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Avoidance of Cabins, Roads, and Power Lines by Reindeer during Calving
Abstract
We investigated possible avoidance behavior of calving semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) near recreational cabins, roads, and power transmission lines in Repparfjord Valley, northern Norway. The distribution, sex, and general age composition of the reindeer were mapped during the 1998 and 1999 calving seasons (n = 776 and n = 678, respectively) using systematic snowmobile and ski surveys. Mean reindeer density within preferred habitat was 78% lower in the area <4 km from the tourist resort compared to the area >4 km from the resort (1.47 vs. 6.68 reindeer/km2, respectively). Mean reindeer density by the power line corridor without traffic was 73% lower in the area <4 km from the power line compared to areas >4 km from the power line for comparable habitat. Areas <4 km from anthropogenic structures were avoided despite low levels of human traffic and a high proportion of preferred habitat. Within snow-free sites available for grazing, no significant differences occurred in phenological development of cotton-grass (Eriophorum spp.), in live:dead ratio of plant material, or in graminoid biomass with distance to the tourist resort. Almost 74% of all available forage was located within the avoided 0-4-km zones from the resort or the separate power line. Our results suggest that power lines, even without human traffic, may result in substantial reductions in the use of foraging areas. The combined actions of power lines, roads, and cabins may increase potential avoidance, thereby increasing the use of remaining undisturbed grazing grounds. Possible increased competition for high-quality forage may affect lactation, body condition, and, hence, reproductive success in the long term.
... In recent decades, industrial development has increased in northern regions mostly due to the exploitation of hydrocarbon mining and hydroelectric energy (Wolfe et al., 2000;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001;Haskell et al., 2006;Reimers et al., 2007). The exploration and exploitation activities contribute to habitat loss, increase disturbance and facilitate human access to the territory. ...
... This generally involves the establishment of overland routes (roads or railways) for transporting the minerals to the coast of the Ungava Bay or the Hudson Bay. The development of roads and infrastructures to improve access to the territory could result in a net loss of habitat, disrupt migratory routes (Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001;Vistnes et al., 2004) and lead to increased human presence in the territory used by the LRH (see section 3.1.8). ...
... neglected. Moreover, caribou usually avoid areas that have been disturbed by industrial activities (Nellemann and Cameron, 1998;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001). Measures to restore mining sites should therefore take into account the resilience capacity and particular characteristics of northern environments (Government of Québec, 2015). ...
In the Nord-du-Québec region and Labrador, the George River (GRH) and Leaf River (LRH) migratory
caribou herds occupy a vast territory of several hundred thousand square kilometres located mainly
north of the 53rd parallel. The LRH occupies the northwestern portion of the Nord-du-Québec region
and its annual distribution area has been completely separate from that of the George River herd since
2008. Through the herd monitoring program and research conducted by the MFFP in collaboration with
the academic community (Caribou Ungava research program), it is possible to obtain a detailed picture
of the ecology, demographics and historic and current situation of migratory caribou in the LRH.
Scientific work on the LRH began in June 1975. Since then, six aerial surveys have been conducted to
describe changes in the size of the herd and several demographic indicators such as survival,
productivity, recruitment and body condition, have been compiled through the herd monitoring program.
The data indicate that the size of the LRH increased until 2001, then subsequently declined. The most
recent aerial survey (2011) estimated the population at around 430 000. Demographic indicators show
that the population was fairly stable between 2008 and 2013 but that it appears to have declined since
the fall of 2013. In the fall of 2015, the population was estimated at around 332 000 caribou. The
changes observed in the size of the annual distribution area and seasonal areas used by the LRH tally
with past and recent fluctuations in the population size (increasing and declining phases and recently
observed stability).
The full biological data set collected since 1975 makes it possible to refine the interpretation of changes
in herd size and trends in the LRH. Moreover, limiting factors and threats are known and must be
considered to grasp the state of the herd. The factors and threats can act in synergy and have a direct
impact (disturbance, mortality) or indirect impact (effect on spatial distribution and availability of
vegetation) that vary according to herd size and trends of the populations. Recent documentary
analysis has clearly revealed that the main threats to the long-term survival of migratory caribou
populations are overexploitation through hunting and poaching, the expansion of occupation of the
territory and the attendant industrial activities, as well as climate change.
This document compiles the biological knowledge available to assess the current state of the LRH and
describes the limiting factors and main threats that may explain its demographic variations. The
Biological status of migratory caribou, Leaf River herd is thus meant to be a factual guide to the
management and conservation of this northern wildlife population.
... In recent decades, industrial development has increased in northern regions mostly due to the exploitation of hydrocarbon mining and hydroelectric energy (Wolfe et al., 2000;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001;Haskell et al., 2006;Reimers et al., 2007). The exploration and exploitation activities contribute to habitat loss, increase disturbance and facilitate human access to the territory. ...
... This generally involves the establishment of overland routes (roads or railways) for transporting the minerals to the coast of the Ungava Bay or the Hudson Bay. The development of roads and infrastructures to improve access to the territory could result in a net loss of habitat, disrupt migratory routes (Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001;Vistnes et al., 2004) and lead to increased human presence in the territory used by the LRH (see section 3.1.8). ...
... neglected. Moreover, caribou usually avoid areas that have been disturbed by industrial activities (Nellemann and Cameron, 1998;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001). Measures to restore mining sites should therefore take into account the resilience capacity and particular characteristics of northern environments (Government of Québec, 2015). ...
Dans le Nord-du-Québec et au Labrador, les troupeaux de caribous migrateurs de la rivière George (TRG) et de la rivière aux Feuilles (TRAF) occupent une vaste région de plusieurs centaines de milliers de kilomètres carrés située principalement au nord du 53e parallèle. Le TRAF utilise la partie nord-ouest du Nord-du-Québec et son aire de répartition annuelle est complètement distincte de celle du TRG depuis 2008. Grâce au programme de suivi de la population et aux travaux de recherche réalisés par le Ministère en collaboration avec le milieu universitaire (programme de recherche Caribou Ungava), il est possible d’obtenir un portrait détaillé de l’écologie, de la démographie et de la situation historique et actuelle du caribou migrateur du TRAF.
Les travaux scientifiques réalisés sur le TRAF ont débuté en juin 1975. Depuis, six inventaires aériens ont été réalisés pour décrire l’évolution de la taille de ce troupeau et plusieurs indicateurs démographiques (survie, productivité, recrutement, condition physique) ont été compilés au moyen du programme de suivi de la population. Ces données indiquent que la taille du TRAF a augmenté jusqu’en 2001 pour ensuite diminuer. Le plus récent inventaire (2011) évaluait la population à environ 430 000 caribous. Les indicateurs démographiques démontrent que la population était relativement stable entre 2008 et 2013, mais qu’elle serait en déclin depuis l’automne 2013. À l’automne 2015, la population était estimée à environ 332 000 caribous. Les changements observés de la taille de l’aire de répartition annuelle et des aires saisonnières utilisées par le TRAF concordent avec les fluctuations passées et récentes de la taille de la population (phases d’augmentation, de diminution, et constat récent de stabilité).
L’ensemble des données biologiques récoltées depuis 1975 permet d’affiner l’interprétation des changements dans la taille et la tendance du TRAF. De plus, des facteurs limitants et des menaces sont connus et doivent être considérés pour comprendre l’état du TRAF. Ceux-ci peuvent agir en synergie, tout en ayant des effets directs (p. ex., dérangement, mortalité) ou indirects (p. ex., impacts sur la répartition spatiale et la disponibilité de la végétation) qui varient en fonction de la taille et de la tendance des populations. De récentes revues de littérature ont clairement mis en évidence que les principales menaces à la pérennité des populations de caribous migrateurs sont la surexploitation (chasse et braconnage), l’expansion de l’occupation du territoire et les activités industrielles qui lui sont associées, ainsi que les changements climatiques.
Le présent document compile les connaissances biologiques disponibles pour évaluer l’état actuel du TRAF et décrit les facteurs limitants et les principales menaces qui pourraient être impliqués dans ses variations démographiques. L’État de situation du caribou migrateur, troupeau de la rivière aux Feuilles est donc un guide factuel pour orienter les efforts de gestion et de conservation de cette population faunique nordique.
... Some studies report that parturient ungulates and their young avoid areas of human activity and development, while others suggest that use of areas close to human activity may be a predator avoidance strategy. For example, parturient reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and caribou (R. t. granti) avoided areas with high human disturbance during the calving season (Dau and Cameron, 1986;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001). In contrast, resident elk reduced predation risk from wolves (Canis lupus) at fine spatial scales by using areas closer to human activities (Hebblewhite and Merrill, 2009). ...
... Researchers reported parturient moose and elk to select habitats close to roads and other human activities, which bears and wolves avoided (Berger, 2007;Hebblewhite and Merrill, 2009). Other studies have shown parturient reindeer and caribou selected habitats to avoid human disturbance during the calving season (Dau and Cameron, 1986;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001). Contrary to either of these findings, areas of human activity and development did not affect bedsite selection at our study locations. ...
... Disturbance of reindeer can mean that they avoid areas where there is good grazing, but it can also mean an increase in the reindeer's time in movement, thus energy consumption increases. Especially during the gestation period and calving time, female reindeer are sensitive (Skarin & Åhman, 2014;Vistnes & Nellemann, 2001). ...
... Studies on outdoor recreation and environmental impacts in the Scandinavian mountains have focused on wear and tear on the ground (e.g. Christensen & Sundquist, 2007;Emanuelsson, 1984;Fosse, 2012) and on stress on reindeer (Skarin & Åhman, 2014;Vistnes & Nellemann, 2001). Fewer studies focus on disturbances to other animals and changes in animal behaviour from outdoor recreation. ...
... Small roads and winter roads are not included in the calculation as the traffic on these generally unpaved roads is much less. The impact distance for power lines and pipelines is set to 1 km (Vistnes & Nellemann, 2001). The impact distance from urban, industrial, mining, and agricultural areas is defined as 10 km, adapted from Alkemade et al. (2009). ...
... Likewise, the impact of electricity lines is not included in the fragmentation calculation, as human presence and physical disturbance along these lines is low and a limited number of species will actually be prevented from crossing the electricity line path. Studies show that reindeer avoid grazing near the electricity lines (Vistnes & Nellemann, 2001), but this effect is already covered by the infrastructure impact calculations, in which the impact of electricity lines are included. ...
Competing land use and climate change are threats to the pasture land of Sámi reindeer herding. Reindeer pastures are exposed to the development of infrastructure, hydropower, mineral exploration, recreational cabin areas, and wind power. Land use conflicts are exacerbated under climate policy with wind power plants in reindeer herding areas. Projected developments and climate change impacts challenge the adaptive capacity of reindeer herders and the resilience of reindeer herding. Analysis of biodiversity loss by the GLOBIO3 model is suggested as tool for decision support, in consultation with Sámi reindeer owners, taking into account traditional knowledge of reindeer herding. GLOBIO3 analysis for Sámi reindeer herding land in Finnmark indicates that in 2011, compared to an intact situation, about 50% of the biodiversity of reindeer calving grounds has been lost, and it is expected to be reduced with another 10% in the scenario for 2030. Reindeer owners in Finnmark told that they expect biodiversity loss will have implications for the quality and extent of suitable grazing areas. Especially the quality of the calving grounds is essential for reindeer herding. An important lesson from dialogue with reindeer owners is that even highly impacted areas should not be considered as lost, and thus be opened to further development, as they are still important for seasonal reindeer migration and grazing at certain times of the year. The chapter presents research on methods development, traditional knowledge in the context of Sámi reindeer herders in Finnmark and highlights innovative tools to engage rightsholders and stakeholders in the Arctic in development planning processes.
... Small roads and winter roads are not included in the calculation as the traffic on these generally unpaved roads is much less. The impact distance for power lines and pipelines is set to 1 km (Vistnes & Nellemann, 2001). The impact distance from urban, industrial, mining, and agricultural areas is defined as 10 km, adapted from Alkemade et al. (2009). ...
... Likewise, the impact of electricity lines is not included in the fragmentation calculation, as human presence and physical disturbance along these lines is low and a limited number of species will actually be prevented from crossing the electricity line path. Studies show that reindeer avoid grazing near the electricity lines (Vistnes & Nellemann, 2001), but this effect is already covered by the infrastructure impact calculations, in which the impact of electricity lines are included. ...
The chapter addresses the issues of disseminating the knowledge and skills of the Sámi reindeer herders: frameworks, methodologies, and ways of knowledge transmission in reindeer husbandry. The chapter overviews existing teaching practices, learning levels, and learning arenas, comparing traditional knowledge transmission and academic curriculum. The authors discuss lifelong learning, systematic learning methods, and responsibilities. The chapter findings are based on the interviews with the Sámi reindeer herders from Guovdageaidnu/Kautokeino, a literature review, and author’s reindeer herding experiences.
... Anthropogenic disturbances can have long-lasting effects on arctic and subarctic ecosystems, due to the low biodiversity and harsh conditions of those systems (Forbes, Ebersole, and Strandberg 2001;Willard, Cooper, and Forbes 2007;Reynolds and Tenhunen 2013). Nonetheless, the rising global interests in natural resources such as forest products, minerals, and gas and oil have driven an intensification in human activities and infrastructure development in those ecosystems (Nellemann et al. 2001;Raynolds et al. 2014), which imposes costs for the animals inhabiting them (Johnson et al. 2005). Moreover, climate change is manifesting in the arctic and subarctic regions at faster rates than in any other area in the world (IPCC 2014). ...
