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Effects of Carnosine and Anserine Supplementation on Relatively High Intensity Endurance Performance

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of long-term chicken breast extract (CBEX) supplementation, a rich source of carnosine and anserine, on relatively high intensity endurance performance. Sixteen healthy male subjects were divided into CBEX group (n=8) and placebo group (n=8). The CBEX group was orally administered 200 ml CBEX drink which contained 4g of carnosine and anserine per day for 30 days. The placebo group was orally administered 200ml the same taste CBEX drink which contained no carnosine and anserine. Before and after the ingestion period, the subjects performed three sessions of consecutive endurance exercise (first session: 30-min at 50%VO2max; second session: 15-min at 75%VO2max; third session: until exhaustion at 100%VO2max) to measure exercise duration time at 100%VO2max, blood lactate concentration and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) during the three sessions of consecutive endurance exercise. The exercise duration time at 100%VO2max was significantly increased after supplementation in the CBEX group. Blood lactate concentration and RPE at 75%VO2max was significantly decreased after supplementation in the CBEX group. These results suggest that the long-term ingestion of carnosine and anserine could enhance muscle buffering capacity, and in turn improve relatively high intensity endurance performance such as the so-called “last spurt” resulting from attenuation of the muscle fatigue at submaximal exercise.
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Carnosine Supplementation and Endurance Performance
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006
http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm
86
1. Introduction
Carnosine (β-alanyl–L-histidine)is a
histidine-contained
dipeptide (Hipkiss et al., 1998;
especially in muscle cells (Crush, 1970) and nerve
has been studied from the aspect of anti-glycosylation
Hipliss and Brownson, 2000), quenching free radicals
et al., 1991), enzyme regulation activity (Johnson
and Aldstadt, 1984), and Ca
2+
regulation in muscle
sarcoplasmic reticulum activity (Batrukova and
Rubstov, 1997; Boldyrev and Severin, 1990).
Carnosine is also known as a multifunctional
dipeptide (Begum et. al., 2005). It has been suggested
that because the dissociation exponent (pKa) of
carnosine is 6.83 (Bate-Smith, 1983; Tanokura et
al., 1976), carnosine maintains a buffering action
in high intensity exercise, in which a large amount
of lactate-originated H
+
is produced within the
physiological pH
range
(Abe, 2000; Hultman and
Sahlin, 1980; Parkhouse et al., 1985; Suzuki et al.,
Effects of Carnosine and Anserine Supplementation
on Relatively High Intensity Endurance
Performance
Hirohiko Maemura
*
, Kazushige Goto
**
, Toshitsugu Yoshioka
***
, Mikako Sato
*
,
Yoshihisa Takahata
*
, Fumiki Morimatsu
*
and Kaoru Takamatsu
****
*
R & D Center Nippon Meat Packers, Inc
.
3-3 Midorigahara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 300-2646 Japan
h.maemura@nipponham.co.jp
**
Japan Society for the promotion of Science
***
Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba
****
Institute of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba
1-1-1 Tennoudai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8574 Japan
[Received February 16, 2006 ; Accepted July 23, 2006]
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of long-term chicken breast extract
(CBEX) supplementation, a rich source of carnosine and anserine, on relatively high intensity
endurance performance. Sixteen healthy male subjects were divided into CBEX group (n
= 8) and placebo group (n = 8). The CBEX group was orally administered 200 ml CBEX
drink which contained 4g of carnosine and anserine per day for 30 days. The placebo group
was orally administered 200ml the same taste CBEX drink which contained no carnosine
and anserine. Before and after the ingestion period, the subjects performed three sessions
of consecutive endurance exercise ( rst session: 30-min at 50%
V
4
and anserine. Before and after the ingestion period, the subjects performed three sessions
4
and anserine. Before and after the ingestion period, the subjects performed three sessions
O
2
max; second session:
15-min at 75%
V
4
of consecutive endurance exercise ( rst session: 30-min at 50%
4
of consecutive endurance exercise ( rst session: 30-min at 50%
O
2
max; third session: until exhaustion at 100%
V
4
of consecutive endurance exercise ( rst session: 30-min at 50%
4
of consecutive endurance exercise ( rst session: 30-min at 50%
O
2
max) to measure exercise
duration time at 100%
V
4
max; third session: until exhaustion at 100%
4
max; third session: until exhaustion at 100%
O
2
max, blood lactate concentration and ratings of perceived exertion
(RPE) dur ing the three sessions of consecut ive endurance exercise. The exercise durat ion
time at 100%
V
4
(RPE) dur ing the three sessions of consecut ive endurance exercise. The exercise durat ion
4
(RPE) dur ing the three sessions of consecut ive endurance exercise. The exercise durat ion
O
2
max was signicantly increased after supplementation in the CBEX group.
