency. The paper presents an innovative approach to the research of biofuel production from biomass by suggesting not only a concept of countries’ biomass-related sustainability but also by exploring causal and hierarchical relationships between adversities/constraints of biofuel production and impact on countries’ sustainability.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544219300702
This work presents a literature review of the synthetic silica production pathways which are classified in thermal (also known as pyrogenic) and wet. They lead to different commercial references with different properties depending not only on the process conditions but also on the raw material characteristics. Based on the aforementioned, a simile is made with the rice husk ash (RHA) obtained from rice husk combustion, and its main physical-chemical properties required for its use in polymer sector are also shown. In this sense, this work shows a wide review of chemical composition, surface area, molecular structure (amorphous or crystalline) and particle size of different RHA found in literature. Finally, the mechanical performance of both thermoplastics and elastomers reinforced with RHA reported in literature is also described and compared with those composites reinforced with some commercial silica.
This article systematically reviews the emerging field of research on business models for renewable energies, differentiating between developing and industrialized countries. The key findings on developing countries are as follows: first, there is a lack of quantitative data; second, opportunities are driven primarily by unfulfilled basic needs and micro-finance, whereas corruption and weak electricity grids are the main barriers; and third, business models should be replicable. The key findings on industrialized countries are as follows: first, opportunities are driven primarily by climate change mitigation and energy efficiency improvements; second, stuck thought patterns and high costs of energy storage are important barriers; and third, cooperation is a key in future business models to handle increasing complexity. This review reveals implications for researchers and policy-makers. Promising avenues for future research are the analysis of intermodal business models and opportunities concerning energy self-supply and renewable district heating. Policy-makers are advised to design legal frameworks that account for the global nature of the renewable energy challenge and are simultaneously adapted to regional disparities.
Shredding of the cells is often the first step in lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling. Thus, LiNi1/3 Mn1/3 Co1/3 O2 (NMC)/graphite lithium-ion cells from a field-tested electric vehicle were shredded and transferred to tinplate or plastic storage containers. The formation of hazardous compounds within, and being released from, these containers was monitored over 20 months. The tinplate cans underwent fast corrosion as a result of either residual charge in the active battery material, which could not fully be discharged because of contact loss to the current collector, or redox reactions between the tinplate surface and metal parts of the shredded material. The headspace compositions of the containers were investigated at room temperature and 150 °C using headspace-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-GC-MS). Samples of the waste material were also collected using microwave-assisted extraction and the extracts were analyzed over a period of 20 months using ion chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (IC-ESI-MS). LiPF6 was identified as a conducting salt, whereas dimethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, and ethylene carbonate were the main solvent components. Cyclohexylbenzene was also detected, which is an additive for overcharge protection. Diethyl carbonate, fluoride, difluorophosphate and several ionic and non-ionic alkyl (fluoro)phosphates were also identified. Importantly, dimethyl fluorophosphate (DMFP) and diethyl fluorophosphate (DEFP) were quantified using HS-GC-MS through the use of an internal standard. DMFP, DEFP, and related compounds are known as chemical warfare agents, and the presence of these materials is of great interest. In the case of this study, these hazardous materials are present but in manageable low concentrations. Nonetheless, the presence of such compounds and their potential release during an accident that may occur during shredding or recycling of large amounts of LIB waste should be considered.
The importance of using biomass efficiently to address global warming and resources shortages are well-known and documented. Biomass, which is environment-friendly, can replace fossil fuels for thermal and electricity applications. Biomass gasification, due to its high electrical efficiency compared to other biomass-based electricity generation systems in the lower and middle range of power, is emerging as a promising technology in many developed and developing countries. Therefore, biomass gasification is highly appropriate for decentralized energy systems. They appear to be important alternatives to conventional heat and power generation systems, specifically in countries with available feedstock, higher oil prices and shortages of existing supplies.
