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Debilitated shock escape is produced by both short- and long-duration inescapable shock: Learned helplessness vs. learned inactivity

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Abstract

Inescapable shocks of short (.5 sec) and long (5 sec) duration interfered with subsequent shock escape in rats. In addition, there were no differences between groups that received the pretreatment shocks and testing in the same or different apparatuses. These results are consistent with the learned helplessness account but conflict with recent learned inactivity accounts for the interference effects produced by inescapable shocks.

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... Esta leitura de "medo aprendido" está estudada (Altenor, Volpicelli, & Seligman, 1979;Maier, & Seligman, 1976;Nesse, 2001) ...
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Neste trabalho, propomo-nos discutir aspetos psicológicos e relacionais que assentam em consequências inesperadas decorrentes de uma situação de risco misto, neste caso os incêndios de 2017, na Pampilhosa da Serra, Portugal. Tendo a Grounded Theory como modelo metodológico, realizaram-se entrevistas a indivíduos residentes no concelho, com vista à compreensão das suas reações/perceções individuais/comunitárias face aos fogos de outubro de 2017. Assim se pôde compreender os mecanismos do medo, do stress pós-traumático e do apego das populações afetadas, e de como tal se reflete na relação com o território. Pretende-se abrir caminhos para a compreensão deste tipo de fenómenos cindínicos, do ponto de vista social, com vista ao desenvolvimento de possíveis ações de suporte, apoio e remediação após a catástrofe, nas comunidades afetadas. Palavras‑chave: Riscos sociais, incêndios florestais, medo, apego, território
... Originally, these theories were tested in animal models, where unsolvable problems were presented to animals and all attempts to solve the problem were met with unpleasant consequences, such as an electric shock. After repeated attempts to solve the problem failed, these animals would exhibit depressogenic behavior-withdrawal, acting as if they were in pain-and, even after a solution was presented to them, the animals would refuse to try the solution (Altenor, Volpicelli, & Seligman, 1979). Scientists have been able to draw a relationship between learned helplessness and depression in research with people. ...
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Mood disorders are among the most commonly seen psychiatric disorders, occurring in about 20.8% of the general population (lifetime prevalence rate) (Kessler et al., 2005) and up to 37.4% in late life populations (Luppa et al., 2012). They are found among adult, child, and older adult populations and cut across racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. Mood disorders are costly not only to the individual in terms of emotional suffering and physical distress but also to families (e.g., disrupted household routine and economic burden) and to our society. In fact, in 2017, the World Health Organization reported that depression is now considered to be the most disabling condition in the world, representing the leading cause of disability. Depression is noted to account for 7.5% of all years lived with a disability (WHO, 2017a, 2017b). In addition, of all mental health disorders, mood disorders are responsible for the highest suicide risk in more developed countries (Nock et al., 2008).
... Originally, these theories were tested in animal models, where unsolvable problems were presented to animals and all attempts to solve the problem were met with unpleasant consequences, such as an electric shock. After repeated attempts to solve the problem failed, these animals would exhibit depressogenic behavior-withdrawal, acting as if they were in pain-and, even after a solution was presented to them, the animals would refuse to try the solution (Altenor, Volpicelli, & Seligman, 1979). Scientists have been able to draw a relationship between learned helplessness and depression in research with people. ...
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Depressive disorders are among the most common psychiatric disorders occurring in adulthood. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the depressive disorders and the revised diagnostic criteria, discuss the prevalence and effects on people who have these disorders, examine the best methods for assessing depressive disorders, and present the latest research on their etiology.
... These findings, in conjunction with those of Altenor, Volpicelli, and Seligman (1979) and Kelsey (1977) seriously question the generality of the data base for the learned inactivity hypothesis. This learned inactivity hypothesis predicts that short-duration inescapable shock should not produce a deficit in the acquisition of an "active" escape response, since animals should not have the opportunity to learn to be inactive. ...