Blood lactate concentration and RPE at 75%
V
4
max was signicantly increased after supplementation in the CBEX group.
4
max was signicantly increased after supplementation in the CBEX group.
O
2
max was signicantly decreased after
supplementation in the CBEX group. These results suggest that the long-term ingestion
of carnosine and anserine could enhance muscle buffering capacity, and in turn improve
relatively high intensity endurance performance such as the so-called “last spurt” resulting
from attenuation of the muscle fatigue at submaximal exercise.
Keywords:
chicken breast extract, buffering action, muscle fatigue
Materials : Physiology
[International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006]
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006
Maemura, H. et al.
http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm
87
2002).
Previously, we succeeded in taking extract
ef ciently from chicken breast (Chicken Breast
Extract: CBEX) richly containing carnosine and
is similar to carnosine in its structure. We found
that long-term supplementation with CBEX to rats
(Harada et al., 2002a, 2002b) and humans (Sato
et al., 2003) signi cantly increased carnosine
high intensity exercise performance suggesting that
of organisms.
In the meantime, recent endurance exercise
(e.g.  eld track events of 5000m and 10000m) is
characterized by high-pace racing from an early
stage of the race
. This implies that speed capacity
is required in
endurance exercise. In addition,
toward the end of the race when the pace is increased
(13-18mmol/L) is observed (Svedenhag and Sjodin,
1984) and
degradation
of muscle pH is expected. In
which maintains a buffering action in organisms,
may enhance endurance performance, especially
performance at the last spurt, which accompanies a
large amount of lactate accumulation. Nevertheless,
there have been no studies examining the effect
performance.
The purpose of this study is to examine the effect
on
relatibely
high intensity endurance performance.
2. Methods
2.1.
Preparation of CBEX and placebo drink
We prepared an extract (Chicken Breast Meat
Extract: CBEX) richly containing carnosine
and anserine from chicken breast. CBEX is
speci cally strong in taste and  avor so that direct
supplementation was dif cult. Therefore, we
manufactured a drink mixed with approximately 20g
CBEX (containing 2g carnosine/anserine) per drink
(100ml) as our test drink (Sato et al., 2003; Suzuki
et al., 2004). A placebo drink was also prepared with
almost the same ingredients and similar taste as the
CBEX drink except for CBEX
(Table 1)
.
2.2. Subjects
Sixteen healthy males (age: 24.5±0.7yrs; height:
173.5±1.5 cm; weight: 70.1±1.8 kg; maximum
oxygen intake: 46.7±1.7 ml/kg/min) were assigned
to either a CBEX group (n=8, height: 174.0±2.1 cm,
weight: 69.4±2.4 kg, maximum oxygen intake: 46.9
±2.4 ml/kg/min) or a placebo group (n=8, height:
173.0±2.2 cm, weight: 70.7±2.8 kg, maximum
oxygen supplementation: 46.6±3.3 ml/kg/min). The
mean of maximum oxygen uptake (
V
4
O
2
max) was
equal in both groups. Prior to the experiment, we
explained to all subjects about the purpose, method,
and safety margin of the present study and received
their consent under the condition that they could
withdraw at any time. This experiment was approved
by the Ethics Committee for Human Experiments
of the reseach and development of Nippon Meat
Packers, Inc.
2.3. Experimental design
The duration of CBEX and placebo drink
supplementation was set to be thirty days. The
subjects of both groups took two bottles a day. They
were instructed to take one bottle in the morning
and one more in the afternoon. There were no other
time-related instructions (e.g. time interval). The
present study was performed double blind, in which
no subject knew which group he belonged to. Before
and after ingested period, the subjects performed
three sessions of consecutive endurance exercise test.