Chapter 1 discusses different types of biomass gasification technologies available and required supporting equipment and processes. Gasification is primarily a thermo-chemical process, converting biomass into combustible gases (mixture of CO, CH4 and H2) at elevated temperatures. Since these gases have other pollutants, it requires extensive purifications before being used in electricity generation applications. Therefore, a gasifier should entail a series of gas cleaning and conditioning equipments. Gasifiers are mainly characterized according to the direction of flow of feedstock and air. Fixed bed updraft, fixed bed downdraft, circulating fluidized bed, bubbling fluidized bed, entrained flow and multi-stage gasifiers are being commonly used for different applications.
Rice husk, a waste by-product of farming, has become a gold mine of new products. Some enterprising companies are turning it into various products not only for the eco-conscious marketplace but also for the industrial sector.
Rice husk and straw are by-products of rice cultivation and processing industry and can be used as an energy source. Proper understanding of the physical properties of rice residues is necessary for utilizing them in thermochemical conversion processes such as gasification and combustion. The physical properties (moisture content, particle size, bulk density and porosity) of rice husks and straws obtained from three countries (Egypt, Cuba and China) were evaluated in this study. The moisture contents of rice husks and straws were in the ranges of 4.60-6.07% and 6.58-6.92%, respectively. For all rice varieties tested, the moisture content of the straws was higher than these of the husks. The particle sizes of rice husks and straws were in the ranges of 0.212-0.850 mm and 0-0.710 mm, respectively. All the rice husk varieties had a normal distribution of particle size around the main value of 0.6 mm while the particle size distribution for the rice straws showed a decreasing trend, the larger the particle size the higher was the weight percentage. The bulk density of rice husks and straws were in the ranges of 331.59-380.54 kg m-3 and 162.03-194.48 kg m-3, respectively. The bulk density values of rice straws were lower than those of rice husks. A negative linear relationship between the bulk density and the average particle size was observed for rice husks and straws. The porosity of rice husks and straws were in the ranges of 63.64-68.94% and 71.21-85.28%, respectively. A positive linear relationship between the porosity and the average particle size was observed for rice husks and straws. Also, a negative linear relationship between the porosity and the bulk density was observed. The results obtained from this study showed significant differences in the physical properties of the rice husks and straws collected from different countries (located in three different continents). These differences may be due to variations in climatic conditions, soil type, methods of cultivation and type of fertilizer used. The results also indicated that different parts of rice plant (straw and husk) had different physical properties. Also, significant differences were observed among rice varieties even though they were grown under the same climatic conditions using same soil type and cultivation method as in the case of the long and short grain rice variety of Egypt.
Reliable and affordable electricity is one of the biggest problems in Cambodia. Only 24% of the population has an access to electricity while the others suffer from insufficient electricity supply. This paper shows the current situation in Cambodian electricity facilities and offers rice husk gasification systems as an option for electricity generation. In this paper rice husk gasification system has been inspired by Batt Daeng Electrification Company in Kampoung Speu province in Cambodia. The idea of the study focuses on the extension of biomass gasification technology and calculates the potential of using all rice husk produced in a year in Cambodia. The rice husk produced in 2007 has a potential to generate about 1377 GWh electricity yearly in a gasification system similar to one Batt Daeng Electricity Company has. This amount of electricity is comparable with the total electricity consumption in the same year.
Developing countries have collectively displayed relatively high growth rates in the last decade. Although large disparities still persist in standards of living, low and middle income countries averaged economic growth of 6.2% between 2000 and 2008, pulling 325 million people out of poverty (World Bank, 2010). Global growth has been accompanied by environmental degradation and in some cases there are growing numbers of people still living in poverty. Key questions for development planning today in countries include: Can developing countries strike a balance between economic growth, societal well-being and environmental protection? Can inclusive, green growth be a way forward? This report presents a case study on Cambodia designed to answer these questions. The case study draws on several sources of information to compile a “snapshot” of the situation today. In particular, qualitative information was gathered through a two-day, multi-stakeholder workshop and through bilateral interviews conducted with relevant actors from both public and private sectors. It also draws on relevant literature to present a balanced picture of the state of play on green growth in Cambodia.