... The biology of the animal should thus be considered in relation to the timing of an anthropogenic disturbance. In our study area, for example, the disturbance created by military exercises comes into play during a time when female reindeer are particularly susceptible to disturbance, because they are building up fat reserves for the winter and they are still lactating to feed their calves (Vistnes and Nellemann 2001;Harrington 2003;Skarin et al. 2008Skarin et al. , 2015. Lactation requires a high amount of energy (White 1992); nonetheless, lactating female reindeer prefer an undisturbed environment at the expense of forage quality (Maier et al. 1998;Helle et al. 2012). ...
Anthropogenic and biotic disturbances have the potential to interact, generating cumulative impacts on animal movement or, alternatively, counterbalancing or masking each other. Despite their importance, those interactions have not been investigated thoroughly. Our study aimed to fill this knowledge gap by assessing the combined effects of a human activity—that is, military exercises—and a biotic disturbance—that is, insect harassment—on movement rates of free-ranging semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). From 2010 to 2012, we analyzed location data from fifty-one Global Positioning System (GPS)-collared female reindeer in the largest European military test range, situated in northern Sweden. In the presence of both military exercises and mosquito harassment, reindeer reacted by increasing their movement rates but not as much as when mosquito harassment occurred alone. Conversely, reindeer reduced their movement rates during military exercises performed with aircraft. Moreover, the effect of military exercises performed with vehicles was evident only when combined with mosquito harassment. These results stress the value of evaluating the effects of the interaction between biotic disturbances and human activities, especially in northern ecosystems, because of the predicted climate warming and the growing interest toward natural resource extraction and other forms of land use.
... The latter perspective includes subjective views of the landscape which may be shaped by local narratives or traditions ( Röring andGailing 2012). Mitchell (1994) sees connections between landscape, identity, memory, and comprehension as fundamental aspects of understanding landscape and human attachment to place ( Mitchell 1994, Taylor 2008). Seeing landscapes as the product of peoples' memories and beliefs reflects landscapes as a cultural construct that is encoded with meaning ( Taylor 2008). ...
... Mitchell (1994) sees connections between landscape, identity, memory, and comprehension as fundamental aspects of understanding landscape and human attachment to place ( Mitchell 1994, Taylor 2008). Seeing landscapes as the product of peoples' memories and beliefs reflects landscapes as a cultural construct that is encoded with meaning ( Taylor 2008). The argument put forward in this chapter is that the history of mining in the Sulitjelma area, and consequently the remnants of the local mining culture, clearly have a bearing on how the local landscape is perceived and framed, but also that this cultural pathdependency is modified by emerging environmental concerns and new uses of the landscape. ...
The local community of Sulitjelma in Northern Norway is a former mining community facing renewed industrial interest in local mineral resources. In this chapter, a narrative approach is used to examine how people who live in close proximity to the mining area describe their situation. The ‘local narrative’ is contrasted with how commercial mining interests and municipal authorities characterize the potential for renewed mining near the community. Central to the new developments is the decision to allow Lake Langvatnet to remain a waste deposit site for the mining activities, as it is judged to be beyond regeneration. Seen as part of a larger landscape, the continued use of Lake Langvatnet for depositing waste might be viewed as the price for securing some semblance of sustainable development for the local community in a wider landscape context. But the case also shows that local cultural contexts are critical for understanding the developmental scope of mining initiatives. In the case of Sulitjelma the development discourse starts within a context of proud mining traditions, not pristine natural landscapes.
... Oil development has contributed to trends in caribou and reindeer populations in some areas. Caribou and reindeer are sensitive to disturbance during calving (Vistnes and Nellemann 2001;Griffith et al. 2002). In Alaska, for example, concentrated calving was displaced from industrialized areas to areas of lower forage richness, with caribou returning to industrialized areas during the post-calving period . ...
... As petroleum and military development spread in the latter half of the twentieth century, transportation infrastructure (roads, pipelines, airstrips, ports) contributed significantly to surface disturbance and habitat fragmentation. Between 1900 and 1950, less than 5% of the Arctic was affected by infrastructure development (Nellemann et al. 2001;Ogden in press). By 2050, some 50-80% of the Arctic is projected to be disturbed, although this level of disturbance may occur by 2020 in Fennoscandia and some areas of Russia. ...
... Oil development has contributed to trends in caribou and reindeer populations in some areas. Caribou and reindeer are sensitive to disturbance during calving (Vistnes and Nellemann 2001;Griffith et al. 2002). In Alaska, for example, concentrated calving was displaced from industrialized areas to areas of lower forage richness, with caribou returning to industrialized areas during the post-calving period . ...
... As petroleum and military development spread in the latter half of the twentieth century, transportation infrastructure (roads, pipelines, airstrips, ports) contributed significantly to surface disturbance and habitat fragmentation. Between 1900 and 1950, less than 5% of the Arctic was affected by infrastructure development (Nellemann et al. 2001;Ogden in press). By 2050, some 50-80% of the Arctic is projected to be disturbed, although this level of disturbance may occur by 2020 in Fennoscandia and some areas of Russia. ...
... For example, female polar bears (Ursus maritimus) with cubs and single medium-sized bears showed stronger responses from greater distance to snowmobiles than did adult males and lone adult females (Andersen and Aars, 2008). In addition, female wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) (Nellemann et al., 2000 as well as semi-domesticated reindeer (R. tarandus tarandus) (Helle and S€ arkel€ a, 1993;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001;Helle et al., 2012) are more sensitive to disturbance than males. ...
... Tourist resorts and holiday cabin construction was observed to decrease the occurrence of brown bear (Ursus arctos) in Norway (Elgmork, 1978(Elgmork, , 1983Nellemann et al., 2007). Semi-domesticated reindeer (R. tarandus tarandus) (Helle and S€ arkel€ a, 1993;Skarin et al., 2008;Helle et al., 2012;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001) and wild reindeer (R. tarandus tarandus) (Nellemann et al., 2000Vistnes et al., 2008) were also found to avoid tourist resorts. However, disturbance caused by hiking trails has not been found to affect the habitat selection of semi-domesticated reindeer in Sweden (Skarin et al., 2004(Skarin et al., , 2008. ...
... Norwegian respondents instead show slightly more concern for the impacts of tourism. This is corroborated by the results from Vistnes and Nellemann (2001), who showed that during the 1998-1999 calving seasons in Repparijord Valley, in Finnmark County, Norway, reindeer were observed to avoid areas within 4 km of the tourist resort, an avoidance which was particularly notable among maternal females. The study's findings indicate that reindeer tend to steer clear of technical structures like power lines, roads, and tourist resorts, even when human traffic is minimal. ...
Competing land uses, climate change, and state regulations pose stress to Saami reindeer herders in Norway and Sweden. Saami reindeer herding is a nomadic tradition relying on huge natural pastures, often with long distance migration between seasonal pastures, and the foremost strategy to cope with changing environments has been flexible use of pastures. However, the adaptive space of reindeer herding is under pressure, which may threaten the sustainability of Saami reindeer herding both economically and culturally. The ability to adapt to external pressures has been of focus in several studies on reindeer herding, but few have analysed cumulative sources of worry as perceived by herders. Using data from a survey among reindeer herders in Norway and Sweden, we describe and analyse factors causing worry and cumulative concern. Overall, results show that differences in worry depend largely on country- and region-specific challenges, while other characteristics of the respondents, with some exceptions, do not significantly explain the degree of worry. A principal component analysis shows that underlying traits that could be interpreted as land use change have the highest factor loadings. Another principal component analysis of questions on the effects of climate change suggests that there are two groups of reactions among reindeer herders. One group of traits points to a general worry and insight that some undefined changes in management need to be done, while another set points to an insight that current reindeer husbandry is unsustainable, given the effects of climate change, and consequently a willingness to take concrete action.
... However, with greater availability of representative data in future, this would be a valuable factor to add. Research by Dau and Cameron (1986) and Vistnes and Nellemann (2001) on roads and population centres were also excluded due to being undertaken in the calving season, whilst research by Boulanger et al. ...
... Clear-cuts are associated with increased predator density (Mahoney and Virgl 2003;Wittmer et al. 2007;Brodeur et al. 2008;Leblond et al. 2016) and predation risk may have increased as clear-cuts expanded, causing shifts in space-use. Logging is also associated with road construction, increased traffic and noise, and surface disturbance, similar to mining operations, and oil and hydroelectric development, to which female Caribou have demonstrated sensitivity and avoidance during calving (Cameron et al. 1992;Vistnes and Nellemann 2001;Mahoney and Schaefer 2002;Weir et al. 2007). ...
The decline of Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) is mainly attributed to anthropogenic disturbance from resource development (i.e., logging, oil and gas extraction), which causes habitat loss and increased predation risk. Natural landscape disturbance, particularly from fire, can have similar effects, and cumulative effects from disturbance have been associated with lower neonate recruitment. Our objective was to evaluate the potential effects of land cover types on resource selection by females, with an emphasis on clear-cuts and fire, during the calving season (May–June) in three neighbouring herds (Middle Ridge, Gaff Topsails, and Pot Hill) on insular Newfoundland, Canada, and compare results with pre-existing information on calf recruitment. We applied a resource selection framework to analyze location data collected from global positioning system collars between 2007–2010 and estimate relative probability of use for different cover types. Recruitment was lowest in Pot Hill, where ≤10-year old clear-cuts were favoured, whereas recruitment was highest in Middle Ridge and Gaff Topsails, where females favoured burns, suggesting that burns could be more beneficial to Caribou fitness. Further investigation will be needed to more closely examine how anthropogenic versus natural disturbance affects Caribou fitness in Newfoundland and improve our understanding of important habitat for calving females.
... This in turn leads to increased work for reindeer herders and interference on the land, such as additional roundups, additional herding, or fencing. It also often leads to increased conflict between different communities and districts (Vistnes and Christian 2001;Skarin et al. 2015). ...
In the nineteenth-century prairies, the buffalo was nearly exterminated as the result of the European economic and ecological invasion. Today in Scandinavia, reindeer are being threatened by the renewable energy transition, also known as the Green Shift. The Green Shift has led to an explosion of the wind industry in many countries, including Norway. Many of the onshore wind development projects have been built in areas central to reindeer herding. This article asks whether reindeer have become the new buffalo that are being sacrificed in the race to build green energies. It considers the view of reindeer herding as a vanishing livelihood and the pervasive colonial discourse of manifest destiny, which sees Indigenous peoples as disappearing in the process of natural selection and progress. The article also examines the Feminist Green New Deal (FGND) as an example of a policy framework calling for a broader intersectional approach that places race, unequal relations of power, and Indigenous rights at the heart of policy making. It considers whether the FGND is able to tackle and engage with the trajectories of settler colonialism, including manifest destiny and green colonialism. The article focuses specifically on Norway for its leading role in the energy transition and wind energy development in the Nordic countries.
... While the impact of land use as a threat to mangrove habitat quality and biodiversity has received less attention, such as a study conducted in Indonesia (Marlianingrum et al., 2021). In general, habitat quality decreases with increasing land use intensity (Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001;McKinney, 2002;Forman et al., 2003), and as the quality of mangrove habitat decreases, medical, economic, ecological, and other ecosystem services also decrease (yaghoubzadeh et al., 2020). ...
As one of the most fertile ecosystems on earth, mangrove forests provide many goods and services for humanity. Mangroves are located in the south of Iran on the coasts of Sistan and Baluchistan, Hormozgan and Bushehr provinces, which include two species of Harra (Avicennia marina) and Chandal (Rhizophora mucronata) The purpose of this study was to describe the condition of mangrove forests using the integrated valuation of ecosystem services and tradeoffs (InVEST) between 2010 and 2021 from the southern coasts of Iran. The INVEST model uses land use and land cover maps to estimate habitat quality. With the opinions of local experts, sources of threats, maximum impact distance, state of degradation, and sensitivity to threats were also estimated for each type of land use cover. Urban and rural areas' development, roads network, piers, oil and non-oil industries, agriculture, and aquaculture activities, were identified as sources that threaten mangroves' long-term viability. The output maps of the INVEST habitat quality model included degradability and habitat quality maps, which were classified into four categories: poor, low, medium, and high, to better understand quality changes. The results demonstrated that mangrove habitat quality has decreased considerably despite the increase in their area. The area of the target habitats has been increased by 586.45 ha while two first quality categories, including poor and low classes, increased. Based on a habitat quality assessment in 2010, two classes of poor, low habitat quality, were estimated to be around 0.72, and 8.42 ha, which changed to 3.04 ha, and 9.72 ha respectively in 2021. The output maps obtained in this study can help local managers and decision-makers to have an image of what happened to the quality of the target ecosystems and may help them to adopt more effective management strategies for the conservation of these ecosystems.
... While not included in official reindeer land-use maps, the concept of influence zones has been a matter of concern in impact assessments and research (e.g. Skarin et al. 2018;Riseth and Johansen 2019;Skarin and Åhman 2014a, b;Colman et al. 2012;Vistnes and Nellemann 2001) at various scales. The length of the influence zone might, in addition to the type of disturbance, differs depending on season, topography, year and weather. ...