Drink supplementation started within a week after the
end of the pre-test, and the post-test was conducted
Moisture
Protein
Lipid
Ash
Saccharide
Carnosine
Anserine
Creatine
Creatinine
Calories
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(g)
(g)
(g)
(g)
(kcal)
Nutrient CBEX Placebo
95
3.5
0.0
1.2
0.3
98.7
0.3
0.0
0.6
0.4
0.6
1.4
0.0
0.0
0.05
0.26
0.0
0.0
28.5 5.7
Table 1. Nutrients of the experiment drink (/100ml).
Table1
Nutrients of the experiment drink (/100ml)
Carnosine Supplementation and Endurance Performance
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006
http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm
88
immediately after the end of drink supplementation.
The subjects were instructed orally about the
following: 1) they should not engage in  erce
physical activity for 24 hours before the exercise
test; 2) they should not eat for three hours before the
exercise test; 3) they should consume a normal diet
during the experiment. The subjects’ dietary habits
were checked for three consecutive days before,
during and after drink supplementation, by self-entry.
Entries of the content of meals were analyzed
using commercial software (Dietary Consulting
Room, OLYMPUS Co., Ltd.) in intake of nutrient
composition.
2.4. Three sessions of consective exercise test
Figure 1
shows three sessions of consective
exercise test protocol used in the present study.
Exercise tests were conducted using a bicycle
ergometer (ERGOMEDIC 818E, Monark). 50%
V
4
O
2
max intensity exercise was measured in advance
for thirty minutes from the start of exercise followed
by measurement at 75%
V
4
O
2
max intensity for
fteen minutes and at 100%
V
4
O
2
max intensity until
exhaustion. Such test protocol was used in order
to simulate endurance exercise which exist pace
increase and last spurt at the  nal stage of the race.
Pedaling rev was set to be 60 rpm. We set a criterion
that pedaling rev below 55 rpm was exhaustion. As a
warm-up, subjects performed 60W pedaling exercise
for about  ve minutes before the exercise test and
started testing approximately ten minutes after the
end of warm-up.
Blood was sampled from  ngertips before the
exercise, at 15min, 30min, 37.5min, and 45min
during the exercise, and immediately after the end of
exercise. Blood lactate concentration was promptly
measured by an automatic blood lactate analyzer
(1500 sport, YSI). Standard solutions of 5mmol/L and
15mmol/L were used to calibrate the automatic blood
lactate analyzer. This took place immediately before
measurement.
Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) was
determined by interview at the same point as LA
measurement using a borg scale.
2.5. Statistical Analysis
Values of each measurement items were expressed
by means ± standard error (SE). The signi cant
difference of duration of 100%
V
4
O
2
max intensity
exercise before and after CBEX and placebo drink
supplementation was tested using a paired t-test. The
mean difference between blood lactate concentration
and RPE with time elapse was tested using two-way
ANOVA with repeated measurements. Statistical
signi cance was set at
p
< 0.05.
3. Result
Table 2
shows each nutrient composition intake
(i.e. total energy, protein, lipid, carbohydrate, salt)
before, during and after drink supplementation.
Neither group recognized signi cant differences
among before, during and after.
Fi gure 2
shows changes of exercise duration
until exhaustion in 100%
V
4
O
2
max intensity at pre-
and post-supplementation. Exercise duration until
exhaustion in 100%
V
4
O
2
max intensity did not
50%
VO2max
75%
VO2max
100%
VO2max
0 30 4515 37.5
Exhaustion
Exercise
☆ ☆ ☆
(min)
: blood sampling
: RPE
All out
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of three sessions of consecutive
endurance exercise test protocol.
Figure 1
Schematic illustration of three sessions of consecutive endurance exercise test protocol.
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006
Maemura, H. et al.
http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm
89
(Pre: 88.9±24.2 s, Post: 84.3±28.6 s) while in the
CBEX group a signi cant increase was found after
supplementation (Pre: 83.3±22.4 s, Post: 108.1±28.0
s).
Figure 3
shows blood lactate concentration
post-supplementation. No signi cant change was
found in blood lactate concentration in all intensities
in the placebo group while signi cantly low values
were observed in 75%
V
4
O
2
max intensity in the
CBEX group. In the CBEX group blood lactate
concentration at exhaustion in 100%
V
4
O
2
max
intensity tended to show higher values at
post-supplementation than pre-supplementation.
Figure 4
shows RPE changes in each intensity at
pre- and post-supplementation. No signi cant change
was observed in RPE in all intensities in the placebo
group. In the CBEX group, low values tended to be
observed in 50%
V
4
O
2
max intensity and signi cantly
low values were observed in 75%
V
4
O
2
max intensity.