Malaysia has a good mix of energy resources like oil, natural gas, coal and renewable energies such as biomass, solar and hydro. In spite of this plenty of resources, the country is dependent on fossil fuel for industrial and transportation sector. In 2009, 94.5% of electricity is generated by using fossil fuel such as natural gas, coal, diesel oil and fuel oil. Until now, Malaysia stills a net energy exporter. Concerns about energy security, the fluctuation of crude oil price and climate change are driving significant changes in how energy and electricity specifically, is generated, transmitted and consumed in Malaysia. In this regard, renewable energy resources are becoming attractive for sustainable energy development in Malaysia. There is because renewable sources of energy are abundant in Malaysia, the significant ones being biomass and solar. This article presents a review of present energy situation and energy policies for the energy sector in Malaysia. Investigation of various renewable energy and examine the energy and environmental issues associated with this energy. The review of current usage of renewable energy sources and also its potential implementation are evaluated to provide solution for the national.
Sintering temperatures and the initial deformation temperatures of ashes from Turkish Elbistan lignite, and biomass species such as hazelnut shell and rice husk were investigated up to 1450°C by Heating Microscope Technique. Sintering temperatures were found 1300, 1269, and 1320°C for hazelnut shell, rice husk, and lignite, respectively, while the initial deformation temperatures were >1450, 1370, and >1450°C. Lignite/biomass blends were prepared by adding of biomass into coal in the ratios of 5 or 10wt.%, and then effects of biomass presence on sintering temperature and the initial deformation temperature were tested. It was determined that the addition of potassium-rich hazelnut shell reduced the sintering temperatures to 919 and 730°C for the blends of 5 and 10wt.%, respectively. Also, initial deformation temperature dropped to 788°C in case of the blend of 10wt.%. Such a big antagonistic influence of hazelnut shell on the thermal behaviour of ash is attributed to the interaction of potassium from biomass with silicon compounds found in mineral matter of lignite. In addition, concentration of CaO may be another reason for this. On the other hand, the presence of rice husk showed limited effect on the sintering temperature as well the initial deformation temperature.
Biomass is one of the renewable and potentially sustainable energy sources and has many possible applications varying from heat generation to the production of advanced secondary energy carriers. The latter option would allow mobile services like the transportation sector to reduce its dependency on the fossil fuel supply. This article reviews the state-of-the-art of the fluidization technology applied for the gasification of biomass aimed at the production of gas for subsequent synthesis of the liquid energy carriers via, e.g., the Fischer-Tropsch process. It discusses the advantages of the gasification technology over combustion, considers the size of the conversion plant in view of the local biomass availability, assesses the pros and cons of different gasifier types in view of the application of the product gas. Subsequently the article focuses on the fluidized bed technology to discuss the main process parameters and their influence on the product composition and the operability of the gasifier. Finally a synthesis process (FT) is introduced shortly to illustrate the necessary gas cleaning steps in view of the purity requirements for the FT feed gas.
The implementation is discussed of a 30kW electricity generation plant using diesel fuel in combination with biomass in Svay Sronos village, Roka Ar commune, Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. The main purpose of the project was to provide a source of affordable electricity to a rural area without access to the electricity grid. The survey results of locations for a favorable site were considered. The electricity infrastructure for 125 households was constructed and detailed. Cost and income values were estimated.
Commodity plastics such as polypropylene can be reinforced with lignocellulosic materials such as rice husk, available in the environment in abundance. Bonding between the polymer and rice husk can be improved by proper selection of compatibilizer or coupling agents. Thermoplastic composites thus prepared have potential applications in automotive industries and as good building material.
Introduction * Myths, Pitfalls and Oversights * Ten Features of Successful Renewable Markets * An A to Z of Stakeholders * The Politics of Achieving Legislation * A Harsh Environment: The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation and the UK Renewables Industry * Renewable Policy Lessons from the US: The Need for Consistent and Stable Policies * Development of Renewable Energy in India: An Industry Perspective * Spanish Renewable Energy: Successes and Untapped Potential * A History of Support for Solar Photovoltaics in Germany * Sustainable Energy Policy Reform in Cambodia *
The gasification characteristics of the rice husk were studied in a cyclone gasifier using air as the gasifying medium to generate the fuel gas with available heating value and less tar content. The influence of equivalence ratio on temperature profiles, composition and low heating value of the produced gas, tar content, carbon conversion and cold gas efficiency was investigated. The equivalence ratios considered in this study were 0.20–0.32. The results show that the optimal equivalence ratio is 0.29 and the maximum temperature of gasification should be lower than 1000 °C. In order to optimize the performance of the cyclone gasifier, the main body of the gasifier was lengthened and air staged gasification was carried out. The low heating value of the produced gas, carbon conversion, cold gas efficiency and tar content are 4.72 MJ/Nm3, 57.5%, 37.3% and 1.85 g/Nm3, respectively.