The categories and concepts in the existing official land-use maps have been under improvements over recent years; however, this study from Nordland, northern Norway, shows that they continue to pose several dilemmas when aiming to better capture the impacts of multiple land uses on reindeer herding. While these developments have done much to better communicate the presence of reindeer herding to developers and planners, there remain significant challenges to achieve best practices. In particular, the confluence of multiple landscape features, for instance, roads, farmland, ecoregions, tenure, pastures, tourism paths and cabins, may have interactions that create cumulative impacts that do not “add up” neatly across map layers. Migration routes, herding routes, and resting areas have been introduced in these maps. In collaboration with reindeer herders, this article analyses how to enrich mapping practices by for example including bottlenecks, parallel to increased attention to influence zones and avoidance zones, as important emergent impacts of multiple interacting features of the landscape. Our research reveals how local knowledge developed by herders through their “presence in the landscape” is better capable of accounting for interactions and cumulative dimensions of landscape features. Through our participatory mapping approach with Sámi reindeer herders, we focus on ways of combining reindeer herders’ knowledge and GIS maps and demonstrate the potential in collaborative work between herders and policymakers in generating a richer understanding of land-use change. We conclude that the practical knowledge of people inhabiting and living with the landscape and its changing character generates a rich understanding of cumulative impacts and can be harnessed for improved land-use mapping and multi-level governance.
... Hydropower projects have a large number of structures, such as dams, tunnels, canals, powerhouses, internal project roads, access roads, camps, and transmission lines (hydropower project components including associated and auxiliary structures) ( Gracey and Verones, 2016 ), and most of these structures cause habitat fragmentation, which affects terrestrial faunal species and biodiversity in environmentally sensitive areas ( Alamgir et al., 2019 ;Benítez-López et al., 2010 ;Nellemann et al., 2001 ;Nellemann and Cameron, 1998 ;Torres et al., 2016 ;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001 ). Similarly, studies show that hydropower projects are one of the main causes of degradation in environmentally sensitive areas ( Hu đek et al., 2020 ;Pack et al., 2016 ;Rosendal et al., 2019 ;Zeng et al., 2005 ). ...
Hydropower project construction is increasing, which can affect the terrestrial environment. Hydropower projects located in environmentally sensitive areas have higher environmental impacts, so we analyzed the spatiotemporal interaction between hydropower project locations and terrestrial environmentally sensitive areas of Nepal to visualize the probable environmental impacts. Most existing projects lie on the Hills (Middle Mountain); however, future projects are moving northward toward the Himalayas. Among the 12 eco-regions of Nepal, hydropower projects are located in 10 eco-regions. Hydropower projects were found to interact with more than half of the biodiverse areas of the country (28 out of 45), and more than five thousand megawatts of hydropower projects are located completely inside these biodiverse areas. The study suggests that the interaction between hydropower projects and environmentally sensitive areas might increase in the future. Hydropower projects should avoid environmentally sensitive areas such as biodiverse areas and protected areas as much as possible to minimize the impacts. Rapid hydropower development is necessary for countries such as Nepal, so further studies on the effects of hydropower projects on environmentally sensitive areas as well as improvement of the quality of the environmental assessment of the projects are necessary for environmentally friendly development.
... There are inadequate studies on the effects of hydropower project development on environmentally sensitive areas such as biodiverse areas and protected areas. Hydropower projects have a large number of structures, such as dams, tunnels, canals, powerhouses, internal project roads, access roads, camps, and transmission lines (hydropower project components including associated and auxiliary structures) [22], and most of these structures cause habitat fragmentation, which affects terrestrial faunal species and biodiversity in environmentally sensitive areas [23][24][25][26][27][28]; therefore, studies related to hydropower project distributions in environmentally sensitive areas are necessary. ...
Hydropower project construction is increasing, which can affect the terrestrial environment. Hydropower projects located in environmentally sensitive areas have higher environmental impacts, so I analyzed the spatiotemporal interaction between hydropower project locations and terrestrial environmentally sensitive areas of Nepal to visualize the probable environmental impacts. Most of the existing projects lie on the hill; however, future projects are moving northward. Among the 12 eco-regions of Nepal, hydropower projects are located in 10 eco-regions. Hydropower projects were found to interact with more than half of the biodiverse areas of the country (28 out of 45), and more than five thousand megawatts of hydropower projects are located completely inside these biodiverse areas. The study suggests that the interaction between hydropower projects and environmentally sensitive areas might increase in the future. Hydropower projects should avoid environmentally sensitive areas such as biodiverse areas and protected areas as much as possible to minimize the impacts. Rapid hydropower development is a necessity in countries such as Nepal, so further studies on the effects of hydropower projects on environmentally sensitive areas as well as improvement of the quality of the environmental assessment of the projects are necessary for environmentally friendly development.
... (7) Avoidance of anthropogenic electric field sources Many mammalian and avian taxa appear to avoid highvoltage power lines (Tyler et al., 2014), most notably reindeer, Rangifer tarandus (Vistnes & Nellemann, 2001;Vistnes et al., 2004;Vistnes & Nellemann, 2008) and the lesser prairie chicken, Tympanuchus pallidicinctus (Pruett, Patten & Wolfe, 2009). This avoidance behaviour has serious ecological and conservation implications because the widespread and interconnected distribution of power lines results in substantial habitat fragmentation, severing the migration routes of these threatened species (Vistnes et al., 2004;Pruett et al., 2009). ...
Electricity, the interaction between electrically charged objects, is widely known to be fundamental to the functioning of living systems. However, this appreciation has largely been restricted to the scale of atoms, molecules, and cells. By contrast , the role of electricity at the ecological scale has historically been largely neglected, characterised by punctuated islands of research infrequently connected to one another. Recently, however, an understanding of the ubiquity of electrical forces within the natural environment has begun to grow, along with a realisation of the multitude of ecological interactions that these forces may influence. Herein, we provide the first comprehensive collation and synthesis of research in this emerging field of electric ecology. This includes assessments of the role electricity plays in the natural ecology of predator-prey interactions, pollination, and animal dispersal, among many others, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activity on these systems. A detailed introduction to the ecology and physiology of electroreception-the biological detection of ecologically relevant electric fields-is also provided. Further to this, we suggest avenues for future research that show particular promise, most notably those investigating the recently discovered sense of aerial electroreception.
... Nonetheless, power line corridors can have some negative impacts on biodiversity (Janss 2000;Vistnes and Nellemann 2001;Richardson et al. 2017). For example, in some cases they can promote forest fragmentation (Goosem and Marsh 1997;Strevens et al. 2008). ...
There is growing concern over the loss of grassland and forest species worldwide due to land use changes. In Japan, young forest plantations provide important habitats for grassland species. However, the decline in forest logging frequency has led to a decrease in the area of young plantations, which may in turn cause a decline in the number of grassland species. Power line corridors in forest plantations can act as habitats for early and late successional species, as they contain vegetation in diverse stages. This study evaluated the importance of these corridor zones as habitats for early and late successional butterflies in Japan. The species richness and abundance of butterflies were recorded in power line corridors, young plantations, forest roads, and mature plantations. Vegetation height and food resource availability for larvae and adult butterflies were also measured. The species richness and abundance of those of late successional butterflies were highest in power line corridors and young plantations, and lowest in mature plantations; and early successional butterflies and food resource availability were highest in power line corridors, and lowest in mature plantations. The species richness and abundance of butterflies within power line corridors were largely explained by vegetation height and food resource availability. Our results indicate that power line corridors within conifer plantations provide important habitats for early and late successional butterflies.
Implications for insect conservation
Increasing the habitat value of power line corridors through appropriate vegetation management can have an important role in preserving insect species.
... These may even arise from direct disturbances to ecosystems, for example a loss of genetic connectivity and diversity through fragmentation and habitat loss. These not only directly impact habitats immediately surrounding disturbances, but likely cause significant adverse impacts at considerable distances from anthropogenic activities (Vistnes and Nellemann 2001;Benítez-L opez et al. 2010). Furthermore, impacts can potentially erode populations subtly until they reach a threshold beyond which they are no longer viable and rapidly decline. ...
The direct impacts of anthropogenic habitat loss on fauna have attracted considerable global research focus. However, it is not only these overt impacts of human activities that are contributing to the global biodiversity crisis. Other disturbances, such as artificial light, anthropogenically generated noise, dust, vibrations, and physical visual disturbances (e.g., foreign objects such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles - UAVs) may be subtle or indirect, yet capable of creating significant impacts to fauna. These disturbances have previously been termed ‘enigmatic impacts’, suggesting they may be difficult to quantify or address. While there has been little research focus towards the mitigation or remediation of these impacts in conservation and restoration planning, a growing body of literature demonstrates that they can be disruptive and damaging to animal populations at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Here, we present a global review of the empirical evidence for disturbances (excluding direct habitat loss) that result from anthropogenic activities, developments, and industries, which are deleterious to the natural ecology of fauna species or communities. Although the impacts of disturbances such as vibrations and visual disturbances on fauna have attracted little research focus, disturbances created by human activities are clearly capable of causing significant disruptions and adverse impacts to fauna. Understanding how such disturbances impact fauna is critical to returning functional and biodiverse fauna communities to landscapes and environments that have been impacted or degraded by human activities.
... However, we doubled these "base" penalties for the calving, postcalving, and summer period (1 June-31 August). The doubling was based on the common thread through the literature to suggest that cows and newborn calves are most sensitive to human disturbance during the calving (Cameron et al. 1992, Wolfe et al. 2000, Vistnes and Nellemann 2001, Reimers and Coleman 2006 and postcalving when lactating cows' daily requirement for energy and protein doubles (Russell et al. 1993). During the postcalving and summer period larger and larger aggregations begin to form, partially or wholly in response to insect harassment. ...
ABSTRACT. As large migratory caribou herds decline globally and regional climate trends point to a warmer future, there is a needand a legislative requirement to ensure impacts of industrial development are fully assessed, particularly with respect to cumulativeeffects. In this paper we use a current proposal, the potential leasing of the 1002 lands on the Alaskan Arctic coastal plain of the ArcticNational Wildlife Refuge for hydrocarbon development, to project the potential cumulative effects on the international PorcupineCaribou Herd. Using the caribou cumulative effects model, an existing decision support tool, we evaluate six alternative developmentscenarios for the 1002 lands, ranging from no leasing to full leasing with standard mitigation conditions. Compared to the no leasingoption, at the current population size (218,000 caribou), our analysis projected that the likelihood of a herd decline over a 10-yearperiod would increase from 3% to 19% depending on the leasing scenarios analyzed. This compares to an increased probability ofdecline from 11% to 26% if the starting population was 100,000, indicative of population estimates in the early 1970s. Our approachaccomplishes one of the main steps in a comprehensive cumulative effects assessment, namely the quantification of past, present, andforeseeable future projects on a valued ecosystem component, the Porcupine Caribou Herd. We suggest the testing of underliningassumptions and refinements of the model required to more fully estimate the impacts of development. The use of transparent,quantitative decision support tools in assessing industrial development impacts on Arctic wildlife becomes more critical as climaticchanges to Arctic landscapes accelerate.Key Words: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge; caribou; climate; cumulative effects; hydrocarbon; impact assessment; mitigation; modeling;Porcupine caribou
... However, large spatial scale effects reported for reindeer are often based on analyses of data taken over limited periods, thereby introducing the difficulty of accounting for confounding factors and of separating effects actually related to disturbances from spatiotemporal fluctuations in habitat use (Colman et al. 2017;Flydal et al. 2019). For instance, Dyer et al. (2001), Vistnes and Nellemann (2001), Skarin et al. (2004), Skarin (2007), Dahle et al. (2008), Polfus et al. (2011), andHelle et al. (2012) have only 1 or 2 years/seasons of data with all data merged for each year/season. Moreover, effect estimates are highly uncertain for studies on reindeer habitat use that rely solely on data from the period after the disturbance was introduced (see review by Bartzke et al. 2014). ...
Anthropogenic activities affect habitat use by Rangifer tarandus, a particularly vulnerable species due to grouping behavior, extensive movements, and grazing ecology. We studied habitat use of GPS-collared reindeer in relation to surface mining activities during the snow-free season in Finnmark, Norway over a period of 7 years. Based on information about the mine’s level of operation (amount of people, vehicles, and equipment in operation) and rock blasting schedule, we divided data into high-activity periods (workdays) and low-activity periods (mine closed for ca 2.5 days on weekends and a yearly 3-week holiday period). We further divided workdays into periods with and without rock blasting and associated high-noise days. We found that reindeer significantly reduced habitat use at closer distances to the mine, indicating an influence zone up to 1.5 km. Reductions in use were strongest closest to the mine in high-activity periods. No avoidance effect of the mine was found beyond approximately 0.9 km for the 3-week holidays, 1.0 km for weekends, and 1.5 km for workdays with or without rock blasting. Compared to holidays and weekends, probability of use was reduced by 30–34% within 1.3 km from the mine for workday blasting periods, and up to 35% within 1.4 km for other workdays. Since averted areas can be partly utilized again within days or weeks following intensive mining activity periods, reduced mining activity in crucial periods for reindeer, such as during calving and migration, can be an effective mitigation measure.
