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Overweight Athlete
Abstract
Maintaining appropriate body weight is important for athletic performance. Body mass index (BMI) is commonly used to classify an individual's body weight. However, in the case of athletes, who may have a high body weight due to higher lean body mass, BMI may lead to misclassification of the athlete as overweight or obese. Thus, both BMI and body composition assessment should be conducted before determining if an athlete is overweight or obese. Body weight goals of athletes should be determined for each athlete, based on the requirements of the sport, the athlete's body size and shape, and in consultation with the athlete, coaches, and trainers. Safe weight loss goals should be established on an individual basis. Athletes, coaches, and trainers should work closely with individuals who have training in nutrition (registered dietitians) to set appro-priate weight goals and to develop weight management protocols that promote healthy eating.
... In particular, it is unable to discriminate between body composition compartments, namely fat and lean mass (LM) [17], making it unsuitable for use among athletes, who are characterized by an increased muscularity and decreased adiposity in comparison to non-athlete individuals. The universal BMI cut-off points of 25 and 30 kg/m 2 for overweight and obesity, respectively, are therefore inappropriate and debatable, as has been highlighted in the literature [18,19]. In fact, several studies have already showed that a higher BMI does not necessarily represent over and excessive adiposity in several athletic populations [20,21]. ...
... This finding is perfectly in line with those of several studies that showed that a higher BMI does not necessarily imply excessive adiposity in sports environment (i.e., athletes) [20,21]. In addition, we feel that today we are in a position to clearly respond to a debated question raised over the past couple of decades regarding whether the high prevalence of overweight/obesity-according the WHO BMI classification-among athletes is fact or fiction [18]. ...
Background: Body composition in athletes is characterized by pronounced muscle mass and low body fat (BF). Over and excessive adiposity are thus expected in athletes at higher body mass index (BMI) levels than those suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO). Therefore, we aimed to test the validity of WHO BMI cut-off points for overweight and obesity, respectively (i.e., ≥25 kg/m² and 30 kg/m²) in young male athletes from different sport disciplines in Italy. Methods: This study includes 622 male young adult athletes of mean age 25.7 ± 4.7 years who were initially categorized according to the WHO BMI classification, and then re-categorized by adiposity status based on total BF% as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). A predictive equation has been developed utilizing multivariable model-building to predict the best BMI cut-offs for identifying overweight and obesity in this population. The agreement between the different classification systems was assessed with the kappa statistic (κ). Results: According to the WHO BMI classification, 451 (72.5%) individuals were of normal weight, 148 (23.8%) were with overweight and 23 (3.7%) were with obesity, but based on the total BF%, 598 (96.1%) were of normal weight, and only 19 (3.1%) were with overweight and 5 (0.8%) were with obesity, revealing a weak agreement between the two classification systems (WHO BMI vs. BF%; κ = 0.169). On the other hand, new BMI cut-off points were identified (BMI ≥ 28.2 kg/m² for overweight and 33.7 kg/m² for obesity) and showed good agreement with the BF% classification system (κ = 0.522). Conclusions: The currently used WHO BMI cut-offs are not suitable for determining weight status in young male athletes, and since the newly proposed ones demonstrated a good performance, these should be implemented in new guidelines.
... Since BMI does not differentiate fat mass and muscle mass, 23 information on fat mass and muscle mass would be needed to determine whether high BMI among elite athletes is due to large fat mass or large muscle mass. [23][24][25] However, high BMI among Japanese Olympic athletes in 1964 Tokyo Olympic games may be explained by large muscle mass rather than large fat mass. In our study population, higher BMI was observed among sports disciplines which require large Open access muscle mass including weightlifting and martial arts. ...
... However, since BMI does not differentiate between fat mass and muscle mass, further information on other parameters including fat mass and muscle mass would be needed. [23][24][25] Future research Further studies would be needed to investigate the causes of deaths by incorporating national mortality statistics of Japan into our analyses, especially causes of deaths among Olympic athletes who died during a younger attained age. ...
Objectives
To compare the mortality of Japanese athletes in the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games with that of the Japanese population, and to elucidate factors associated with their mortality.
Methods
We obtained from the Japan Sport Association study subjects’ biographical information, information on lifestyles and medical data. Missing data were obtained from online databases. Standardised mortality ratio (SMR) was calculated to compare athletes’ mortality with the Japanese population. Cox proportional hazards model was applied to estimate the HR for each category of body mass index (BMI), smoking history and handgrip strength. This analysis was limited to male athletes due to the small number of female athletes.
Results
Among 342 (283 men, 59 women) athletes, deaths were confirmed for 70 (64 men, 6 women) athletes between September 1964 and December 2017. Total person years was 15 974.8, and the SMR was 0.64 (95% CI 0.50 to 0.81). Multivariate analysis performed on 181 male athletes. Mortality was significantly higher for BMI≥25 kg/m ² than for 21–23 kg/m ² (HR: 3.03, 95% CI 1.01 to 9.07). We found no statistically significant associations between smoking history and mortality; the HR (95% CI) for occasional and daily smokers were 0.82 (0.26 to 2.57) and 1.30 (0.55 to 3.03) compared with never smokers. We also found no statistically significant associations between handgrip strength and mortality (P for trend: 0.51).
Conclusion
Japanese athletes in the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games lived longer than the Japanese population. BMI≥25 kg/m ² was associated with higher mortality, but smoking history and handgrip strength were not associated with mortality.
... Since body mass index is calculated using the standardized formula, it is expected that body mass index results are highly correlated with body mass results. Another fact proven by our research is that body mass index didn't change significantly during the detraining period, which is consistent with previous research [39,40]. However, some studies have suggested that statistically significant changes in body mass index can occur in professional football players at the end of the detraining period [41]. ...