4. Discussion
It has been reported that carnosine and anserine
perform a buffering action in muscle and blood (Abe,
2000; Hultman and Sahlin, 1980; Parkhouse et al.,
1985, Suzuki et al., 2006) since their pKa are 6.83
and 7.04, respectively (Bate-Smith, 1983; Tanokura
et al., 1976). However, because anserine does not
exist in human skeletal muscle (Mannion et al., 1992)
many studies have focused on carnosine. Suzuki et al.
(2002) recognized that there is a signi cant positive
correlation between the skeletal muscle carnosine
concentration and mean power output during 30-s
maximal cycle ergometer sprint, especially, the
mean power output at the  nal two phase when a
30-s sprint is divided into six phase. Our research
group, experimenting with human supplementation
using CBEX rich in carnosine for thirty days,
acknowledged that there was a signi cant increase
in skeletal muscle carnosine concentration and that
there was a positive signi cant correlation between
changes in skeletal muscle carnosine concentration
and changes in mean power output during 30-s
40
60
80
100
120
140
Pre Post
(s) *
Exercise duration time
Figure 2. Changes in exercise duration time at 100%VO2max in last phase of
endurance exercise with CBEX () and placebo () group. Values are means
±SE. *; P < 0.05, Significant difference from pre - supplementation.
Table 2
Comparisons of nutrient compasition during each period.
Energy (kcal)
Protein (g)
Lipid (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Salt (g)
CBEX
Placebo
CBEX
Placebo
CBEX
Placebo
CBEX
Placebo
CBEX
Placebo
Pre During Post
178199.9
1725101.1
165187.7
176197.1
168992.1
169896.6
60.310.1
60.49.8
61.29.8
58.910.4
58.314.5
56.912.3
56.26.4
59.65.4
54.95.8
56.84.8
58.16.2
58.65.8
221.220.5
216.418.1
233.516.4
226.214.8
229.618.6
220.620.4
7.91.6
8.10.8
7.11.2
7.61.1
7.41.0
7.90.9
Table 2. Comparisons of nutrient composition during each period.
Dietary intake was recorded on three consecutive days during each period, and a nutrient composition
was analyzed based on the recorded intake.
Values are means ± SE.
Figure 2
Changes in exercise duration time at 100%
V
4
O
2
max in last phase of endurance exercise with
CBEX
( )
and placebo
( □ )
group.
Values are means ± SE.*,
p
0.05,
Signi cant difference from pre-supplementation.
Carnosine Supplementation and Endurance Performance
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006
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90
maximal ergometer sprint (Sato et al., 2003). Thus,
it is suggested that skeletal muscle carnosine is an
important substance related to high intensity exercise
performance which accompanies extreme lactate
examining the relationship between skeletal muscle
endurance performance.
Most studies on physical factors affecting
endurance performance have examined the aerobic
capacity, measured by
V
4
O
2
max and lactate threshold
(Costill et al., 1973; Farrell et al., 1979; Power et
al., 1983; Tanaka et al., 1984; Yoshida et al., 1990).
Costill et al. (1973) reported that the utilization of
high oxygen capacity (85-90%
V
4
O
2
max) without
lactate accumulation in active muscles is important
for successful endurance performance. In addition,
6
10
14
18
22
6
10
14
18
22
**
CBEX group Placebo group
0 15 30 37.5 45 all out
(min)
0 15 30 37.5 45 all out
(min)
RPE score
Figure 4
Time course of the RPE score in three sessions of consecutive endurance exercise with CBEX
and placebo
group.
and
denote pre-and post-supplementation, respectively. Values are means ±
SE.*,
p
0.05, Signi cant difference from pre-supplementation.
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
Blood lactate concentration
CBEX group Placebo group
**
0 15 30 37.5 45 all out
(min)
0 15 30 37.5 45 all out
(min)
(mmol/L) (mmol/L)
Figure 3
Time course of the blood lactate concentration in three sessions of consecutive endurance
exercise with CBEX
and placebo
group.
and
denote pre-and post-supplementation, respectively.
Values are means ± SE.*,
p
0.05, Signi cant difference from pre-supplementation.