... Wild reindeer have been shown to avoid calving close to a road crossing (Panzacchi, Van Moorter, & Strand, 2013); however, they do not seem to avoid power-line developments . Semi-domesticated reindeer's selection of calving sites in relation to anthropogenic development is less well investigated, but there is evidence revealing female reindeer's avoidance of cabins (Skarin, Danell, Bergstrom, & Moen, 2008), WF construction areas (Skarin et al., 2015), power-line construction , roads, and power-lines (Vistnes & Nellemann, 2001) during the calving season. ...
To meet the expanding land use required for wind energy development, a better understanding of the effects on terrestrial animals’ responses to such development
is required. Using GPS-data from 50 freely ranging female reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)
in the Malå reindeer herding community, Sweden, we determined reindeer calving
sites and estimated reindeer habitat selection using resource selection functions
(RSF). RSFs were estimated at both second-(selection of home range) and third-order
(selection within home range) scale in relation to environmental variables, wind farm
(WF) development phase (before construction, construction, and operation), distance
to the WFs and at the second-order scale whether the wind turbines were in or out of sight of the reindeer. We found that the distance between reindeer calving site and WFs increased during the operation phase, compared to before construction. At both scales of selection, we found a significant decrease in habitat selection of areas in proximity of the WFs, in the same comparison. The results also revealed a shift in home range selection away from habitats where wind turbines became visible toward habitats where the wind turbines were obscured by topography (increase in use by 79% at 5 km). We interpret the reindeer shift in home range selection as an effect of the wind turbines per se. Using topography and land cover information together with the positions of wind turbines could therefore help identify sensitive habitats for reindeer and improve the planning and placement of WFs. In addition, we found that operation phase of these WFs had a stronger adverse impact on reindeer habitat selection than the construction phase. Thus, the continuous running of the wind turbines making a sound both day and night seemed to have disturbed the reindeer more than the sudden sounds and increased human activity during construction work.
... Reported effects of power lines on reindeer behavior in Scandinavia ranged from no effect (Colman et al., 2017;Reimers et al., 2007) to avoidance of several km Table 4 Density of roads, mining exploration sites, mines, human settlements and power lines (winter only) in used and available seasonal ranges (summers of 2009-2013; winters of 2009-2015) for caribou of the Rivière-aux-Feuille (RFH) and Rivière-George (RGH) herds, northern Québec and Labrador, Canada. Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001) and strong barrier effect (Vistnes et al., 2004). Our results, however, suggest that power lines alone are not a major disturbance for caribou. ...
As human development intensifies in northern ecosystems, negative impacts of anthropogenic disturbances on wildlife could increase. Many caribou and reindeer populations are declining across the northern hemisphere, and human disturbances have been suggested as a potential cause for these declines. We evaluated the effects of human disturbances in the summer and winter ranges of two migratory caribou herds in northern Québec and Labrador, Canada. We captured and collared 510 caribou between 2009 and 2015. We first assessed caribou avoidance of human disturbances at a large spatial scale by comparing the density of mines, mining exploration sites, power lines, roads and human settlements within seasonal ranges to their density within available ranges. We estimated the area avoided by caribou (ZOI; zone of influence) around disturbances located within seasonal ranges and evaluated the resulting cumulative habitat loss. We also evaluated the barrier effect of roads and their influence on caribou movement rates. The density of many disturbance types was lower within caribou seasonal ranges than within available ranges, suggesting they avoided disturbances over a large spatial scale. Within seasonal ranges, caribou avoided all disturbance types except power lines. ZOIs were highly variable among disturbance types and years, ranging from no avoidance to 23 km. Cumulative habitat loss could reach as much as 30% of seasonal ranges and 38% of high-quality caribou habitat. We demonstrate that human disturbances have broad negative effects on caribou behavior, but whether this could translate into population decline remains to be investigated.
... The genetic characteristic and physiological property of an animal, climate, habitat properties, food, shelter, bunker, pressure of predation, and competition, all affect the habitat selection function of animals (noel et al., 1998; chu et al., 2009; aryal et al., 2010, 2013, 2014a). reindeers avoid the anthropogenic-affected areas, and similar results have been reported in other studies (nellemann, cameron, 1996;vistnes, nellemann, 2001;Pharo, vitt, 2000). The study area (i.e., aoluguya) is a famous tourist attraction, with summer (from June to october) being the peak tourist season with high level of tourism-related activities (Helle, Särkelä, 1993;nelleman, cameron, 1996;Dyer et al., 2001;vistnes et al., 2001). ...
The habitat selection by animals depends on different environmental and anthropogenic factors such as the season, climate, and the life cycle stage. Here, we have presented the summer habitat selection strategy of reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus ) in the unprotected forest area from the northern arctic region of China. In summer 2012, we investigated a total of 72 used and 162 non-used plots in the reindeer habitat to record habitat variables. We found that the reindeer used significantly higher altitude, arbour availability, and vegetation cover area as compared to the non-used habitat variables. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that six principal components (68.5%) were mainly responsible for the summer habitat selection of reindeer such as the slope position, concealment, anthropogenic dispersion, arbour species, distance from the anthropogenic disturbance area (> 1000 m) and water quality (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.12; P = 0.0001). The local people are largely dependent on forest product resource in these regions, such as bees herding, collecting wild vegetables, hunting, poaching, and grazing. These activities highly influenced the reindeer habitat and its behaviours. This study thus confirmed that reindeers are forced to choose poor habitat in unprotected forest area with high human disturbance or interference. These factors should be considered by the concerned authority or agency to manage reindeer population in the wild.
... We are confident, however, that this index represented daily variation in skier activity and numbers, and that the statistical relationship represents the actual avoidance responses of caribou. These results are consistent with other studies that showed an increase in the response by caribou following an increase in the intensity of the disturbance stimulus (Dyer et al., 2001;Johnson and Russell, 2014;Lesmerises et al., 2017;Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001). Schaefer and Mahoney (2007) found a greater impact of forest harvesting on caribou avoidance behaviour for females than for males. ...
Nature-based activities promote human-fauna encounters, which may be perceived as a type of predation risk. This pattern of human avoidance is well-known, but is often related to major anthropogenic disturbances. The response of animals to less intensive or ephemeral human activities, such as backcountry skiing and hiking is not well studied. Yet, these activities occur in many protected areas, where managers are trying to conserve some of the most threatened species. This is the case for the Endangered Atlantic-Gaspésie mountain caribou in the Gaspésie National Park. To assess the impact of backcountry skiing, we used GPS telemetry to monitor 20 caribou frequenting a ski area partially included in the Park. More than 12% of caribou locations were within the ski area when skiers were absent. Use of that area by caribou decreased to 6% when there were skiers. Coefficients from a resource selection function suggested that caribou avoided the ski area, and the disturbance response was modulated by the number of skiers. Caribou were not significantly displaced within the first 6 h of exposure to skiers, but thereafter moved away from the ski area for ~48 h to lower elevation habitats where predation from coyotes was potentially greater. Our results revealed a relatively strong disturbance response and corresponding functional loss of a possible noticeable portion of habitat as a result of backcountry skiing. Park managers should consider even small numbers of recreationists as they could have an important impact on animal distribution.
... The degree of avoidance is positively correlated to the level of human activity (Smith & Cameron 1983, Dyer et al. 2001. Sensitivity was greatest among parturient cows and cows with calves (Dau & Cameron 1986, Cameron et al. 1992, Nelleman & Cameron 1996, Vistnes & Nellemann 2001, Weir et al. 2007). In another ungulate, human disturbance has significant impact on calving site selection, even overriding environmental factors (Singh et al. 2010). ...
... Habitat alterations from large-scale forestry, natural gas, and mineral exploration are resulting in dramatic transformations that continue to threaten the ecological integrity of the South Peace region (Nitschke 2008). Humancaused disturbance in combination with altered vegetation communities leads to compounding instabilities for populations of caribou: increased movement and vigilance, displacement from portions of the range, and altered predator-prey dynamics (Vistnes and Nellemann 2001, Cameron et al. 2005, Faille et al. 2010, Latham et al. 2011b. Furthermore, these relationships are complex and may be confounded by ecological sinks and lag effects (Vors et al. 2007). ...
Across much of the range of woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), predator–prey dynamics have changed as a result of large-scale industrial development. Land clearing and associated early-successional forests have resulted in a greater density and distribution of moose (Alces alces), deer (Odocoileus spp.), and their associated predators. This process of apparent competition has resulted in increased predation on woodland caribou. We employed a combination of field and statistical methods to better understand the distribution and interactions of wolves (Canis lupus) and caribou across a region with high levels of industrial development. We used count models to investigate the frequency of wolf occurrence relative to landcover types, disturbance features, and caribou habitat. As predicted, the co-occurrence between caribou and wolves was rare. Similarly, the remains of caribou were identified at a small proportion of the sites where wolves killed large prey. Caribou occurred at low densities across the study area, and thus, wolves likely pursued other more abundant deer species. Encounters between wolves and cari-bou habitat was most likely to occur in the low-elevation boreal forest and areas closer to and with higher densities of forestry cutblocks. Our results highlight the importance of understanding the spatial dynamics of multi-species interactions when developing recovery strategies for threatened and endangered species.
... Industrial and recreational activity can have serious effects on wildlife, including displacing ungulates from habitat (Cameron 1983;Nellemann and Cameron 1998;Nellemann et al. 2000;Vistnes and Nellemann 2001;Harris et al. 2014) and heightening energy expenditures (Shank 1979;Shideler et al. 1986;Tyler 1991;Bradshaw et al. 1998;Olliff et al. 1999). For northern ungulates, such as caribou (Rangifer tarandus), disturbance may be especially significant in winter when snowcover imposes added energetic costs of locomotion (Fancy and White 1987) and foraging (Fancy and White 1985), and when avoidance may run counter to the seasonal adaptations of reduced activity, food intake, and metabolic rate (Moen et al. 1982;Hudson and Christopherson 1985). ...
Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) and other northern ungulates are increasingly exposed to snowmachine activity, but the implications of such exposure for energetics and habitat use are not fully understood. We assessed the influence of snowmachine exposure on the energy balance and habitat selection of caribou in Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland, Canada. We assessed habitat selection of radio-collared females at two spatial scales, within the population range and the home range. Based on field observations of caribou reactions to provocation by snowmachine, we modelled the energetic costs of disturbance as one event and extrapolated its effects on body mass during winter.
During winter, females exhibited apparent preference for snowmachine trails at the scale of the population range, but neither preference nor avoidance at the scale of the home range. This broad-scale pattern likely reflects the spatial association of trails with lowlands and the more favourable nival conditions there. The energetic cost of one snowmachine encounter was negligible; we surmise it would require far more encounters than are likely to produce a significant and harmful loss in body mass. We conclude that the lack of response to snowmachines may represent habituation, a lack of snowmachine-free alternative habitat, and/or risk-prone foraging by this population.
Key words: Caribou, disturbance, energetics, habitat selection, snowmobile
... Also, low densities of animals can be recorded nearby footpaths, as an avoidance of roads and other human paths has been documented for several species, including ungulates. [32,33] Given a fixed animal distribution pattern, if footpaths fails to intercept high-density areas, the bias between true and estimated abundance is also likely to increase despite the increase in animal detections, and no improvement of estimators is to be expected even with an increase in the survey effort. ...
Recently, distance sampling emerged as an advantageous technique to estimate the abundance of many animal populations, including ungulates. Its basic design involves the random selection of several samplers (transects or points) within the population range, and a Horvitz–Thompson-like estimator is then applied to estimate the population abundance while correcting for animal detectability. Ensuring even coverage probability is essential for subsequent inference on the population size, but it may not be achievable because of limited access to parts of the population range. Moreover, in several environmental conditions, a random selection of samplers may induce very high survey costs because it does not minimize the displacement time of the observer(s) between successive samplers. We thus tested whether two-stage designs – based on the random selection of points and then of nearby samplers – could be more cost-effective, for a given population size and when even area coverage cannot be guaranteed. Here, we further extend our analyses to assess the performance of two-stage designs under varying animal densities.
... 23), especially snowmobiling activities during spring and disturbance by hikers in summer (Wall 2001). Disturbance has increased the avoidance of tourist resorts by reindeer, leading to the increased use and overgrazing of remaining undisturbed grazing grounds (Nellemann et al. 2000;Vistnes and Nellemann 2001). Also visitors with dogs disturb reindeer, especially if they hike off the marked trails (Helle and Särkelä 1993;Rauhala 1994;Autto 1999). ...
With the recent recovery of large carnivores in Europe, preventive measures to protect livestock are on the rise. Fences that exclude carnivores from grazing areas have been proven as effective, but they can be costly as well as posing a barrier for wildlife. We studied the effect of exclosures of > 10 km² to protect sheep Ovis aries on the distribution and density of moose Alces alces using fecal pellet group counts in two study areas in southeastern Norway. During the summer grazing season, the fences were powered. Outside of the grazing season, one exclosure remained fenced while the other fence was demounted. This quasi‐experimental setting allowed us to investigate whether fences had a barrier effect for moose, and/or whether moose density was affected by interactions with sheep (competition or facilitation) or large carnivores (refuge hypothesis). During winter, moose pellet group density was about equal inside and outside of the exclosure with demounted wire strands, but less than half inside the permanently fenced exclosure compared to outside, indicating a potential fragmentation effect of the fence. During the grazing season, when wire strands were powered, moose pellet group density was equal or doubled inside as compared to outside both exclosures. Moose may have sought refuge from large carnivores inside the fences. Fecal pellet group densities of moose and sheep inside the fence were neither positively (facilitation) nor negatively (competition) correlated. However, moose used young forest, the most used habitat type by sheep, to a lesser extent inside than outside of the exclosures, maybe due to interference competition. Our study demonstrates that livestock protection fences can have an impact on more than the targeted wildlife species. To understand the mechanisms behind direct and indirect effects of fences, monitoring the movement and survival of individuals by means of GPS and camera traps would be needed.