The aim of the study was to examine the effects of five weeks detraining period on body composition changes in elite professional Indonesian male soccer players. The body composition of 24 top-level male soccer players (age: 26.33 ± 4.06 years) competing in First League of Indonesia was measured before and after the 5-weeks detraining period. Body composition variables, including body mass, body fat percentage, fat-free mass, and total body water percentage, were measured using the bioelectrical impedance method. The paired samples T-test showed significant changes in the means of body composition variables for body fat percentage, fat-free mass, and total body water percentage. Mean values for body fat percentage increased during the detraining period from 10.87 ± 2.47% to 11.98 ± 2.75% (10.3%). A decrease in mean values for fat-free mass (61.34 ± 5.74 kg to 59.80 ± 6.22; 2.49%) and total body water percentage (from 65.13 ± 1.84% to 64.40 ± 1.99%; 1.12%) was observed. No significant changes occurred in body mass (from 69.05 ± 8.07 kg to 69.05 ± 8.48 kg; 0.04%) from initial to final testing. Since there was a significant difference in body fat percentage, fat-free mass, and total body water percentage % before and after detraining period. It is suggested that 5 weeks of detraining period for the professional soccer players may not be necessary, and the duration should be shortened to maintain body composition status.
... Thus, a body containing a lot of muscle mass can weigh a lot, and even if it is actually normal, it can be judged as overweight or obese based on the BMI. Therefore, an athlete that is of the same height and weight as a member of the general public can be judged as overweight or obese based on their BMI, despite having a lot of muscle mass and being normal [17] Therefore, various studies have been conducted to accurately diagnose obesity. Hamdy et al. (2006) determined that a clinical diagnosis of visceral fat may be more important than an obesity diagnosis when using BMI to assess the risk of hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and coronary artery disease in both thin and obese people. ...
This study uses various body values (length, circumference, and volume) that can be derived from 3D data to determine variables and areas that substantially affect obesity and suggests guidelines for diagnosing obesity that are more elaborate than existing obesity indices. Body data for 170 participants (87 men and 73 women aged 20–30 years) are collected for the chest, abdomen, hips, and arms/legs. A 3D scanner, which can produce accurate body point results, and dual-energy X-ray (DEXA), which can accurately determine the fat percentage, are used to derive fat rates for each body part. The fat percentage and total fat percentage for each body part are used as learning data. For the derived data, the eigenvalue for each body part is derived using a principal component analysis, and the following four clusters are created for each part: underweight, normal, overweight, and obese. A comparison with the obesity index, which diagnoses obesity based on the cluster model, showed that the accuracy of the model proposed in this study is higher at 80%. Therefore, this model can determine the body information necessary for accurate obesity diagnosis and be used to diagnose obesity with greater accuracy than obesity indices without a body fat measurement machine such as DEXA.
... Body mass index (BMI) is a commonly used method to assess body weight; however, in children, the interpretation of BMI is difficult due to rapid growth and development, as well as differences in body structure [13,14]. That is why the direct measurement of body fat mass seems to be more suitable to determine the degree of obesity [15][16][17]. ...
(1) Background: Excessive amounts of adipose tissue is a health risk. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of increased physical activity (PA) at school on body fat content in children aged 10 to 12 years over a 2-year follow-up. (2) Methods: Children born in 2007 (n = 245) in two groups, (1) standard PA and (2) increased PA at school, 4 and 10 h of physical education lessons per week, respectively. BIA measurements of body fat content were taken twice a year. Results were interpreted based on children’s fat content reference curves. (3) Results: During 2 years of observation, the percentage of children with excessive fat mass (overweight and obese) increased by one-third (from 28.11% to 39.67%) in the group of standard PA, while decreased by one-third in the increased PA one (from 28.92% to 21.00%); with normal fat content increased by one-quarter in the increased PA group (from 59.86% to 76.26%) and decreased by one-tenth in the standard PA one (from 61.61% to 56.29%). (4) Conclusions: An increase in PA at school has a positive impact on children’s body fat content. It is recommended to increase the number of physical education lessons at school, which has a positive effect on children’s health, reducing the risk of obesity.
... Although widely used, BMI does not reflect the proportions of muscle and fat or their distribution (intraabdominal vs. subcutaneous), which are further influenced by sex and ethnicity (7). A BMI range of 25-35 kg/m 2 (overweight and grade I obesity) can also potentially include lean patients with high muscle mass, such as athletes (60). On the other hand, patients with abnormal fat distribution (excessive intraabdominal or visceral fat) may have normal or slightly overweight BMI scores (61). ...
Obesity has reached global epidemic proportions and its effects on interactions between the immune system and malignancies, particularly as related to cancer immunotherapy outcomes, have come under increasing scrutiny. Although the vast majority of pre-clinical murine studies suggest that host obesity should have detrimental effects on anti-tumor immunity and cancer immunotherapy outcomes, the opposite has been found in multiple retrospective human studies. As a result, acceptance of the “obesity paradox” paradigm, wherein obesity increases cancer risk but then improves patient outcomes, has become widespread. However, results to the contrary do exist and the biological mechanisms that promote beneficial obesity-associated outcomes remain unclear. Here, we highlight discrepancies in the literature regarding the obesity paradox for cancer immunotherapy outcomes, with a particular focus on renal cancer. We also discuss multiple factors that may impact research findings and warrant renewed research attention in future studies. We propose that specific cancer patient populations may be affected in fundamentally different ways by host obesity, leading to divergent effects on anti-tumor immunity and/or immunotherapy outcomes. Continued, thoughtful analysis of this critical issue is therefore needed to permit a more nuanced understanding of the complex effects of host obesity on cancer immunotherapy outcomes in patients with renal cancer or other malignancies.
... The frequency data shows that eight male athletes and five female athletes are classified as overweight. The misclassification of athletes to overweight or obese are prone to happen as athlete have a higher lean body mass that impart their body weight [20]. Thus, BMI should be use carefully when determining higher body proportion in college athlete [21]. ...