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... Estudos com o delineamento proposto por Seligman e Maier (1967) têm demonstrado que a exposição prévia ao estímulo incontrolável compromete a aprendizagem em uma condição posterior controlável. Uma hipótese utilizada para explicar esse dado, largamente aceita, sugere que na condição de incontrolabilidade o organismo aprende que não tem controle sobre o ambiente (Altenor, Volpicelli, & Seligman, 1979;Maier & Seligman, 1976). ...
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References to the experience of uncontrollability are often found in the literature in association with learned helplessness. This paper offers an analysis of the different uses of the concept of uncontrollability, indicating how the same verbal topography is controlled by different events. The generality of learned helplessness is discussed based on experiments with human subjects, also pointing out the role of verbal contingencies for the occurrence of learned helplessness in humans. Relevant variables to the generality of learned helplessness as the experimental model and animal equivalent of depression are discussed, justifying the need for more research into aspects such as the correspondence between the concept of uncontrollability and the experimentally established condition in the laboratory and the production of learned helplessness in humans involving verbal processes.
... These more pronounced activity effects may have resulted from the procedural changes necessitated by the triadic design; whereas in Experiment 1 the inescapable shock condition consisted of 80 trials of a fixed duration 5-sec shock, in the second experiment the yoking procedure resulted in a mean shock duration of 10.70 sec. The shock duration increase may play an important role in the heightened activity effects in Experiment 2, as suggested by work showing that shock duration may be an important modulator of the activity effects of inescapable shock (see Glazer & Weiss, 1976b; but also see Altenor, Volpicelli, & Seligman, 1979;Kelsey, 1977). ...
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Reviews S. F. Maier and M. E. Seligman's (see PA, Vol 56:Issue 1) learned helplessness hypothesis and uses a 2-process reinforcement theory to explain 5 "critical" studies which Maier and Seligman stated were unanswerable from an S-R (stimulus-response) position. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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13 experiments employing 607 Swiss-Webster mice investigated shock-elicited activity in a circular field and escape performance in a shuttlebox following exposure to either escapable or inescapable shock. Upon shock inception in the circular field, Ss exhibited a 2–3 sec period of constant or increasing motor excitation followed by a decline in motor activity toward or below preshock levels. Prior exposure to inescapable shock decreased the magnitude of initial excitation and increased the rate at which locomotor excitation declined. Inescapable shock did not detectably affect escape performance if escape was possible immediately upon shock onset. If escape was briefly delayed 4–6 sec until the time at which a marked decline in the shock-elicited excitation would be expected, marked deficits of escape performance were seen. Treatments that attenuated the reduction in activity produced by inescapable shock (e.g., shock interruption during test) mitigated the escape deficits. It was demonstrated that duration and intensity of inescapable shock influence later escape behavior in a manner that is highly correlated with the motor changes induced by the treatments seen in the circular field. It is concluded that the escape interference induced by inescapable shock may be interpreted in terms of a decreased tendency for shock to sustain vigorous motor activity for protracted periods. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Results of previous studies show that dogs exposed to inescapable shocks in a Pavlov harness subsequently fail to learn to escape shock in a shuttle box. The present 6 experiments attempted to replicate this finding with male Sprague-Dawley rats (N = 182). In agreement with many previous investigations, Exp I found that Ss exposed to inescapable shock did not fail to learn to escape in a shuttle box. Exp II, III, and IV varied the number, intensity, and temporal interval between inescapable shocks and did not find failure to learn in the shuttle box. An analysis of responding in the shuttle box revealed that Ss shuttled rapidly from the very 1st trial, whereas dogs acquire shuttling more gradually. Exp V and VI revealed that Ss exposed to inescapable shock failed to learn to escape when the escape response was one that was acquired more gradually. Exp V utilized a double crossing of the shuttle box as the escape response and Exp VI utilized a wheel-turn response. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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If animals receive inescapable electric shocks, their subsequent avoidance-escape learning is poor. This phenomenon, which can be called the interference effect, was studied in 4 experiments with a total of 133 male albino Holtzman rats. Exp I demonstrated that, depending on the parameters of the inescapable shock used, there exists a transitory effect and a separable, more permanent, long-term interference effect. Exps II and III investigated the long-term effect, showing that it (a) required inescapable shocks of at least 5 sec in order to develop and (b) was still evident 1 wk after such shock. It is suggested that, whereas the transient effect is produced by a short-lived neurochemical change, the long-term effect is mediated by a learned response. Consistent with this differentiation, Exp IV showed that the interference effect measured 30 min after inescapable shock did not occur when Ss had been repeatedly exposed to the type of inescapable shock that produced the transitory effect, whereas the interference effect measured 72 hrs after shock became more pronounced when Ss had been repeatedly exposed to the type of inescapable shock that produced the long-term deficit. Aspects of the data suggest that learned helplessness is not the basis of the long-term interference phenomenon. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Male rats which had received approximately 21 min of pulsed, inescapable tail shock during a 6-h session in a wheel-turn chamber were markedly deficient in acquisition of an FR 2 crossing escape response in a shuttlebox when first tested 22 or 70 h later (Experiments 1 and 2). Rats which had received identical amounts and patterns of escapable/avoidable shock, however, were not deficient (Experiment 1). Preventing wheel-turn responses during the inescapable shocks prevented the occurrence of the subsequent escape deficit, whereas reducing the feedback provided for the first crossing response of the FR 2 requirement enhanced the deficit (Experiment 3). These data can be best explained by the learned helplessness hypothesis and indicate that the types of responses available and made during the inescapable shocks are more important than previously indicated.
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The role of acetylcholine and central catecholamines in modulating aversively motivated behaviors, and behavior following exposure to uncontrollable stressors, is evaluated. It is suggested that in the presence of adequate associative processes, nonassociative factors mediated by stress-induced neurochemical changes determine avoidance response rate. In addition to the existence of a balanced state between excitatory catecholamine and inhibitory cholinergic systems, it is posited that these neurochemical systems may be mutually regulatory. Excessive stimulation of one system may induce a compensatory antagonistic rebound in the complementary system, thereby maintaining neurochemical homeostasis. Owing to time-dependent variations in neurotransmitter activity, temporal variations in performance may occur following initial exposure to aversive stimulation. Alterations in neurochemical activity that affect nonassociative processes have predictable effects on time-dependent variations in avoidance performance. The model is extended to deal with other stress-related phenomena (e.g., helplessness, depression, and ulceration). (7 p ref)
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Four experiments attempted to produce behavior in the rat parallel to the behavior characteristic of learned helplessness in the dog. When rats received escapable, inescapable, or no shock and were later tested in jump-up escape, both inescapable and no-shock controls failed to escape. When bar pressing, rather than jumping up, was used as the tested escape response, fixed ratio (FR) 3 was interfered with by inescapable shock, but not lesser ratios. With FR-3, the no-shock control escaped well. Interference with escape was shown to be a function of the inescapability of shock and not shock per se: Rats that were "put through" and learned a prior jump-up escape did not become passive, but their yoked, inescapable partners did. Rats, as well as dogs, fail to escape shock as a function of prior inescapability, exhibiting learned helplessness.
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EXPOSURE OF DOGS TO INESCAPABLE SHOCKS UNDER A VARIETY OF CONDITIONS RELIABLY INTERFERED WITH SUBSEQUENT INSTRUMENTAL ESCAPE-AVOIDANCE RESPONDING IN A NEW SITUATION. USE OF A HIGHER LEVEL OF SHOCK DURING INSTRUMENTAL AVOIDANCE TRAINING DID NOT ATTENUATE INTERFERENCE; THIS WAS TAKEN AS EVIDENCE AGAINST AN EXPLANATION BASED UPON ADAPTATION TO SHOCK. SS CURARIZED DURING THEIR EXPOSURE TO INESCAPABLE SHOCKS ALSO SHOWED PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE WITH ESCAPE-AVOIDANCE RESPONDING, INDICATING THAT INTERFERENCE IS NOT DUE TO ACQUISITION, DURING THE PERIOD OF EXPOSURE TO INESCAPABLE SHOCKS, OF INAPPROPRIATE, COMPETING INSTRUMENTAL RESPONSES. MAGNITUDE OF INTERFERENCE WAS FOUND TO DISSIPATE RAPIDLY IN TIME, LEAVING AN APPARENTLY NORMAL S AFTER ONLY 48 HR.