Understanding how human activities are altering landscapes is critical to address habitat loss and biodiversity decline. Cumulative pressure mapping has emerged as a tool to quantify both the extent and intensity of multiple forms of human activities on the environment. However, there are several approaches to selecting and combining individual spatial layers into cumulative pressure maps, without clear guidance on how these methods affect the accuracy of the resulting maps. Here, we evaluated how the number of individual pressures, and changes in their intensity scores influenced the accuracy, measured against visual interpretation of high-resolution imagery, of a cumulative pressure map for a large, ecological diverse province, British Columbia, Canada. Additionally, we compared additive and antagonist models for combining pressures, which are among the most widely employed models in terrestrial studies. We started by identifying 16 human pressures and their associated spatial representation (i.e., layer) across the province. We then compared the validation values and the outcomes of 100,000 simulations in which we tested different perturbations of the human pressure model. Model accuracy improved with the inclusion of each additional pressure layer, reaching an average mean absolute error of 0.09 with the full spectrum of pressures. Our findings suggested that variations in intensity scores assigned to individual pressures only moderately influenced the resulting cumulative pressure score. In our final analysis, we observed a robust correlation between the additive and the antagonist models, particularly in regions that were either relatively free of human disturbance or highly modified by disturbances. Our study provides an empirical basis for continued improvements to practices for cumulative pressure mapping, addressing methodological challenges that were not formally considered in previous studies.
Rekreation och miljöpåverkan i fjällen En sammanfattning av forskning om ekologiska effekter av friluftsliv, turism och sport
Les régions subarctiques font face aux effets interconnectés et pluri-scalaires du changement global (amplification des extrêmes bioclimatiques et intensification dans l’utilisation des sols). Le renne, Rangifer tarandus est un grand herbivore qui migre annuellement sur de grands espaces pour ses besoins biologiques. L’ongulé cristallise de nombreux enjeux paysagers pour les pastoralismes saamis. Plusieurs populations de rennes seront étudiées dans un suivi multi-scalaire. Nous évaluons les effets directs du changement global (fragmentation paysagère et changements climatiques) sur les paysages culturels de Scandinavie en lien avec la démographie des rennes. Par la suite, la descente en échelle géographique nous permet de caractériser via satellite et relevés floristiques les effets du changement global sur les paysages végétaux de la communauté montagnarde d’éleveurs Gabna, dans le nord de la Suède. Nous étudions ensuite les comportements migratoires des rennes sauvages norvégiens, pour appréhender les liens entre variabilité bioclimatique et écologie spatiale de l’herbivore. Les résultats principaux rejoignent ceux de la littérature scientifique, appliqués aux espaces étudiés : régionalement, changement des climats et pertes significatives en pâturages ; localement, boréalisation et embroussaillement des paysages migratoires. Les liens forts entre une partie des effets cumulés du changement global et la biogéographie scandinave de Rangifer tarandus sont ainsi discutés. L’approche paysagère dans les problématiques environnementales complexes (revendication territoriale) a révélé l’importance de l’éthique dans le dialogue science/minorités.
The hydropower project’s construction is increasing that can affect the terrestrial environment. Hydropower projects located in environmentally sensitive areas have higher environmental impacts, so I analyzed the spatio-temporal interaction between hydropower projects’ locations and terrestrial environmentally sensitive areas of Nepal to visualize the probable environmental impacts. I found that most of the existing projects lie on the hill, however, future projects are moving northward. Among the 12 eco-regions of Nepal, hydropower projects are located in 10 eco-regions. Hydropower projects were found to interact with more than half of biodiverse areas of the country (28 out of 45), and more than five thousand megawatts of hydropower projects are located completely inside these biodiverse areas. The study suggests that the interaction between hydropower projects and environmentally sensitive areas might increase in the future. Hydropower projects should avoid environmentally sensitive areas such as biodiverse areas and protected areas as far as possible to minimize the impacts. Rapid hydropower development is a necessity in countries like Nepal, so further studies on the impacts of hydropower projects on environmentally sensitive areas as well as improvement of the quality of the environmental assessment of the projects are necessary for environment-friendly development.
This report in Swedish summarizes recent (2018 - 2020) research on the interaction bewteen forestry and reindeer husbandry. We identify research gaps and ways forward to enable an exchange of knowldege between both forms of land use.
The productive performance of large ungulates in extensive pastoral grazing systems is modulated simultaneously by the effects of climate change and human intervention independent of climate change. The latter includes the expansion of private, civil and military activity and infrastructure and the erosion of land rights. We used Saami reindeer husbandry in Norway as a model in which to examine trends in, and to compare the influence of, both effects on a pastoral grazing system. Downscaled projections of mean annual temperature over the principal winter pasture area (Finnmarksvidda) closely matched empirical observations across 34 years to 2018. The area, therefore, is not only warming but seems likely to continue to do so. Warming notwithstanding, 50-year (1969–2018) records of local weather (temperature, precipitation and characteristics of the snowpack) demonstrate considerable annual and decadal variation which also seems likely to continue and alternately to amplify and to counter net warming. Warming, moreover, has both positive and negative effects on ecosystem services that influence reindeer. The effects of climate change on reindeer pastoralism are evidently neither temporally nor spatially uniform, nor indeed is the role of climate change as a driver of change in pastoralism even clear. The effects of human intervention on the system, by contrast, are clear and largely negative. Gradual liberalization of grazing rights from the 18 th Century has been countered by extensive loss of reindeer pasture. Access to ~50% of traditional winter pasture was lost in the 19 th Century owing to the closure of international borders to the passage of herders and their reindeer. Subsequent to this the area of undisturbed pasture within Norway has decreased by 71%. Loss of pasture due to piecemeal development of infrastructure and to administrative encroachment that erodes herders' freedom of action on the land that remains to them, are the principal threats to reindeer husbandry in Norway today. These tangible effects far exceed the putative effects of current climate change on the system. The situation confronting Saami reindeer pastoralism is not unique: loss of pasture and administrative, economic, legal and social constraints bedevil extensive pastoral grazing systems across the globe.
We investigated barrier effects of a 66 kV power line established in 1966 before and after the line was upgraded to 132 kV in 2004 over a period of 44 years (1974-2017) in the North Ottadalen wild reindeer area (3245 km2) of which 1038 km2 are in use as winter pastures. The power line transects a peninsula (135 km2) with high quality winter pastures in the southeast periphery. The reindeer population originated from a nucleus herd of 402 animals of domestic origin released in the area in 1964-1965 and 100 resident wild animals. Yearly winter survey started in 1974 and reindeer were first surveyed south of the 66 kV power line in 1982. Comparing the number of animals recorded in the peninsula vs. the number of individuals expected relative to available grazing area during the three periods (1974-2004, 1982-2004 and 2005-2017), the number of animals recorded in the peninsula was 3.6–4.9 times higher than expected. Since the upgrade of the power line, a substantial part of the reindeer population grazed in the peninsula every year. We therefore conclude that there was no long-term barrier effect from the original power line and no barrier effects at all from the upgrade. However, during the first 5 surveys of this study, there were no animals in the peninsula. Therefore, even if there are several possible reasons for this, we cannot exclude the possibility of short-term barrier effects resulting from the construction of the original power line. Our results support recent studies that report no effects from existing power lines and contrast some previous findings that have reported strong long-term barrier and avoidance effects of such infrastructure for Rangifer migration and grazing behaviour.
Habitat loss remains one of the primary threats to global forest communities but remaining forest habitats are also subjected to ongoing fragmentation by linear clearings such as seismic lines for petroleum exploration. Seismic lines alter local habitat use, but unlike roads, which are well studied, less is known about the effects of seismic lines on mammal abundance and community composition. The objective of this study was to determine whether fragmentation by seismic linear clearings affected mammal abundance or community composition at fine and landscape scales. Winter snow track surveys were conducted over three winters, within 14 landscapes, dispersed throughout a boreal forest area (4000 km²), to measure relative abundances of 17 co-existing mammals. Mammal communities within seismic line habitat were dissimilar from communities in nearby forest habitat and were characterized by relatively higher abundances of some larger herbivores (moose/elk) and some mammalian predators (cougar, lynx, weasel). Within broader landscapes (12.3 km²), relative abundances of some large mammals were also associated with seismic line fragmentation. One large predator (gray wolf) trended toward higher relative abundance in the landscapes most fragmented by seismic lines, while one large herbivore group (moose/elk) decreased in abundance in these landscapes. Overall, our results reveal that forest fragmentation by narrow linear clearings (e.g. seismic lines) had a measurable effect on wildlife relative abundances, particularly for a few large mammals. They also highlight the importance of differentiating between fine-scale and landscape-scale effects. In this area, strong preference and avoidance behaviors toward seismic line habitat, were generally not associated with a consistent response at the landscape scale, potentially due to the dissimilar responses by different species to seismic line habitats, which may have altered interactions between co-existing species, such as predator and prey species. These findings have important implications for the management of mammal communities located within forests fragmented by seismic lines.
The Fakken Wind farm (WF) was built in 2010-12 on the Fakken peninsula on the south-east corner of the island of Vannøy. Field and GPS sampling was conducted to test the interaction between reindeer spatial use and the WF with associated infrastructure for the period 2007-2015. “Before data” for both direct observations and GPS-positions confirmed that the site where the WF was built was an important winter grazing area for reindeer. Testing data from before, during and after construction of the WF showed that the overall use on the island and for the WF area did not change during the study period. The reindeer density did not vary significantly among the periods, both for the WF and power line areas. We found no avoidance responses on reindeer spatial use towards the WF during the operation periods for direct observation data. However, we found some significant changes in reindeer area use that may be related to disturbance from human activities for the calving period during construction in WF zone 1 and road zone 1 (GPS-data), and for the power line area during construction in summer and autumn (direct observational data). Our study site represents an area where coexistence of reindeer husbandry and wind energy development is possible, with negligible effects on reindeer spatial use during and after WF development. We recommend that new WFs should be built close to existing infrastructure and limit a potential increase in human accessibility to remote areas where reindeer are less accustomed to human activity.
Hunting is a major driver of biodiversity loss, but a systematic large-scale estimate of huntinginduced
defaunation is lacking.We synthesized 176 studies to quantify hunting-induced
declines of mammal and bird populations across the tropics. Bird and mammal abundances
declined by 58% (25 to 76%) and by 83% (72 to 90%) in hunted compared with unhunted
areas. Bird and mammal populations were depleted within 7 and 40 kilometers from hunters’
access points (roads and settlements). Additionally, hunting pressure was higher in areas with
better accessibility to major towns where wild meat could be traded. Mammal population
densities were lower outside protected areas, particularly because of commercial hunting.
Strategies to sustainablymanage wildmeat hunting in both protected and unprotected tropical
ecosystems are urgently needed to avoid further defaunation.
Resource access and livelihood flexibility have been identified in the literature as two critical determinants of adaptive capacity. This paper shows that these aspects play important roles in reindeer herding in Nordland County, Norway, in terms of resilience to changes in social-ecological systems. Throughout history, reindeer herders have been able to draw on a broad range of adaptation options, but increased pasture fragmentation and loss of grazing land increasingly affect herders’ adaptability to weather variability and climate change impacts. Our analysis of empirical material from three adjacent reindeer herding districts illustrates the linkages between socio-economic and environmental exposure sensitivities, how the herders adapt by exploring patterns of differential adaptive capacity, and how adaptive capacity is impacted. Two socio-economic (pasture encroachment and insufficient human resources) and two environmental (locked pastures and predation) exposure sensitivities emerged as the most prominent affecting pasture access, which was the most critical factor for ensuring the adaptive capacity of reindeer herders. Flexibility to alternate between adaptation strategies was another important characteristic. Adapting to these exposure sensitivities engenders benefits and unintended negative consequences for the herders. The key components to adaptive capacity identified in this paper provide an evidence-based focus for management action by those seeking to improve resilience of socio-ecological systems at the community level.
Assessing the impact of human development on animals is complicated by the fact that overt effects may have covert causes. Cryptic impacts (sensu Raiter et al. 2014) can arise where sensory stimuli to which species respond fall outside the human sensory range. Ultraviolet (UV) light, which is detected by a range of nonprimate mammals, is a potential example. We review evidence that dark-adapted eyes of reindeer–caribou Rangifer tarandus can detect light at 330–410 nm emitted by electrical corona on high-voltage power lines, which is necessarily barely visible to humans. Based on this, we suggest that the superior ability of Rangifer to detect corona UV light may partly account for the tendency of the animals to avoid power lines. Rangifer has UV-permissive ocular media that transmit approximately 15 times more corona light than human eyes. Retinal irradiance under full dilation is in the order of 7 times greater in Rangifer compared with humans. Seasonal transformation of the tapetum lucidum substantially increases retinal sensitivity in this species in winter. Threshold distances of detection of corona by Rangifer are in the order of hundreds of meters. Displays of corona may catch the animals' attention, and plume coronas, in particular, may induce the illusion of motion (the phi phenomenon), thereby falsely signaling the presence of potential predators. Both features are likely to increase wariness and cause animals to withdraw from the source of the stimulus. We suggest that spatial and temporal variability of corona contributes to substantial variation observed in the strength and persistence of avoidance responses in Rangifer at these structures.