Endurance sport have risen and expanded over the year and nutrient particularly carbohydrate are believed to be the key factor to achieve the optimum performance. Limited information are available in Malaysia regarding the nutrition status of this particular athletes especially those among the students. The aim of this study is to determine the dietary intake and carbohydrate preferences of the athletes and to compare with the establish sport nutrition guideline. A total of 40 endurance athletes from Universiti Teknologi MARA Selangor were recruited in this study. Dietary intake of the athletes were assessed using Food Frequency Questionnaire and 3 -days diet record. Overall, carbohydrate intake per day was 464.79 ± 155.39 g and 386.31 ± 93.12 g for male and female athletes, respectively. Report on carbohydrate intake as per sport nutrition guidelines showed that male and female athlete have a mean carbohydrate intake of 6.06 ± 2.07 g/kg body weight and 5.73 ± 1.99 g/kg body weight, respectively, which were in the minimum range of recommendation. The main source of carbohydrate of the athletes derive from white rice. Meanwhile, the intake of protein and fat for male were 1.77 ± 0.94 g/kg body weight and 61.78 ± 32.64 g, respectively. Meanwhile, the protein and fat intake in female athlete were 1.94 ± 0.82 g/kg body weight and 74.51 ± 36.92 g, respectively. Remarkably, the intake of fat and fluid were recorded lower than recommendation. It is proven that the nutrient intake of the athletes does not meet the optimum sport nutrition recommendation
... In order to establish the overfat condition, the use of adequate tools for the evaluation of the fat mass (FM) in addition to the BMI value is recommended [3]. This aspect should be considered in particular during the evaluation of an athlete due to greater muscle mass with the same body weight [4]. ...
The aim of the study is to establish a simple and low-cost method that, associated with Body Mass Index (BMI), differentiates overweight conditions due to a prevalence of lean mass compared to an excess of fat mass during the evaluation of young athletes. 1046 young athletes (620 male, 426 female) aged between eight and 18 were enrolled. Body composition assessments were performed with anthropometry, circumferences, skinfold, and bioimpedance. Overweight was established with BMI, while overfat was established with the percentage of fat mass: 3.5% were underweight, 72.8% were normal weight, 20.1% were overweight, and 3.5% were obese according to BMI; according to the fat mass, 9.5% were under fat, 63.6% were normal fat, 16.2% were overfat, and 10.8% were obese. Differences in overfat prediction were found using BMI alone or with the addition of the triceps fold (area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC) for BMI = 0.867 vs. AUC for BMI + TRICEPS = 0.955, p < 0.001). These results allowed the creation of a model factoring in age, sex, BMI, and triceps fold that could provide the probability that a young overweight athlete is also in an overfat condition. The calculated probability could reduce the risk of error in establishing the correct weight status of young athletes.
Introduction
Body mass index (BMI) is inadequately recorded in US administrative claims databases. We aimed to validate the sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV) of BMI-related diagnosis codes using an electronic medical records (EMR) claims-linked database. Additionally, we applied machine learning (ML) to identify features in US claims databases to predict obesity status.
Research design and methods
This observational, retrospective analysis included 692 119 people ≥18 years of age, with ≥1 BMI reading in MarketScan Explorys Claims-EMR data (January 2013–December 2019). Claims-based obesity status was compared with EMR-based BMI (gold standard) to assess BMI-related diagnosis code sensitivity and PPV. Logistic regression (LR), penalized LR with L1 penalty (Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator), extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) and random forest, with features drawn from insurance claims, were trained to predict obesity status (BMI≥30 kg/m ² ) from EMR as the gold standard. Model performance was compared using several metrics, including the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve. The best-performing model was applied to assess feature importance. Obesity risk scores were computed from the best model generated from the claims database and compared against the BMI recorded in the EMR.
Results
The PPV of diagnosis codes from claims alone remained high over the study period (85.4–89.2%); sensitivity was low (16.8–44.8%). XGBoost performed the best at predicting obesity with the highest area under the curve (AUC; 79.4%) and the lowest Brier score. The number of obesity diagnoses and obesity diagnoses from inpatient settings were the most important predictors of obesity. XGBoost showed an AUC of 74.1% when trained without an obesity diagnosis.
Conclusions
Obesity prevalence is under-reported in claims databases. ML models, with or without explicit obesity, show promise in improving obesity prediction accuracy compared with obesity codes alone. Improved obesity status prediction may assist practitioners and payors to estimate the burden of obesity and investigate the potential unmet needs of current treatments.
Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the impact of body mass index (BMI) and abdominal circumference on intra-abdominal organ injury in high energy blunt trauma patients presenting to the emergency department. Materials and Methods: This prospective, cross-sectional, and analytical study included patients who presented to the Ankara Bilkent City Hospital Emergency Medicine Clinic between June 15, 2022, and December 31, 2022, due to high-energy blunt trauma and underwent contrast-enhanced abdominal computed tomography (CT). Patient demographics, vital signs, height, weight, BMI, mechanism of injury, abdominal injuries, injuries to other systems, abdominal circumference measurements, emergency department outcomes, and laboratory results were recorded in the data collection form. CT images were evaluated by a single radiology specialist, and abdominal circumference and subcutaneous fat tissue thickness were measured. Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20.0. Statistical significance was assessed using the p-value, and a significance level of p
Context
Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is widely known for its utility in diagnosing a patient with osteopenia or osteoporosis; however, its utility in evaluation of body composition and potential athletic performance was previously routinely overlooked. In recent years, athletic programs have begun employing this equipment during athlete screening. However, it is currently unknown how athletic programs are utilizing this information to guide an athlete’s training and health.
Objective
To explore the literature to identify what is known regarding sports performance and athlete health based on body composition recordings.
Data Sources
PubMed and Google Scholar databases were searched for this brief review.
Study Selection
A focus was placed on articles within the past 10 years that discussed DXA protocols within athletic populations; 14 articles were included in this brief literature review.
Study Design
Brief literature review.
Level of Evidence
Level 5.