a b s t r a c t Energy poverty and lack of electricity in the rural area exacerbate the poverty of the developing countries. The sustainable renewable technologies can be considered as efficient tools to reduce energy poverty whenever they are conducted based on an appropriate policy. Electricity can improve the human's lifestyle by increasing the level of health, education, welfare and technology. Currently, Sub-Sahara Africa with only 14.2% of rural electrification has the first rank in the world with lowest access to electricity, in that region around 585 million citizens has almost no access to electricity. The present study focuses on the general global policies to electrify the rural areas. In this regard, variety of plans and programs conducted by governmental and private institutes are investigated. In the year 2011, the International Energy Agency (IEA) has developed three global strategies based on the world energy market that defines the overall world energy approach. In the present work, different technologies for rural electrification are taken into account in two major categories of grid connected and off-grid systems. Furthermore, based on sustainable development with emphasis on environmental considera-tion, the feasibility of electrification by using different types of renewable energies such as solar, biomass, hydro, wind and wave have been studied. Despite reliability of grid connection, results indicate that renewable energy sources are the best choice especially in areas far from grid connections. Challenges between financial institutes and executive agencies result in resource management and technology development in order to overcome existing barriers and issues.
With the fast economic growth, the energy demand in China has increased two-fold in the past three decades. Various energy resources have been exploited and utilized and biomass is one of the energy resources that is abundant and has been widely used in China for a long time. Biomass gasification is an efficient and advanced technology for extracting the energy from biomass and has received increasing attention in the energy market. In this paper the development of biomass gasification for various energy applications in China is reviewed and their prospects are discussed. Among the different biomass gasification technologies, biomass gasification and power generation is found to be the most promising biomass gasification technology that has great potential to be further developed in China.
Spatial assessments of crop residue biomass and its power potential at village level in Sonitpur district of Assam, India is presented in this paper. Recent IRS P6 LISS-III remote sensing data of the study area is analyzed in GIS environment to map crop areas and subsequently residue biomass availability at village level. Altogether 16 different types of crop residues are identified in the district with rice crop as dominant residue. About 0.17 million tonnes of crop residue biomass, having about 17MW potential power, is spatially distributed in the rural areas of the district. Village level biomass power mapping is done assuming combustion route of decentralized power generation. Considering the acute shortage of grid connected power supply in the study area, the decentralized crop residue based power generation could be an attractive option. At individual level, thermal power plant up to 72kW could be possible to cater the essential power need of the villager.
Around 76% of the 10,452 villages of Cambodia will still be without electricity in the year 2010. We examined the potential of biomass gasification fuelled by alternative resources of agricultural residues and woody biomass to increase rural power supply, using geographic and social economic databases provided by the Royal Government of Cambodia. About 77% of villages currently without electricity have sufficient land available for tree planting for electricity generation based on a requirement of 0.02 ha per household. Among 8008 villages with sufficient land, we assumed that those villages that had greater than 10% of households owning a television (powered by a battery or a generator) would have both a high electricity demand and a capacity to pay for electricity generation. Those 6418 villages were considered appropriate candidates for mini-grid installation by biomass gasification. This study demonstrated that while agricultural residues such as rice husks or cashew nut shells may have high energy potential, only tree farming or plantations would provide sufficient sustainable resources to supply a biomass gasification system. Cost per unit electricity generation by biomass gasification is less than diesel generation when the plant capacity factor exceeds 13%. In order to ensure long-term ecological sustainability as well as appropriate tree-farming technology for farmers, there is an urgent need for studies aimed at quantifying biomass production across multiple rotations and with different species across Cambodia.