Habitat alterations from anthropogenic disturbances across northeastern British Columbia have resulted in large-scale modifications to predator-prey dynamics. I used GPS collar locations and field data to quantify the responses of wolves (Canis lupus) and woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) to the cumulative effects of industrial disturbance. I developed seasonal resource selection functions for caribou and count models of habitat occupancy for wolves. I also related wolf movements to caribou habitat and industrial features. Caribou occupying the boreal forest likely are more at risk from industrial developments. My results suggest that caribou occupying these ecosystems are subject to disturbance by human activity and a greater risk of spatial interactions with wolves. However, these relationships are complicated by the positive and negative responses of wolves to landscape change and the distribution of other prey and predator species.
In China, reindeer, a valuable wildlife resource, only exists in the Genhe area of Inner Mongolia. Despite their economic benefits, reindeer are listed as critically endangered in China mainly owing to loss and degradation of habitat. To sustainably conserve the reindeer population and their habitat, it is necessary to study the habitat utilization of reindeer. In September and October 2012 and 2013, autumn habitat selection and utilization patterns of reindeer were studied using both line and strip-transect surveys. Twenty-five ecological variables were measured and compared for 234 sites in the Genhe area of northwestern China. Seventy-two of all the sampling sites were designated as used habitat plots, and the others as control, non-used plots. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to extract the key factors influencing habitat selection. The results indicated that, compared to the non-used habitat plots, reindeer selected autumn habitats with comparatively high altitude (948.68±1.10 m), arbor canopy (12.60±1.99%), arbor density (6.92±0.75/400 m2), arbor diameter body height (DBH) (24.46±1.77 cm), arbor height (6.33±0.47 m), shrub cover (42.14±2.22%), muscus-lichen cover (11.94±0.98%) and more stump (4.61±0.44/400 m) and fallen-wood (2.08±0.25/400 m2), but with comparatively low ground-plant cover (83.58±1.03%), snow depth (no snow), snow cover (no snow) and withered-grass cover (2.08±0.25%). Moreover, the reindeer also selected habitats with intermediate upper slope positions (70.8%) in south and west slopes which were located mainly in conifer forest (56.9%) and with poor lee condition (52.8%), relative proximity to water sources (< 1 000 m, 68.1%), but certain distance from anthropogenic disturbance (≥ 500 m, 51.4%) and indigenous residence (≥ 500 m, 51.4%). The PCA results showed that the "Disturbance factor" (i.e. distance from residence and other human influence, altitude, slope position etc.), "Tree factor" (i.e. vegetation type, arbor DBH, arbor height, and arbor density etc.), "Habitat-ground factor" (i.e. shrub cover, stump, fallen-wood and ground-plant cover), "Concealment factor" (i.e. concealment) and "Slope aspect factor" (i.e. Slope aspect) were the most important factors influencing the habitat selection of reindeer in autumn. In summary, the results indicated the autumn habitat selection of reindeer is a multidimensional process, through which reindeer adapts to the ecological needs, in particular food accessibility and avoidance of disturbance from local indigenous communities.
Concerns have been raised that displacement from traditional calving and postcalving areas by petroleum exploration may cause increased calf mortality in the Porcupine Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) Herd. Consequently, we determined productivity and early calf survival by frequently locating 23-53 radio-collared cows and 59-61 radio-collared calves from 1983 to 1985. Seventy-nine to 87% of the adult females gave birth each year, and 68-90% of calves were born within, or adjacent to, a coastal plain area proposed for petroleum leasing and development. Sixteen to 35% of the calves died by 25 June. Fifty-nine to 74% of calf mortality occurred within 48 hours of birth and involved a number of causes in addition to predation. Predation was the major cause of death after the first 48 hours, and mortality increased toward higher terrain away from the coastal plain. Additional data from carcasses of unmarked calves corroborated the trends noted for radio-collared cows and calves. We conclude that if petroleum development displaces calving from the coastal plain, calf mortality likely will increase.
Behavioral responses of individual Barren Ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) to a 3/4-ton pickup truck were quantified on 36 occasions. During 34 of those observations the vehicle initially approached at a speed of over 56 km/hr. Forty-eight percent of the individual caribou reacted to the vehicle by running away while 38% trotted away. The mean flight duration of females was 73 ± 11 sec, that of males 38 ± 6 sec (p=0.09). Caribou encountering a moving vehicle exhibited signs of excitement and fright, including the excitation jump and tail-up response. Reversal of direction and/or splitting of the group involved 29% of the individual caribou. The type of habitat (forested vs. open) did not have an effect on observation duration (p>0.50) or on the mean distance at which caribou were first encountered (p>0.50). The distance from the vehicle at which animals began to flee did not differ between sexes (p>0.50) or habitats (p>0.50) but was as great for both sexes as that reported for females with young calves. In forested habitat male caribou allowed a much closer approach than females (p=0.08) but closeness of approach did not differ between the sexes in open habitat (p>0.50).
We report a distinct terrain structure in high-use portions of reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus tarandus) winter grounds for two regions within Norway. A new index of terrain ruggedness based on topographic maps was used for analyzing terrain structure within historic high- and low-use portions of wintering areas. Terrain ruggedness was found to be significantly highe r in high-use areas. Indices of terrain ruggedness reflecting fine-scale features (10 -20 m) corresponded well with the availabili ty of potential feeding sites (< 40 cm snow depth), while contour densities alone did not. Terrain structure should be considered an important habitat attribute for management planning on reindeer winter habitats. The index provides a simple method for quantifying differences in fine-scale ruggedness between habitats.
La relation entre la couverture de neige sur la zone de velage du caribou et la position des concentrations de velage a ete etudiee durant 14 annees et testee par difference de categories de couverture neigeuse par femelle
We used captive caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) to study the effects of energy intake, protein intake, dietary protein:energy ratio, date, and body condition on (i) body fat versus body protein deposition and (ii) maternal tissue deposition versus milk production. Energy intake was the only variable significantly affecting body mass (BM) changes in either breeding or nonbreeding adult females. Lactating and nonlactating females had comparable efficiency coefficients for net energy retention (60 and 65%, respectively), but the daily maintenance requirement for lactating females (457 kJ/BM0.75) was twice that for nonlactating individuals (232 kJ/BM0.75). In both lactating and nonlactating females, the proportion of tissue deposited as fat rather than protein increased between spring and fall but decreased with increasing fatness. Energy intake increased protein deposition in lactating females but increased fat deposition in nonlactating females. Milk water volume increased with maternal energy intake and decreased with calf age. However, production of milk dry matter, milk fat, and milk energy were not affected by maternal energy or protein intake, maternal body condition, or calf age. Production of milk lactose correlated with maternal energy intake, while production of milk protein correlated with the maternal dietary protein:energy ratio.
Selective feeding that makes only small changes in quality or amount of food intake may cause a greatly enhanced, or multiplier, effect on animal production. In an example for reindeer Rangifer tarandus grazing in arctic coastal tundra during summer, selective grazing increased digestibility by 14% and dry matter intake by 27%, which combined to give a 268% increase in projected daily weight gain. Weight gain may then influence populations through control over conception rate and survival during winter. An increase by 14% in body weight of young female reindeer during summer in a 35% increase in the probability of conception in autumn. Winter range conditions can affect birth weight, milk production and calf growth rates, all of which affect future reproduction and survival and provide additional avenues for multiplier effects.-from Author
1. Density-independent weather effects can have important consequences for the demography of terrestrial herbivores because precipitation, temperature and insolation influence plant phenology, forage quality and biomass production, which in turn affects the habitat carrying capacity. Since forage digestibility influences intake and weight gain, life-history traits of young, growing animals are Likely to reflect variation in the prevailing weather. 2. This paper specifically investigates spatial and temporal variation in age at maturation in female red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Norway in relation to climate variables known to influence primary production. Our findings are corroborated by analysing differences in age at maturation in 21 cohorts of red deer on the Isle of Rum, Scotland. 3. In Norway the majority of females ovulated as yearlings and calved for the first time as 2-year-olds. The proportion calving for the first time at two years varied from 0.23 to 0.67 between regions and fluctuated from 0.
In late September and October 1987-1990 and early July 1988-1991, 66 radio-collared female caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) of the Central Arctic Herd were captured and weighed 117 times. Caribou were relocated repeatedly during early June 1988-1991; parturition status, calving date, and perinatal calf survival were determined. Mean autumn body weights of subsequently parturient (90.0 kg) and nonparturient (82.5 kg) females differed significantly (P < 0.01). Mean summer weights 4-5 weeks after parturition were significantly higher for females that had calved on or before 7 June (82.2 kg) than for those that had calved after 7 June (72.1 kg; P < 0.01), and for females whose calves survived at least 2 days post partum (80.2 kg) than for those whose calves died within 2 days (70.3 kg; P < 0.01). Significant logistic models were generated for relationships between parturition rate and autumn weight (P < 0.01), between the occurrence of early calving and summer weight (P < 0.05), and between calf survival rate and summer weight (P < 0.02). Body weight appears to be a reasonable index of body condition, which in turn is related to reproductive performance. The probability of a successful pregnancy is largely predetermined at breeding, based on autumn condition, whereas calving date and early calf survival appear to be influenced primarily by maternal condition during late pregnancy.
We report on a number of ongoing studies and discuss what projects are in place to further refine and test relationships.
p>A group of 35 pregnant reindeer (Rangifcr tarandus) was divided into two groups in mid-February. Until calving in May one of the groups (L) received lichen ad lib., while the other group (IN) received an improved diet, rich in protein and minerals. After calving both groups received the same improved diet. In both groups it was distinguished between young (<3 years) and old (>3 years) animals. At the start of the experiment the body weight of L-young animals was 58.5 ± 4.6 kg, IN-young 56.2 ± 2.8 kg, L-old 70.3 ± 6.0 kg and IN-old 68.2 ± 4.8 kg. At calving the weights of the same animals were 55.9 ± 4.5 kg (L-young), 68.1 ± 2.5 (IN-young), 70.0 ± 6.9 kg (L-old) and 81.6 ± 6.8 kg (IN-old). Birth weight of IN-young calves was 4.5 ± 0.7 kg and of L-young calves 3.7 ± 0.5 kg. Birth weight of IN-old calves was 5.7 ± 0.8 kg and of L-old calves 4.4 ± 0.6 kg. The birth weight of the calves in all groups was correlated to the weight of the female just prior to calving. Growth rates in all but the IN-old group were not different, the IN-old group showing a significantly higher growth rate than the other groups. In mid-September, however, the average body weight for the calves from the L and IN-groups did not differ significantly. Neither chemical composition nor total energy content of the milk differed significantly between the groups. Total mortality in the L-group was 28% as compared to 7% in the IN-group. Two females in the IN-old group had not given birth at the end of the experimental period.
Virkningen av bedret ernæring til drektige reinsimler på melkekvalitet, kalvenes fødselsvekt, vekst og dødelighet.
Abstract in Norwegian / Sammendrag: En flokk på 35 drektige reinsimler (Rangifer tarandus) ble delt i to grupper i midten av februar. Frem til kalving i mai ble den ene gruppen gitt lav ad lib. (L-gruppe), mens den andre gruppen ble tilleggsforet med 2 kg RF - 71/dag (IN-gruppe). Etter kalving ble begge gruppene gitt 2 kg RF - 71/dag. Innen begge gruppene ble det skilt mellom unge (<3 år) og gamle (>3 år) simler. Ved forsøkets start var kroppsvekten for unge simler ca. 57 kg, og for gamle simler ca. 69 kg, i begge ernæringsgruppene. Ved kalving var kroppsvekten for unge simler 55.9 ± 4.5 kg (L-gruppe), og 68.1 ± 2.5 kg (IN-gruppe) mens kroppsvekten for gamle simler var 70.0 ± 6.9 kg (L-gruppe) og 81.6 ± 6.8 kg (IN-gruppe). Fødselsvekt for kalver etter IN-unge simler var 4.5 ± 0.7 kg, og 3.7 ± 0.5 kg for kalver etter L-unge simler. De tilsvarende fødselsvektene for kalver etter gamle simler var 5.7 ± 0.8 kg (IN-gruppe) og 4.4 ± 0.6 kg (L-gruppe). Fødselsvektene var korrelert til simlenes kroppsvekt like før kalving. Kalveveksten i de første tre ukene etter fødselen var signifikant høyere for kalver etter IN-gamle simler, sammenlignet med kalveveksten i de øvrige tre gruppene, som ikke var innbyrdes signifikant forskjellige. I midten av september var det ingen signifikante forskjeller i kalvenes kroppsvekt gruppene imellom. Det var ingen signifikante forskjeller hverken i totalt energiinnhold eller i kjemisk sammensetning av melken fra simlene i de to ernæringsgruppene. Total dødelighet for kalver i L-gruppen var 28% mot 7% i IN-gruppen i løpet av de tre første ukene etter fødselen. To av de gamle simlene i IN-gruppen hadde ikke kalvet ved forsøkets slutt.