Data Extraction
One member of the research team searched the literature and retrieved articles with the purpose of analyzing and/or explaining DXA imaging in body composition analysis of active persons (primarily athletes).
Results
Quality assurance scans with a phantom calibration block as well as athlete prescreening condition and activity standardization was routinely recommended. However, only 1 study reported a specific DXA protocol for athletes, and only 1 study described guidelines for how to report DXA results in athletic populations, suggesting it is plausible yet difficult due to the small changes detectable.
Conclusion
Due to the limited literature as well as a lack of reference values for specific athletic populations, the authors of this review recommend using the current Nana et al ( Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2015;25:198-215) DXA protocol for performing DXA scans in the athletic population as well as current Hind et al ( J Clin Densitom 2018;21:429-443) guidelines for distributing the information.
While sports medicine has traditionally focused on recovering from injury and returning athletes to sport safely after injury, there is a growing interest in the long-term health of athletes. The purpose of this scoping review was to (1) summarise the literature (methodologies and findings) on physical function, body composition and cardiometabolic health in midlife (age 40–65 years) former competitive athletes compared with non-athlete controls, (2) identify areas for future study in long-term health in athletes and (3) determine outcomes that could be evaluated in a future systematic review(s). We searched PubMed, CINAHL, Web of Science and SPORTDiscus for studies published between 2000 and 2022 evaluating former athletes and controls on physical function, body composition and/or cardiometabolic measures using MeSH terms. We identified 20 articles that met our criteria. Outcomes varied considerably across studies, most of which were cross-sectional and evaluated only males. Limited data suggest that former endurance athletes have leaner body compositions, higher aerobic capacity and better cardiometabolic indicators than controls; former athletes who maintain higher physical activity (ie, self-reported exercise) are healthier than those who do not; and former team sport athletes, who have higher injury prevalence, may have poorer functional performance than controls who were recreationally active in college. Studies rarely evaluated functional performance, did not control for prior injury or diet and seldom assessed current physical activity levels. Future research should include females and evaluate sex differences, control for prior sports-related injury(ies), quantify physical activity, use standardised outcome measures including performance-based functional assessments and incorporate longitudinal designs.
Introdução: A obesidade pode ser considerada como um fator limitador do desempenho profissional, com destaque para a carreira militar, a qual tem na higidez e na manutenção da aptidão física requisitos essenciais para o desempenho em suas tarefas. Objetivo: Comparar a prevalência de risco elevado de doença coronariana (REDC), estimada por pontos de corte específicos a partir dos indicadores antropométricos: Índice de Massa Corporal (IMC), Índice de Conicidade (Índice C), circunferência de cintura (CC), Índice Indicativo da Gordura Corporal (IGC) e razão cintura-estatura (RCEst) em militares do Exército Brasileiro (EB). Métodos: Estudo transversal, com amostra aleatória populacional, composta por 49.414 militares do sexo masculino, categorizados por faixa etária. A prevalência de REDC foi estimada por cada indicador antropométrico. As diferenças entre as médias foram examinadas pela análise de variância de Kruskal-Wallis (H) com análise post hoc do teste de Mann-Whitney (U). Para todas as análises o nível de confiança adotado foi de 95%. Resultados: Houve prevalência elevada de REDC segundo todos os indicadores antropométricos examinados, em todas as faixas etárias, exceto na de até 20 anos de idade, sendo que se observou aumento na prevalência conforme aumentava a faixa etária, sendo que todas as faixas acima de 30 anos exibiam prevalência igual ou superior a 50%. Conclusão: A prevalência elevada na população de estudo indica que há necessidade de intervenção em saúde no âmbito do EB incentivar mudanças em hábitos saudáveis como nutrição e nível de atividade física promovendo a saúde e a medicina preventiva. Os resultados foram discutidos.
This study compared differences in pitching kinematics between normal-weight and overweight high school baseball pitchers. Twenty male pitchers were included in the study. According to the 2020 guidelines on the Body Mass Index (BMI) standard for children and adolescents by the Korean Society for the Study of Obesity, 10 participants with BMI below the 85% percentile were assigned to the normal-weight group, and 10 participants with BMI above the 85% percentile were assigned to the overweight group. The two groups threw 10 trials for a fastball with maximum effort. Out of 10 trials, three pitches thrown in the strike zone with the fastest velocity were extracted. The mean ball velocity was measured, and the mean and maximum angle and angular velocity of the knee, pelvis, trunk, shoulder, and elbow joints were calculated. The differences in the ball velocity, angle, and angular velocity between the two groups were compared using an independent t-test (p<0.05). There were no differences in mean ball velocity between the two groups. However, compared with the normal-weight group, the overweight group showed smaller knee flexion, trunk forward tilt, trunk rotation, maximum trunk angular velocity, shoulder external rotation and maximum shoulder external rotation, while shoulder abduction and maximum elbow flexion were greater. These results suggest that the overweight group may have a high risk of soft tissue damage in the knee, shoulder, and elbow joints caused by limited movement of the trunk and inefficient movement between the extremities during power pitching.
The present study aims to do a comparative analysis of health-related components of physical fitness and adiposity levels between Kathak dancers and non-dancers. Participants included 206 female Kathak dancers and 235 physically active controls, ages 18–45 years. Participants performed handgrip strength test and modified push up test for assessing upper body muscular strength and endurance, half sit-up test for abdominal strength and endurance, wall sit, and squat test for lower body strength and endurance, and v-sit and reach test for flexibility. Eight somatometric measurements were recorded based on the ISAK Protocol for assessing the adiposity levels. Basic descriptive statistics were calculated to assess the distribution of various health-related components of physical fitness and adiposity indicators across the sample. Pearson correlation assessed the association between health-related components of physical fitness, age, and years of learning dance. Results revealed that of all the adiposity indicators, only waist-to-hip ratio was significantly higher in Kathak dancers than the non-dancers (M = 0.77 vs. 0.74, p = .028). Kathak dancers endorsed significantly higher scores in all the tests assessing muscular strength, endurance, and flexibility (p < .001) compared to controls. Kathak dance can be taken up as a form of exercise by females of all age-groups that may prevent the development of obesity and improve muscular strength. However, within Kathak dancers, there were high number of participants who reported lower abdominal endurance and lower back flexibility levels, which emphasize the need to encourage supplementary exercise training among Kathak dancers.