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Aversive events occur frequently in the life histories of all organisms. Long-lasting behavior pecularities, emotional illnesses, and anomalies of perception and thinking are attributed to such events. Apart from genetic or constitutional variables that might lead to individual differences in reactivity to aversive stimuli, there are a host of environmental variables that help to understand such individual differences. Two such environmental variables are the predictability and controllability of aversive events. This chapter reviews some of the behavioral and physiological consequences of aversive events that are either unpredictable, uncontrollable by a subject, or both. Unpredictable painful events turn out to be more distressing than are predictable ones. They generate more ulcers and intensify subjective reports of painfulness and anxiety. Both people and animals choose, if given the choice, predictable painful events over unpredictable ones. Uncontrollable painful events can interfere with an organism's ability later to solve problems to escape or avoid these events. They can lead to a phenomenon labeled “helplessness.” The chapter discusses the current status of research and theory concerning these phenomena. It describes a two-dimensional representation of the operations involved in instrumental training and Pavlovian conditioning. The chapter further reviews a number of theoretical interpretations of the effects of uncontrollable shocks on subsequent escape/avoidance learning and discusses the theoretical interpretations of the effects of unpredictable shocks on behavioral and physiological responses: the preparatory response hypothesis and the safety signal hypotheses.
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Two experiments were simultaneously conducted in which two different groups of 40 rats each were exposed to one of two different stressors. In both experiments half the subjects were pretreated with shock, half with underwater exposure. For each pretreatment stressor, half the subjects were allowed to escape, the other half were not. The experiments differed in the test task used. Approximately 24 hr after pretreatment, one-half the subjects from each pretreatment group received 20 water-escape trials in an underwater maze, the other half received 20 shock-escape trials in a two-way shuttle box. The subjects in each of the inescapable pretreatment conditions were slower to escape in the subsequent shock-escape and water-escape tasks when compared with subjects in the corresponding escapable pretreatment condition. The “learned helplessness” effect appeared to be no smaller when aversive stimuli were changed between pretreatment and test than when they remained the same.
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Three experiments investigated the effects of restraint and of inescapable fixed duration preshocks on subsequent shuttlebox escape-from-shock learning. Fixed-intensity preshock, random-intensity preshock, and no-preshock conditions were included in each experiment. In Experiment 1, restraining the rat in a harness prior to escape training retarded escape acquisition. There was no effect of preshock. In Experiment 2, both restraint and high fixed-intensity (1.0 mA) preshock retarded escape acquisition, when escape training occurred either immediately or 24 hr after preshock. In Experiment 3, movement was punished by positively correlating preshock intensity with the rat's movement; this treatment retarded escape conditioning. No effects were found for low fixed-intensity or random-intensity preshock nor for a condition in which movement was rewarded during preshock. The retarding effects of restraint and certain types of preshock were explained in terms of interfering instrumental responses.
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Pavlovian fear conditioning and learned helplessness Effects of inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and a voidance learning
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Effects of inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and a voidance learning
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MAIER, S. F., S ELIGMAN, M. E. P., & SoLOMON, R. L. Pavlovian fear conditioning and learned helplessness. In B. A. Campbell & R. M. Church (Ed s.), Punishment. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969.
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MAIER, S. F., & JA CKSON, R. L. Learned helplessness: All of us were right (and wrong) : Inescapable shock has multiple effects.
A relay sequencing device for scrambling grid shock
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MAIER, S. F., & JA CKSON, R. L. Learned helplessness: All of us were right (and wrong) : Inescapable shock has multiple effects.