Kantavien porovaatimien parannetun ravinnon vaikutus maidonlaatuun, vasojen syntymåpainoon, kasvuun ja kuolleisuuteen.
Abstract in Finnish / Yhteenveto: 35 kantavan porovaatimen (Rangifer tarandus) lauma jaettiin kahteen ryhmaan helmikuun puolivålisså. Vasomiseen saakka toukokuussa annettiin toiselle ryhmalle jåkalaa ad. Ub. (L-ryhmå), kun taas toinen ryhma sai lisåravintona 2 kg RF-71 rehua påivåsså (IN-ryhmå). Vasomisen jålkeen annettiin molemmille ryhmille 2 kg RF-71 rehua påivåsså. Molemmissa ryhmisså erotettiin nuoret (< 3-vuotiaat) ja vanhat (> 3-vuotiaat) vaatimet toisistaan. Tutkimuksen alkuvaiheessa oli nuorten vaatimien ruumiinpaino n.57 kg, ja vanhojen vaatimien n.69 kg, molemmissa ravintoryhmisså. Vasomisen aikana oli nuorten vaatimien ruumiinpaino 55,9 ± 4,5 kg (L-ryhmå), ja 68,1 ± 2,5 kg (IN-ryhmå), kun taas vanhojen vaatimien ruumiinpaino oli 70,0 ± 6,9 kg (L-ryhmå) ja 81,6 ± 6,8 kg (IN-ryhmå). Vasojen syntymåpaino IN-nuorten vaatimien ryhmåsså oli 4,5 ± 0,7 kg, ja 3,7 ± 0,5 kg L-nuorten vaatimien ryhmåsså. Vastaavat syntymåpainot vanhojen vaatimien vasoilla olivat 5,7 ± 0,8 kg (IN-ryhmå) ja 4,4 ± 0,6 kg (L-ryhmå). Syntymåpainot olivat vastaavuussuhteessa vaatimien ruumiinpainoon våhåå ennen vasomista. IN-vanhojen vaatimien vasojen kasvu ensimmåisten kolmen viikon aikana syntymån jålkeen oli merkittåvåsti korkeampi, verrattuna niiden kolmen muun ryhmån vasankasvuun, jotka eivåt olleet keskenåån merkittåvån erilaisia. Vasojen ruumiinpainossa ryhmien kesken ei ollut mitåån merkittåviå eroavaisuuksia syyskuun puolivålisså. Nåiden kahden ravintoryhmån vaatimien maidossa ei ollut mitåån merkittåviå eroja kokonaisuudessa ravinnon sisåltoon eikå kemialliseen kokoonpanoon nåhden. Vasojen kokonaiskuolleisuus L-ryhmåsså oli 28% ja IN-ryhmåsså 7% kolmena ensimmåisenå viikkona syntymån jålkeen. Kaksi vanhaa vaadinta IN-ryhmåsså ei ollut vasonut tutkimuksen lopussa.</p
Proposed further developments on Alaska's Arctic Coastal Plain raise questions about cumulative effects on arctic tundra ecosystems of development of multiple large oil fields. Maps of historical changes to the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field show indirect impacts can lag behind planned developments by many years and the total area eventually disturbed can greatly exceed the planned area of construction. For example, in the wettest parts of the oil field (flat thaw-lake plains), flooding and thermokarst covered more than twice the area directly affected by roads and other construction activities. Protecting critical wildlife habitat is the central issue for cumulative impact analysis in northern Alaska. Comprehensive landscape planning with the use of geographic information system technology and detailed geobotanical maps can help identify and protect areas of high wildlife use.
Forest canopy characteristics (canopy closure and size of gaps) and browse supply were measured and contrasted with data collected on sites with cottage development and sites with no development. The canopy closure of conifers was greater on undeveloped sites than on developed sites. Winter browse supply was four times lower on developed cottage lots than on undeveloped shoreline sites. Cottage development reduced the carrying capacity for deer by lowering food supply and thermal cover provided by mature conifer trees. -from Authors
Svalbard vegetation had a higher content of Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, Fe and Co, than similar plants from southern Norway. Within the Svalbard area plants growing in limestone areas had the highest content of Ca and Mg. Also plants growing on manured soil below bird cliffs appeared to have high nutritional value. Closeness to the sea as well as the occurrence of several plants with high mineral content, gave the Svalbard reindeer Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus the possibility to further improve their mineral balance compared with continental reindeer. The dietary shift from lichens as a major dietary component in Norway, to mosses on Svalbard, may increase mineral intake, but may also have an inferior effect on digestibility. Svalbard reindeer apparently had adequate intake of most mineral elements.-from Authors
Measured the immediate movement of Cervus elaphus when disturbed by cross-country skiers, assessed energy costs associated with these movements, and identified factors potentially influencing elk behaviour. Distances moved by elk were related to topographic barriers, ridges being a primary cover, trees secondarily so. Amount of winter range used by skiers and number of days involved are probably more important than skier numbers. Restricting skiers to locations >650 m from elk wintering areas would probably minimise displacement of most non-habituated elk in shrub steppe and upland steppe. Skiers would have to remain at distances >1700 m to completely avoid elk disturbance. -P.J.Jarvis
Rapid encroachment on woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) habitat by resource extraction industries (oil, gas, forestry, and peat) is occurring throughout northern Alberta, Canada. The effect of this human development on the movement and distribution of threatened woodland caribou remains poorly understood. We captured and fitted 36 woodland caribou with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars. These yielded 43,415 locations during the 12-month study period. We tested the hypothesis that woodland caribou use areas adjacent to wellsites, roads, and seismic lines as often as they use areas away from these developments. We analyzed caribou locations, controlling for vegetation cover classes to remove confounding effects of habitat, and grouped to examine seasonal variation in distribution. Caribou avoided human developments; the level of avoidance appeared to be related to the level of human activity in the study area. We recorded maximum avoidance distances of 1,000 m (wells) and 250 m (roads and seismic lines). By extrapolating avoidance distances to the entire study area, we calculated that 22-48% of our study area would receive reduced use by caribou. Avoidance effects were highest during late winter and calving and lowest during summer, possibly as a result of lower traffic levels then. We propose management strategies to balance caribou conservation with resource extraction in northern Alberta.
Tundra rangelands of Alaska and northern Canada occupy about 200,000 and 900,000 square miles respectively. The tundra supports far lower numbers of large grazers than other natural areas, averaging less than 100 lb per square mile. Forage quality of tundra plants is high because of rapid growth and wide variation in seasonal progression of growth. The native grazers, caribou and muskoxen, have evolved rapid growth rates and selectively feed on the highest quality forage available. Wild populations of caribou and muskoxen appear to offer the best potential for conversion of tundra vegetation into commodities utilizable by man.
Many landscapes underlying military designated air spaces have been established as national parks, wildlife refuges, or wilderness areas. The juxtaposition of public, wilderness, and military uses has led to questions of compatibility between aircraft and wildlife. We evaluated the effects of simulated low-altitude jet aircraft noise on the behavior and heart rate of captive desert mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus crooki) (n = 6) and mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) (n = 5). We measured heart rate and behavior related to the number of simulated overflights per day (range = 1-7) and noise levels (range = 92-112 decibels [dB]) that animals were exposed to. We compared heart rates and behavior of mountain sheep and desert mule deer before, during, and after simulated overflights (n = 112 overflights/season) during 3 seasons. The heart rates of ungulates increased related to dB levels during simulated overflights (P less than or equal to 0.05), but they returned to pre-disturbance levels in 60-180 seconds. Animal behavior also changed during overflights but returned to pre-disturbance conditions in <252 seconds (P less than or equal to 0.005) All animal responses decreased with increased exposure suggesting that they habituated to simulated sound levels of low-altitude aircraft.
We investigated changes in distribution and terrain use of calving barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) with increasing density of roads in the Kuparuk Development Area, an oil-field region near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. In June of 1987-1992, caribou density, as determined by aerial surveys, was inversely related to road density, declining by 63% at >0.0-0.3 km road/km(2) and by 86% at >0.6-0.9 km road/km(2). The latter road density virtually excluded cow-calf pairs. Effects of avoidance were most apparent in preferred rugged terrain, comprising important habitats for foraging during the calving period. Our results show that (i) females and calves are far more sensitive to surface development than adult males and yearlings, (ii) the greatest incremental impacts are attributable to initial construction of roads and related facilities, and (iii) the extent of avoidance greatly exceeds the physical "footprint" of an oil-field complex. A disproportionate reduction in use of foraging habitats within the Kuparuk Development Area, combined with decreasing tolerance of the expanding industrial complex, may explain the recent displacement of some calving activity to areas farther inland, and, in part, lower fecundity. Possible consequences include heightened competition for forage, increased risk of predation, and lower productivity of the herd.
The effects of a large holiday resort on the distribution and range use of semi-domesticated Rangifer tarandus were studied in the three most important habitat types in Saariselka, E Finnish Lapland. In two of these habitats the relative reindeer densities increased in winter, when outdoor activities declined reaching density equal to the average for the herding association at a distance of c10 km from the holiday resort. In summer, male reindeer adapted better than females to the proximity of the holiday resort. The feeding site preferences of the reindeer during winter followed, in general, the normal pattern in areas with little human interference. -from Authors
Woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in northeastern Alberta apparently have declined and are classified as endangered. Petroleum exploration has been implicated as a possible cause. We examined the effects of simulated petroleum exploration (i.e., loud noise) on caribou movement and behavior. We monitored 5 (1993) and 20 (1994) radiocollared caribou during 3 periods (pretest, test, and post-test) over 2 treatments (exposed and control). Exposed caribou moved significantly faster than control caribou (2.3 ± 0.2 SE vs. 1.6 km/hr ± 0.1), but not significantly farther. Exposed caribou crossed habitat boundaries significantly more than did controls (0.53 ± 0.16 vs. 0.27 changes/period ± 0.14). Disturbance did not affect significantly the proportion of time allocated to feeding. Treatment caribou demonstrated higher overall movement rates in 1993 than 1994 (2.7 ± 0.2 vs. 1.7 km/hr ± 0.1), displacement (3.5 ± 1.3 vs. 2.3 km ± 0.6), and more time allocated to feeding (27.5 ± 2.9 vs. 9.0% ± 1.7). Habitat boundaries crossed did not differ significantly between years. We suggest that increased movement may result in higher energy expenditure during winter, and that disturbed caribou may switch habitat type for cover or escape terrain. We believe that differences in movement between years resulted from higher snow depths in 1994. We also suggest that land-use managers should limit total disturbance during winter rather than mitigate industrial activity with timing restrictions.
Several of the most important reindeer forage plants in Svalbard were analysed for content of minerals (Na, K, P, Ca, Mg, S, Cl, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo and Co) and for content of ash, crude protein, crude fiber, ether extracts and nitrogen free extracts. Some forage plants were also examined in in vitro digestibility trials. The results were compared with results from similar analyses of alpine mountain plants from southern Norway. Also freshly voided fecal samples were analysed for the same components as the forage plants.
The Svalbard vegetation had a higher content of Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, Fe and Co, than similar plants from Southern Norway. The content of other elements examined seemed to be more equal in Norway and on Svalbard. Within the Svalbard area plants growing in limestone areas had the highest content of calcium and magnesium. Also plants growing on manured soil below bird cliffs appeared to have high nutritional value. It is furthermore concluded that the closeness to the sea as well as the occurrence of several plants with high mineral content, gave the Svalbard reindeer the possibility to further improve their mineral balance compared with continental reindeer. Also the dietary shift from lichens as a major dietary component in Norway, to mosses on Svalbard, may increase mineral intake, but may also have an inferior effect on digestibility.
Although balance experiments and carcass analyses of minerals in Svalbard reindeer are missing, it is concluded that Svalbard reindeer apparently had adequate intake of most mineral elements. In spite of low standing biomass of reindeer forage plants, the quality of the vegetation seemed to compare favourably with continental reindeer pasture.
The 20th anniversary of the filing of the Trans‐Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) affords an opportunity to assess retrospectively the environmental impacts of the resultant North Slope oil fields, now the largest single source of U.S. domestic oil production. As the oil field expanded, particularly to near‐shore areas such as the Endicott Development, additional EIS documents were prepared to assess impacts not included in the original TAPS EIS. In the ensuing years, numerous agency‐monitored and industry‐sponsored environmental monitoring studies, estimated to average $4 million per year, have been conducted in and around the oil field, making the Alaskan North Slope one of the most studied environments in North America.
In this paper, the EIS requirement of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is examined as a predictive environmental risk assessment. A tabulated summary of the predicted environmental impacts from the original TAPS and offshore Endicott Development EIS documents is compared with the extensive amount of resultant monitoring data. These data confirm localized impacts to air and water quality; however, regulated discharges remain well below criteria established for the protection of human health and the environment. As predicted, some unavoidable habitat losses to resident and migratory wildlife have occurred within the oil field and pipeline corridors. Approximately 2% of the land surface in developed portions of the oil field was actually altered. However, careful monitoring of wildlife populations demonstrates that no species has experienced a measurable decline, and most continue to utilize oil field habitat for breeding, nesting, and summer forage. As habitat does not appear to be limiting the growth of North Slope caribou herds, the Central Arctic Herd has been able to accommodate the incremental habitat loss due to the oil field and has shown a sevenfold increase in numbers since the oil field development began in the early 1970s. Offshore monitoring data for the gravel causeways verify the predicted small, localized effects on water circulation and show the possibility is low that fish are experiencing resulting significant negative effects.