The paper discusses the effects of high-intensity interval aerobic training on blood pressure, body composition, oxidative capacity, and muscle strength in power sports athletes of heavyweight categories. Overall, 55 hypertensive heavyweight athletes of comparable age, sex, and clinical findings underwent examination and physical rehabilitation. Athletes were randomized into the main (n = 35) and control (n = 20) groups. The main group trained for 120 days (3 times a week) exercising on a bicycle according to a high-intensity interval protocol; the control group trained 120 days (3 times a week) but followed the traditional strength-building protocol. Before and upon completion of physical rehabilitation, the athletes were subjected to comprehensive examination, including an interview, medical checkup , a triple blood pressure measurement , bioimpedancemetry, ergospirometry, body index calculation, and a test for assessing the maximal voluntary strength of the m. quadriceps femoris. The rehabilitation improved bioimpedancemetry parameters , reduced blood pressure (BP) significantly (systolic BP by 4.7% and diastolic BP by 5.6%), and increased oxygen consumption and quadriceps femoris strength. The study showed that the therapeutic and prophylac-tic effect of the cardiovascular system is influenced by high-intensity aerobic interval work, but not by bio-impedance data. The authors developed an aerobic training protocol for safe and successful prophylaxis and therapy of hypertension in athletes without reducing the strength of leg muscles. INTRODUCTION Hypertension is the most common diagnosis during screening of the cardiovascular system (CVS) of power sports athletes. The researchers noted that arterial hypertension (AH) occurs in 55.4 to 83% in the subgroup of power sports athletes of heavyweight categories [1]. Since the mass of a person directly correlates with blood pressure (BP), many authors have suggested that the habitus of an athlete can influence the development of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) [4]. Data from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) showed that 1 kg weight loss was associated with a 1.05 mmHg decrease in systolic blood pressure (SBP), a 0.92 mmHg decrease in diastolic blood pressure (DBP) [2], and in mortality [3]. Aerobic physical exercises are the main ones in non-drug therapy of hypertension. A total of 17 meta-analyses and 1 systematic review (594,129 adults aged ≥ 18 years old) convincingly showed that (1) there is an inverse effect-response relationship between aerobic exercise and emerging hypertension in adults with normal BP; (2) aerobic training reduces the risk of CVD progression among adults with hypertension;
Objective
The objective of this study was to explore the potential causal associations of body mass index, height, weight, fat mass, fat percentage and non-fat mass in the whole body, arms, legs and trunk (henceforth, ‘anthropometric measures’) with multiple sclerosis (MS) risk and severity. We also investigated the potential for reverse causation between anthropometric measures and MS risk.
Methods
We conducted a two-sample univariable, multivariable and bidirectional Mendelian randomisation (MR) analysis.
Results
A range of features linked to obesity (body mass index, weight, fat mass and fat percentage) were risk factors for MS development and worsened the disease’s severity in MS patients. Interestingly, we were able to demonstrate that height and non-fat mass have no association with MS risk or MS severity. We demonstrated that the association between anthropometric measures and MS is not subject to bias from reverse causation.
Conclusions
Our findings provide evidence from human genetics that a range of features linked to obesity is an important contributor to MS development and MS severity, but height and non-fat mass are not. Importantly, these findings also identify a potentially modifiable factor that may reduce the accumulation of further disability and ameliorate MS severity.
Background:
Gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT) is prescribed to produce secondary sex characteristics aligning external anatomy with gender identity to mitigate gender dysphoria. Transgender women are generally treated with oestrogens and anti-androgens, whereas transgender men are treated with testosterone. The objective of this narrative review was to characterise the influence of GAHT on body composition and bone health in the transgender population to help address weight concerns and chronic disease risk.
Methods:
Studies were extracted from PubMed and Scopus and limited to only those utilising imaging technologies for precise adipose tissue, lean mass, and bone mineral density (BMD) quantification.
Results:
Although methodologies differed across the 20 investigations that qualified for inclusion, clear relationships emerged. Specifically, among transgender women, most studies supported associations between oestrogen therapy and decreases in lean mass and increases in both, fat mass and body mass index (BMI). Within transgender men, all studies reported associations between testosterone therapy and increases in lean mass, and although not as consistent, increases in BMI and decreases in fat mass. No consistent changes in BMD noted for either group.
Conclusions:
Additional research is needed to appropriately assess and evaluate the implications of these body composition changes over time (beyond 1 year) in larger, more diverse groups across all BMI categories. Future studies should also seek to evaluate nutrient intake, energy expenditure and other important lifestyle habits to diminish health disparities within this vulnerable population. Policies are needed to help integrate registered dietitians into the routine care of transgender individuals.
DSM-5 and ICD-11 offer eight categories for the diagnosis of feeding and eating disorders. New expressions appear continuously to describe other food and eating-related phenomena that can harm physical and psychological well-being.
We explore the relationship between overweight and adolescents’ academic performance and other non-academic outputs, such as life satisfaction and health status, body image, friendships, sense of belonging to school, being bullied and attitudes towards bullying. For this purpose, we employ data on 15-year-old students from PISA 2018 for nine countries, using regression discontinuity analysis around the body mass index overweight cut-off. Our results show that overweight students do not seem to perform differently compared with normal-weight students, but may be less satisfied with life and their health status, have a poorer body image and a higher likelihood of suffering social isolation and being bullied. Regarding students’ sense of belonging to school, results are quite mixed and depend on the country. Surprisingly, overweight students seem to be less empathic with students who suffer from bullying than normal-weight students, even though they are more likely to be bullied themselves.