This article attempts to highlight the technical and economical issues related to decentralized power generation in India using biomass gasification. Biomass-based energy has several distinct advantages such as wide availability and uniform distribution that puts it ahead among the renewable energy options for India. The estimated potential of power generation through renewable sources in India is 85 GW with biomass power contributing approximately 20 GW. Especially, in the remote areas and hilly terrains of India, biomass gasification-based power generation offers a highly viable solution for meeting energy demands of small villages and hamlets, which would not only make them independent but will also reduce burden on state electricity boards. This paper reviews various technical options for biomass gasification-based low-, medium- and large-scale power generation. We essentially discuss the merits and demerits (operational and other problems) of different systems. Further, we also deal with economics of these systems and discuss principal factors influencing the viability of the biomass-based power generation. Finally, we review some case studies of biomass-based power generation for meeting energy needs, both thermal and electrical.
Thailand is facing an urgency to enhance its energy security and capacity to cope with global warming impacts, as demands on fossil fuel consumption keep rising. This paper reviewed the latest situation on renewable powers and developmental strategies toward low carbon electricity generation in Thailand. Government recently has spent tremendous financial and legislative supports to promote the uses of indigenous renewable energy resources and fuel diversification while contributing in reduction of global greenhouse gas. Major policy challenge is on which types of renewable energy should be more pronounced to ensure sustainable future of the country. Regions in Thailand present different potentials for renewable supply on biomass, municipal wastes, hydropower, and wind. To maximize renewable energy development in each area, location is matter. Currently, energy-derived biomass is widely utilized within the country, however if droughts happen more often and severe, it will not only affect food security but also energy security. Life cycle of biomass energy production may cause other social issues on land and chemical uses. Meanwhile, deployment of wind and solar energy has been slow and needs to speed up to the large extent in comparison with energy proportion from biomass. Nuclear power has already been included in the Thai power development plan 2010 (PDP-2010). However, public acceptance is a major issue. Setting up strategic renewable energy zone to support power producer according to pre-determined potential location may assist development direction. Furthermore, government has to strongly subsidize research and development to lower technology cost and promote private investment on renewable energy industry. In the future, revision of electricity price is needed to allow fair competition between non-renewable and renewable energy once subsidy programs are ended. Environmental tax according to fuel types could help government progressing toward low carbon electricity. Stimulating renewable energy development and utilization at local community is a key for Thai sufficiency economy.
Over the past decades biomass gasification has been regarded as a very promising technology, because of the large potential and the option of advanced applications. In this paper a 30-year overview is presented of the worldwide development of biomass gasification as part of the more general field of gasification, based on both literature and science and technology indicators. The first period of development until the mid-80s is characterized by large interest in coal gasification and domination by the USA. The second period relates more to biomass gasification. It starts in the mid-1990s and is dominated by Europe, although China and Japan are coming up strongly. The technology has been successful in a few niche markets, but largely remains confined to RD&D niches. High-end applications like IGCC and transport fuels have received major interest in research and development. However, biomass gasification is not yet mature enough to be widely applied in the market. It is still in a stage of variation and there has been no dominant design yet. In most markets it is unable to compete with other technologies. We do not expect a breakthrough on the short term, a gradual niche development seems much more likely.
532 2.1. Energy situation
- Cambodia.................................................................................................................................................................... Energy
Energy situation & rural electrification in Cambodia........................................................................ 532 2.1. Energy situation............................................................................................... 532
537 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews http
- Rice Husk
Rice husk gasification.......................................................................................... 537 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.01.018 1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 82 10 5169 3510; fax: þ 82 2 957 8408. E-mail address: rbpode@khu.ac.kr (R. Pode).
540 5.12. 100 kW Rice husk-fired system in Thma Koul district
- Rice Company.................................................................................... Battambang.................................................................. Province.................................................................. Vinh
Vinh Cheang Rice Company..................................................................................... 539 5.11. Biomass-generated electricity plant in Battambang................................................................... 540 5.12. 100 kW Rice husk-fired system in Thma Koul district, Battambang province.............................................. 540 5.13. 1 MW Rice husk-fired power generation plant in Battambang.......................................................... 540
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