The challenge faced in the EIS process is not how to ensure zero impact, as this is not a realistic goal, but instead it is how to predict impacts and describe mitigation measures accurately to ensure that the resultant ecological responses remain within a normal range of ecosystem oscillations that can be used to describe sustainable development. This review demonstrates that in the EIS process, a well‐designed program using the best available field data can indeed provide a relatively accurate prediction of subsequent impacts.
Seasonal changes in crude protein content of graminoids and herbs grazed by red deer were monitored from 1 May, or as soon as snow melt exposed the vegetation, until 15 October at five sites along an altitudinal gradient from coast to inland. Crude protein declined exponentially with time at all sites, but declined most rapidly from initially higher values at inland locations at high elevations. As a result crude protein was positively correlated with altitude and distance from the coast in early summer and negatively correlated in autumn. The relationships between protein content, date and altitude were used to estimate the quality of the diet of twelve radio-collared female red deer that migrated to summer ranges in the mountains. Individual differences in body weight were significantly related to the estimated, mean crude protein in vegetation available during the summer. Constraints on the timing of migration to exploit the maximal protein concentrations at higher altitudes and the fitness benefits of adaptive ranging behaviour are discussed.
Density-dependent effects in Norwegian Rangifer tarandus were manifested through winter food limitation. With increasing densities, density-independent factors such as severe weather had additional effects on recruitment, with consequences for population stability. The density effect took the form of decreased juvenile survival; adult survival in the most abundant and reproductive age classes was not affected. At high density, subadult fecundity fell below the threshold body size for maturity. Fecundity of adults was not affected by density. Density-dependent food limitation was most apparent at high population density.-from Author
The responses of a herd of migratory woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) to timber harvesting that fragmented about 11% of their winter range in west-central Alberta were examined in this study. From 1981 to 1996, 45 caribou were radio-collared and monitored during the initiation and completion of first-pass timber harvest (50% removal). Variables examined were home-range size, daily movement rates, and distance to the nearest cut block for radio-collared individuals. Daily movement rates and individual winter range sizes decreased as timber harvesting progressed. Caribou avoided using recently fragmented areas by an average of 1.2 km. If fragmentation of the winter range continues through timber harvesting and other industrial activities, the "spacing out" antipredator strategy used by caribou may be compromised. Based on these findings, timber-harvesting strategies are recommended that (i) ensure an adequate area of usable habitat to support the current population, (ii) minimize the amount of fragmented area, and (iii) in the short term avoid presently defined core use areas.
There was a close association between pregnancy rates and levels of fat reserves and body weights in Peary caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi) collected in the late winters of 1974 through 1977 on several islands in the Canadian Arctic. Pregnancy rates were <8% in adult (>2 years) females weighing <53 kg in March and April, >75% in those weighing >57 kg, and 100% in those >67 kg in weight. Pregnancy rates increased progressively from 7 to 100% as the percentage marrow fat increased from 43 to 79% and the kidney-fat index increased from 24 to 41%. Only heavy (>46 kg) yearling (21 month) females with high fat reserves were pregnant. Reproduction virtually ceased from 1973–1974 to 1975–1976 in Peary caribou on the western Queen Elizabeth Islands because their physical condition was poor. Pregnancy rates were as high as 100% in females in a second population located on Somerset and Prince of Wales islands, and in 1974–1975 four of five yearling females were pregnant. The adjustment of fertility to energy reserves is viewed as an adaptation to conserve energy. It is well developed in Peary caribou whose environment is characterized by a highly variable and often harsh climate in which negative energy balances probably prevail for 8 to 10 months of the year.
Telemetered heart rates (HR) and behavioral responses of mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) reacting to human disturbance in the Sheep River Wildlife Sanctuary, southwestern Alberta, were recorded. Cardiac and behavioral responses of sheep (4 ewes, 1 ram) to an approaching human were greatest when the person was accompanied by a dog or approached sheep from over a ridge. Reactions to road traffic were minimal as only 8.8% of vehicle passes elicited HR responses. No reactions to helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft were observed at distances exceeding 400 m from sheep. Responses to disturbance were detected using HR telemetry that were not evident from behavioral cues alone. However, mean duration of the HR response (138.6 sec) was not greater (P > 0.05) than mean period of the behavioral reaction when sheep were alert or withdrawing from harassing stimuli (112.4 sec). Use of HR telemetry in harassment research is discussed.
The industrialized world is expanding its search for energy, minerals, timber and other resources into the Arctic and adjacent higher latitudes. Up to now, large-scale development projects in the Arctic and sub-Arctic have been few. We can, however, profit from experiences gained from several of these, including oil and gas exploration and development in Alaska and on Russia's Yamal Peninsula, the Norilsk metalurgical complex of Siberia, Alaska's Red Dog mine and others. Conclusions drawn from these experiences are that industrial impacts on Arctic grazing systems can be minimized if the following considerations guide their planning: 1) most of the large development projects that have been undertaken in the North have lacked adequate background information on the grazing systems that they might impact; 2) there needs to be recognition by industry and governments for the amount of time required to gather such information and provision made for this; 3) because types of impacts on northern grazing systems that may result from development projects vary depending on whether they involve mining, oil or gas, hydroelectric or other activities, each proposed project must be assessed independently; 4) cumulative effects of multiple projects, often sequentially developed, are seldom addressed by the responsible governments, thus planning for development of an individual project should be within the context of regional and long-range development planning; and 5) types and sources of contaminants entering northern ecosystems, threatening the health of northern residents, must also be a major focus of project assessment.
Petroleum and mineral exploration and extraction, hydroelectric development, atmospheric transport of contaminants, timber harvesting and tourism are increasing worldwide, especially in the Arctic. This development may adversely affect populations of reindeer/caribou (Rangifer tarandus) which are the basis of subsistence economies for northern indigenous peoples. Our purpose is to present a survey of the literature that has investigated the response of reindeer/caribou to human activities. Individuals and groups of reindeer/caribou: 1) move away from point sources of disturbance; 2) increase activity and energy expenditure near disturbance; 3) delay crossing or fail to cross linear structures; 4) shift away from areas of extensive and intensive development; and 5) are killed by collisions with vehicles and by hunting along roads. Cows and calves during the calving season are the most easily disturbed group. Bulls in general and all reindeer/caribou during insect harassment are least likely to avoid development areas. Estimation of the proportion of a population that is exposed to disturbance and the implications of this exposure to annual energy budgets, survival and productivity of reindeer/caribou has received little attention. Future advances in understanding the implications of human disturbance to reindeer/caribou will require cumulative effects assessment at annual, population and regional scales. Although some level of cumulative effect is likely, clear separation of cumulative effects of development from natural variation in caribou habitat use and demography will be difficult.
This chapter is meant to provide a backdrop for some of the issues taken up in the chapters that follow. Also, it presents some analytical terms that are useful in science policy analysis, particularly dealing with motivations and the practice of polar research, with special reference to the Antarctic. It introduces a concept of institutional motives, reviews some or the driving factors in modem polar research and considers some similarities and differences between Arctic and Antarctic science, in order to highlight the latter. External political conditions that form the framework within which polar research is done today, differ considerably in the two regions. In the Arctic the exertion of national sovereignty, as well as military and economic interests in a number of countries have hindered the far-reaching international cooperation in science found in the Antarctic.
At the same time these factors have contributed to a fragmentation of knowledge production, while in the Antarctic, an international treaty arrangement which suspends territorial claims and emphasizes research has created conditions favorable to basic research. The focus is mainly on the tradeoff between science and politics in the Antarctic, and it is suggested that research there has a symbolic instrumental function, as distinct from a practical instrumental function which is most prominent in the Arctic.
We investigated the distribution of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) from aerial surveys in 1986-1998 in 622 contiguous 4-km2 grid squares in relation to density of power lines, roads and ski trails in the Nordfjella region, south-central Norway. Density of reindeer was significantly lower in developed quadrats compared to undeveloped quadrats and decreased with increasing density of development. No reindeer were observed in areas exceeding 1.3 km/km2 of linear structures and only 1.1% of the reindeer were observed in areas exceeding 0.8 km/km2 of linear structures, an area constituting 17% of the study area. The results imply that development, and also the degree of development, affect the availability of range for wild reindeer. Furthermore, the results suggest that reindeer may abandon areas once disturbance exceeds a critical level. We conclude that there is a need for cumulative impact assessments of the overall development in Norwegian mountain regions, to preserve the last remaining wild reindeer populations in Europe.
Relationships between selected wildlife species and livestock distributions obtained from aerial surveys in the wet season of 1992 were examined in the southern Kalahari of Botswana. Borehole locations were used to identify main human and livestock activity. Multivariate statistics were used to analyze the influence of environmental variables, including vegetation condition and vegetation structure, on wildlife and livestock distribution in the wildlife core area of the Kalahari. Grass greenness and distance to boreholes were found to be the main variables influencing the distribution of larger wildlife species and livestock. Many wildlife species selected green areas. The northern portion of the southern Kalahari has a higher average rainfall and was consequently greener; a further consequence was that more humans and boreholes were found there. It appeared that wildlife species most dependent on moisture occupied only a relatively small range of available habitat, selecting the mainly unprotected greener areas but avoiding areas very close to boreholes, possibly because they are occupied by livestock and close to humans. It is postulated that increasing human impact in the wet-season wildlife ranges may contribute to a decrease of wildlife numbers in the Kalahari, especially those species highly dependent on patches of green grass.
Short-term behavioural responses of 101 groups of Svalbard reindeer Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus to direct provocation by a snowmobile were recorded in April (late winter) 1987. The median size of groups was 3·3 animals. The first visible responses of reindeer to an approaching snowmobile usually involved independent behaviour by different individuals in a group. Flight, by contrast, was a co-ordinated group response. Group median response distances were: minimum reaction distance, 640 m; disturbance distance, 410 m; distance at initial flight, 80 m; and distance of flight, 160 m. Group median response times were: total running time, 22 s; total location time, 38 s; maximum duration of disturbance, 193 s. Energy and time budget models indicate that one median flight response can cause an increase in a reindeer's daily energy expenditure of approximately 0·4% and a loss of daily grazing time also of 0·4%. The study failed to detect any way in which the current level of snowmobile traffic might substantially reduce the physical wellbeing of Svalbard reindeer.
Southern Norway holds the last remaining population of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Europe. Roads, railroads, and power lines have fragmented the original population into 26 separate herds. The reindeer populations are regulated directly according to availability of winter forage. These winter ranges, generally at lower elevations, are however, often subjected to development. Effects of infrastructure and associated human activity on the distribution of wild reindeer during winter were investigated in the Nordfjella mountain region of western Norway. Systematic aerial surveys of the distribution of ca. 2500 reindeer were conducted during late winter 1986–1998. Areas within 2.5 km from power lines were used less than available in 6 of the 8 sampling years, and areas beyond this zone more than expected. Density of reindeer was 79% lower within 2.5 km from power lines compared with background areas, and increased with increasing distance from infrastructure for comparable habitat. Available forage in terms of lichen cover declined 15–30-fold with distance, and was lowest in the undisturbed areas with the highest density of grazing animals. Areas within 5 km from resorts or from roads and power lines in combination were avoided in all years. Continued construction of roads, power lines and cabin resorts endanger these available winter ranges, and hence the long term survival of the population.
Military-designated air spaces have been established above national parks and monuments, wildlife refuges, wilderness areas, and Department of Defense lands. Each of these landscapes is managed differently, which has led to questions of compatibility between military aircraft and wildlife. We determined the influence of F-16 aircraft overflights on mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) from January 1990 to May 1992 in the Desert National Wildlife Refuge, Nevada. We constructed a 320-ha enclosure and calibrated the area for sound pressure levels (i.e., noise) created by F-16 aircraft flying along the ridgeline of the mountains in the enclosure, approximately 125 m above ground level. In May 1990, we placed 12 mountain sheep from the surrounding area in the enclosure and monitored their behavior and use of habitats for 1 year to ensure they were familiar with the area before they were subjected to aircraft overflights. The habitat use and activity of the sheep in the enclosure were similar to free-ranging conspecifics. In May 1991, we instrumented 5 mountain sheep with heart-rate monitors and added them to the enclosure. During May 1991 to May 1992, F-16 aircraft flew over the enclosure 149 times during 3 1-month periods. We recorded heart rate and behavior of sheep 15 min preoverflight, during the overflight, and postoverflight. Heart rate increased above preflight levels in 21 of 149 overflights but returned to preflight levels within 120 sec. When F-16 aircraft flew over the enclosure, the noise levels created did not alter behavior or use of habitat, or increase heart rates to the detriment of the sheep in the enclosure.
The length of estrus, length of the estrous cycle, dates of breeding and calving, and length of gestation were investigated for Newfoundland caribou (Rangifer tarandus). The length of heat was about 48 h and the length of the estrous cycle was thought to be 10–12 days. Breeding observed during 5 years occurred between October 9 and October 19. In 6 years of observations, 90% of the calves were born in about a 12-day period, usually between May 24 and June 5. Information is provided on the weight of calves at birth. The gestation for four wild females with adequate winter diet was 229 days.
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