Hypertension is often diagnosed in strength athletes of heavyweight categories. A study was made to assess how high-intensity aerobic work affects the body composition, blood pressure (BP), oxidative capacity, and working muscle hypertrophy and strength in strength athletes with arterial hypertension. Examination and physical rehabilitation were performed in 55 hypertensive heavyweight strength athletes comparable in age, gender, and main clinical manifestations. The athletes were randomized into two groups, a test group (n = 35) and a control group (n = 20). The test-group athletes trained on a bicycle ergometer according to a high-intensity interval protocol 3 times a week for 120 days, and the control-group athletes trained according to their conventional power protocol 3 times a week for 120 days. The study methods included interrogation, physical examination, triplicate BP measurement, bioimpedance analysis with calculation of body composition indices, ergospirometry, measurement of the oxygenation level of muscle tissue, ultrasonographic measurements of the anatomical cross-sectional area (CSA) of the quadriceps femoris, evaluation of the maximal voluntary contraction strength of the quadriceps femoris, and methods of mathematical statistics. After 120 days of training, the athletes of the test group displayed a 72% decrease in oxygenation, an increase in power and working time at the level of maximum oxygen consumption, and an increase in quadriceps femoris CSA. BP decreased significantly in the group: systolic BP (SBP), by 4.7% and diastolic BP (DBP), by 5.6%. The physical rehabilitation protocol developed for strength athletes makes it possible to effectively and safely affect the body composition, hypertrophy, oxidative capacity of working muscles, and BP.
Objective:
To evaluate the effect of high-intensity interval aerobic work on blood pressure and body composition in strength sports athletes of heavy weight categories.
Material and methods:
The examination and physical rehabilitation of 55 strength sports athletes of heavy weight categories with arterial hypertension were performed. Athletes were randomized into two groups: the main group (n=35) and the control group (n=20). The main group athletes trained 120 days (3 times a week) on a bicycle ergometer according to the high-intensity interval protocol, and the control group participants trained 120 days (3 times a week) according to their traditional strenght protocol. All athletes underwent a complex examination, including: a survey, examination, three-time measurement of blood pressure, bioelectrical impedance analysis and calculations of body composition indices, Before and after the physical rehabilitation.
Results:
After 120 days of physical rehabilitation, there was an improvement in body composition and a significant decrease in blood pressure: systolic blood pressure by 4.7%, diastolic blood pressure by 5.6%.
Conclusions:
High-intensity aerobic interval work, regardless of the athlete's body composition, has a therapeutic and prophylactic effect on the cardiovascular system. The aerobic workout training protocol taking into account metabolic variables, that we developed, will allow athletes to effectively and safely influence the prevention and treatment of hypertension.
Underfat individuals have been neglected as a malnourished population in terms of redox homeostasis. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of body composition on redox homeostasis at rest and in response to exercise. Underfat, lean and overfat women, classified according to their BMI and body fat percentage, participated in the study and were subjected to an acute session of eccentric exercise. With regard to muscle function and damage, a significant group × time interaction was found for range of motion (P < .01), isometric peak torque at 90° (P < .01), delayed onset muscle soreness (P < .01) and creatine kinase (P < .05), with the lean group generally exhibiting faster recovery compared to the underfat and overfat groups. With regard to redox homeostasis, a significant group × time interaction was found for F2-isoprostanes, protein carbonyls and glutathione (P < .01 for all biomarkers), with the underfat and overfat groups exhibiting increased resting oxidative stress levels and lower exercise-induced reactive species production . In conclusively, our data underline the importance of normal body composition for redox homeostasis, since underfat and overfat women demonstrate a similar pattern of redox disturbances both at rest and in response to exercise.
Research on “overweight” and “obese” populations is extensive, but little of this research specifically addresses the “obese” or “overweight” amateur endurance athlete. Amateur endurance athletes often have bodies that defy the stereotype of the typical marathoner, swimmer, or triathlete. As a result, these athletes can experience stigma, both within their sporting communities as well as in the workplace, at home, and from spectators at athletic events. In an effort to discover what brings “overweight” adults to endurance sports and to recognize the barriers that they encounter to stay active in sports, this study seeks to identify the types of stigma that “overweight” endurance athletes face, the effects stigma has on their physical and mental health, and the effects stigma has on their participation in sports. Six amateur endurance athletes who identify as “overweight” were interviewed, and data were coded using Owen’s interpretive themes framework. Participants were found to experience stigma in being members of the “back of the pack,” in their entry into endurance sports, and in the lack of competition-quality clothing available for larger body types. Participants experienced negative physical and mental health outcomes as they internalized the stigma messages received during training and racing. No negative effects on participation were observed.
Despite the numerous health benefits of physical activity, some studies reported that increased intensity and duration may induce oxidative stress in several cellular components including DNA. The aim of this study was to assess the level of basal DNA damage as well as oxidative DNA damage in a group of professional dancers before and after a 10-month dancing season. A group of individuals from general population was also assessed as a control. The alkaline version of the comet assay was the method selected to measure both basal DNA damage and oxidative stress, since this method quantifies both endpoints. In order to measure oxidative stress, the comet assay was coupled with a lesion-specific endonuclease (formamidopyrimidine glycosylase) to detect oxidized purines. The levels of oxidative DNA damage in dancers were significantly increased after the dancing season. Pre-season levels of oxidative DNA damage were lower in dancers than those obtained from the general population, suggesting an adaptation of antioxidant system in dancers. Results of the present biomonitoring study indicate the need for more effective measures to protect ballet dancers from potentially occupational health risks related to regular intensive physical exercise.
Background: Silymarin has powerful antioxidant properties, but its effects on athletic performance are poorly understood. Objectives: The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of 4 weeks of endurance or strength exercise, with or without silymarin, on body composition, paraoxonase (PON), leptin and adiponectin levels in untrained men. Methods: A total of 45 untrained men were divided into 5 groups (n = 9): endurance training with placebo (ET + P), endurance training with 140 mg of silymarin/day (ET + S), strength training with placebo (ST + P), strength training with 140 mg of silymarin/day (ST + S) and placebo (C). Anthropometrical and VO2max measurements and ELISA assay for PON, leptin and adiponectin levels were performed at the beginning and after the 4-week of the study Results: There was a significant decrease in weight and body mass index in the ET + P and ET + S groups and increases in ST + P and ST + S (P < 0.05) groups. Body fat declined in all four trained groups (P < 0.001). Peak oxygen uptake (VO2max) improved in both ET + P and ET + S subjects. Paraoxonase (PON) was increased only in ET + S group (P < 0.05). Adiponectin was increased in all four groups (P < 0.05). Circulating leptin remained unchanged within all interventions. Conclusions: The present study has demonstrated that a combination of exercise and silymarin can improve body composition and adiponectin levels.
Objective:
To examine combined associations of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and muscular fitness (MF) with metabolic syndrome (MetSy) in a sample of young men.
Methods:
Participants were 557 men aged 19-47 years. CRF was quantified as peak oxygen uptake measured during an incremental treadmill test by a metabolic cart, while a composite MF score was calculated as the sum of z-scores from a push-ups and sit-ups test. The presence of MetSy was defined according to the updated NCEP-ATP III criteria.
Results:
We found a graded inverse relationship between CRF and MetSy presence. The most aerobically fit individuals had 90% lower odds of having MetSy compared to their least fit counterparts, independent of MF (odds ratio [OR] = 0.10, 95% CI = 0.04-0.21). Conversely, an increment in MF across the first three quartiles was not associated with lower odds of MetSy; only the most muscularly fit men were 2.5 times less likely to have MetSy (OR = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.21-0.78). Finally, participants with high CRF but low MF exhibited a 50% decrease in odds of having MetSy (OR = 0.49, 95% CI = 0.26-0.91), while no protective effect was found for having high MF but low CRF (OR = 0.95, 95% CI = 0.55-1.62).
Conclusions:
CRF exhibited a strong protective effect against having MetSy, while the effect of MF was less pronounced.
Background
Limited data have indicated that body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist to hip ratio (WHR) and waist to height ratio (WHtR) of athletes and young adults provide misleading results concerning body fat content. This study was aimed at the evaluation of the relationship between different surrogate indices of fatness (BMI, WC, WHR, WHtR and body adiposity index (BAI)) with the percentage of body fat in Polish students with respect to their sex and physical activity.
Methods
A total of 272 students volunteered to participate in the study. Of these students, 177 physical education students (90 males and 87 females) were accepted as active (physical activity of 7 to 9 hours/week); and 95 students of other specializations (49 males and 46 females) were accepted as sedentary (physical activity of 1.5 hours/week). Weight, height, waist and hip circumferences were measured, and BMI, WHR, WHtR and BAI were calculated. Body fat percentage was assessed using four skinfold measurements.
Results
Classification of fatness according to the BMI and the percentage of body fat have indicated that BMI overestimates fatness in lean subjects (active men and women, sedentary men), but underestimates body fat in obese subjects (sedentary women). In all groups, BMI, WHR, WHtR and BAI were significantly correlated with the percentage of body fat (with the exception of WHR and hip circumference in active and sedentary women, respectively). However, coefficients of determination not exceeding 50% and Lin’s concordance correlation coefficients lower than 0.9 indicated no relationship between measured and calculated body fat.
Conclusion
The findings in the present study support the concept that irrespective of physical activity and sex none of the calculated indices of fatness are useful in the determination of body fat in young adults. Thus, it seems that easily calculated indices may contribute to distorted body image and unhealthy dietary habits observed in many young adults in Western countries, but also in female athletes.
Objective:
The purpose of this study was to search for possible criteria for obesity in Japanese college student athletes by examining insulin resistance.
Methods:
The subjects were 219 male college students (mean age 20.4 ± 1.3 years), including 119 athletes who belonged to a university sports team and 100 non-athletic individuals who did not. Fasting blood glucose, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), fasting insulin and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) levels were examined in relationship to body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC).
Results:
Although none of the subjects had diabetes mellitus, 15 (5 athletes (4.2%) and 10 non-athletes (10.0%)) had insulin resistance with HOMA-IR ≥2.5. HOMA-IR was significantly higher in athletes with BMI ≥27.0 kg/m(2) and non-athletes with BMI ≥25.0 kg/m(2) than in subjects with BMI <25.0 kg/m(2). A similar pattern was seen for WC ≥90 cm in athletes and ≥85 cm in non-athletes. Nearly all athletes with increased insulin resistance had BMI ≥27.0 kg/m(2) and WC ≥90 cm. Among non-athletes, nine of the 10 subjects with insulin resistance had BMI ≥25.0 kg/m(2) and WC ≥85 cm. According to these criteria, the sensitivity and specificity were nearly 100% and 93% for athletes, and 90% and 70% for non-athletes, respectively.
Conclusion:
Japanese college athletes may be at risk for increased insulin resistance when BMI exceeds 27.0 kg/m(2) and WC exceeds 90 cm.
Maximal inspiratory pressures (MIP) and maximal expiratory pressures (MEP) are useful indices of respiratory muscle strength in athletes.The aims of this study were: to describe the strength of the respiratory muscles of Olympic junior swim team, at baseline and after a standard physical training; and to determine if there is a differential inspiratory and expiratory pressure response to the physical training.A cross-sectional study evaluated 28 international-level swimmers with ages ranging from 15 to 17 years, 19 (61%) being males. At baseline, MIP was found to be lower in females (P=.001). The mean values reached by males and females were: MIP (cmH2O) = M: 100.4 (± 26.5)/F: 67.8 (± 23.2); MEP (cmH2O) = M: 87.4 (± 20.7)/F: 73.9 (± 17.3). After the physical training they reached: MIP (cmH2O) = M: 95.3 (± 30.3)/F: 71.8 (± 35.6); MEP (cmH2O) = M: 82.8 (± 26.2)/F: 70.4 (± 8.3).No differential pressure responses were observed in either males or females. These results suggest that swimmers can sustain the magnitude of the initial maximal pressures. Other studies should be developed to clarify if MIP and MEP could be used as a marker of an athlete's performance.
At the 2008 Olympics, the body weight of the athletes varied from 28 to 181 kg and many Olympic athletes therefore today have a stature far from the ancient Greek athletic ideals. Athletes and sports associated with leanness and their medical problems have been researched extensively. However, there has been less focus on those athletes, who may gain a competitive advantage by having excess body fat, being large or oversized. The present review introduces for the first time the concept of Adipositas athletica and gives a description and classification of these athletes. Adipositas athletica is defined as having a higher than "athletic normal" (Greek Olympic ideals) fat mass and being an elite athlete. The condition is divided into subgroups based on the intent or non-intent to increase body fat per se. Another factor is the intent to increase body mass as well as increasing physiological factors such as strength or endurance. It is concluded that most of the sports-medicine community-physicians, researchers and nutritionists - has neglected these oversized and obese athletes, their long- and short-term morbidity and mortality, their eating problems and the use of performance-enhancing drugs. Although some data on overweight and obese athletes exist, the most remarkable finding when reviewing the literature is the paucity of data. Many unanswered questions remain and great strides remain to be made.
Obesity has been linked to the development of osteoarthritis of the knee and increases the probability to fall into total knee arthroplasty. In this study we compared short-term outcome of total knee arthroplasty (TKA) in non-obese and obese patients.
A total of 100 patients underwent TKA between October 2006 and March 2007. They were divided into two groups based on the body mass index: 52 of the patients were obese (BMI = 30 kg/m2) and 48 non-obese (BMI < 30 kg/m2). The short-term out-come was studied using clinical, functional and radiological analysis. The mean of the follow-up period was 3 months.
There were five complications (2 wound infections, phlebitis, nerve injury and massive edema) in obese patients group compared with no complications in non-obese (p = 0.028). The obese patients had also worse postoperative range of motion (110 degrees vs.118 degrees , p = 0.001) than non-obese and the number of technical errors was 17 in obese and 5 in non-obese group, respectively (p = 0.007).
We suggest that obesity may impair the early outcome of total knee arthroplasty and obese patients should be informed about the increased risk of complications related to TKA. Key words: Total knee arthroplasty; body mass index; obesity; complications; range of motion; mechanical axis.
The aim of this study was to develop and validate two equations that best predict body composition of overweight and obese postmenopausal women.
Bioelectrical impedance analyses (BIAs) and anthropometric data such as circumferences and skinfolds were incorporated in the development of these two equations, respectively, while dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used as the reference method. A total number of 196 overweight and obese Greek postmenopausal women were used (131 subjects to develop the equations, and 65 to validate them).
The BIA equation was: (FFM)=38.475+0.207xWt-0.092xRz/Ht(2)+0.291xXc/Ht(2) (R(2)=0.800, p<0.0001) and the anthropometry equation was FM=-31.913+0.333xGC+0.840xbody mass index (BMI)+0.064x(biceps+triceps skinfold) (R(2)=0.835, p<0.0001). Both equations were found to result in unbiased estimates. Regarding reliability, BIA equation was found to be more reliable compared to existing ones when applied to this population. Additionally, BIA equation was more reliable compared to the anthropometric equation (+/-3.12642kg vs. +/-5.2342kg limits of agreement, respectively).
These conclude that the equations developed in the current study are more reliable than the existing ones in the literature, and could be applied for assessing body composition in clinical practice and research.
We determined the prevalence by age and sex and associated factors of overweight and obesity in French adolescents.
We conducted a cross-sectional study of 2385 adolescents aged 11-18 y (1213 boys and 1172 girls) from middle and high schools in the Aquitaine region (southwest France) in 2004-2005. Weight and height were measured, and adolescents filled in a questionnaire about their characteristics and those of their parents. Overweight and obesity were defined according to the age- and sex-specific body mass index cutoff points of the International Obesity Task force.
Prevalence of overweight (obesity included) was greater in boys and younger children. The odds ratio (OR) for an adolescent being overweight increased with parents' being overweight (at least one parent overweight, OR 1.97, 1.48-2.62, P<0.0001), low paternal socioeconomic status (OR 1.78, 1.22-2.60, P<0.01) and sedentary behavior (22 h/wk, OR 1.33, 1.02-1.74, P<0.05), and decreased with physical activity of parents (at least one parent active, OR 0.67, 0.51-0.89, P=0.01).
Our data support the hypothesis that parental overweight and low socioeconomic status and adolescents' sedentary behavior are strong risk factors for adolescent overweight and obesity, and that parents active lifestyle is associated with a lower risk of overweight in their adolescents.
Obesity and its associated disorders are a growing epidemic across the world. Many genetic, physiological, and behavioral factors play a role in the etiology of obesity. Diet and exercise are known to play a valuable role in the treatment and prevention of obesity and associated disorders such as hypertension, heart disease, and diabetes. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to examine the prevalence, etiology, consequences, and treatment of obesity. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2(2): 4-31, 2005
The purpose of this study is to examine the epidemiology and trends of body size in college athletics. Data were coded from available athlete rosters from four division 1 college athletic programs for football, basketball, baseball, and men's/women's tennis for the period of 1950 to the present. Data on 17,500 football, 2,470 basketball, 3,868 baseball, 903 men's tennis, and 765 women's tennis athletes were entered. Increases in height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) were seen for all sports at most positions, but the greatest increases were observed in football offensive and defensive linemen. The largest increases in weight and (BMI) were observed amongst football offensive and defensive linemen, placing them at greatest risk for size-related medical complications. Other college sports exhibit increases in height, weight, and BMI as well, but the rates of increase were not as great.
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