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006
Maemura, H. et al.
http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm
91
toward the end of the race when the pace is increased
(13-18mmol/L) is observed (Svedenhag and Sjodin,
1984) and muscle pH is expected to decrease.
Considering these, oral supplementation of carnosine
which has buffering action in organisms
may
enhance endurance performance, especially at last
spurt, which accompanies a large amount of lactate
accumulation.
To verify this hypothesis, the present study
examined the effect of CBEX supplementation on
relatively high intensity endurance performance
(index of endurance performance: exercise duration
time at 100%
V
4
O
2
max in last phase of three
sessions of consecutive endurance exercise). As a
result, the exercise duration time until exhaustion
in100%
V
4
O
2
max intensity (Pre: 88.9±24.2 s, Post:
84.3±28.6 s) found no signi cant change before and
while in the CBEX group (Pre: 83.3±22.4 s, Post:
108.1±28.0 s) a signi cant increase was found
enhanced in the CBEX group because long-term
supplementation of CBEX might enhance skeletal
muscle buffering capacity by increasing skeletal
muscle carnosine concentration. It is widely thought
that muscle buffering capacity affect the short-time
high intensity exercise performance (Parkhouse et
(1997) reported that bicycle athletes performing 80%
peak power output (PPO) intensity interval training
signi cantly increased skeletal muscle buffering
skeletal muscle buffering capacity tended to improve
in time in a 40 km time trial. It suggests that skeletal
muscle buffering capacity is closely associated with
not only sprint capacity but relatively high intensity
endurance performance. This supports the result of
the present study.
If CBEX supplementation increases skeletal
muscle carnosine concentration, muscle buffering
that the present study observed a tendency of high
blood lactate concentration values at exhaustion in
100%
V
4
O
2
max intensity after CBEX supplementation
(Figure 3)
supports the above-described hypothesis.
Yet, interestingly enough, blood lactate concentration
showed signi cantly low values at sub-maximal
exercise (75%
V
4
O
2
max) after CBEX supplementation
(Figure 3)
. Blood lactate concentration is affected
by such factors as the balance between production
and removal, and diffusion from muscle to blood.
The present study found this result because amount
of lactate diffusion from muscle to blood might be
decreased after supplementation. Buffering action
in organisms is classi ed into the non-bicarbonate
buffering system including muscle protein and
carnosine in muscles, and the bicarbonate buffering
system including bicarbonate ions ([HCO
3
-
]) in
blood. In general, buffering ef ciency of bicarbonate
buffering system affects the non-bicarbonate
buffer value (Yano, 1987; Yunoki et al., 2000;
Maemura et al., 2004). Maemura et al. (2004)
found a signi cant positive correlation between the
excess CO
2
output (CO
2
excess) during exercise,
index of the bicarbonate buffering system, and
the capillary-to- ber ratio, suggesting that the
buffering ef ciency of bicarbonate system affect
the amount of lactate diffusion from muscle to
blood. Considering these, oral supplementation of
a non-bicarbonate buffering substance, carnosine,
may increase the buffer value by non-bicarbonate in
muscle and decrease the amount of lactate diffusion
from muscle to blood. In fact, Suzuki et al. (2006)
indicated that the degree of blood [HCO
3
-
] decline
at high intensity exercise was smaller in CBEX
supplementation than in placebo supplementation and
that oral supplementation of carnosine heightened the
non-bicarbonate buffering ef ciency rate in muscle,
reducing the bicarbonate buffering ef ciency rate in
blood.
Other reasons that CBEX supplementation
enha n c e s pe r f orma n c e may i n clud e a mus c l e
fatigue alleviating effect for carnosine’s antioxidant
properties (Chasovnikova et al., 1990; MacFarlane et
al., 1991). It has been reported that exercise-induced
muscle oxidation affects tissue damage (Clarkson
and Ebbeling, 1988) and Ca
2+
regulation in muscle
sarcoplasmic reticulum (Favero et al., 1998;
Gutierrez-Martin et al., 2004), and that it greatly
affects muscle fatigue. The result of the present study,
which showed signi cantly low values in RER of
75%
V
4
O
2
max intensity in the CBEX group (Figure
4), may explain that the same intensity exercise could
be easily performed by alleviating muscle fatigue.
The present study could not objectively evaluate the
muscle fatigue alleviating effect by antioxidant action
of carnosine. Further detailed study is needed.
Improvement of skeletal muscle buffering
Carnosine Supplementation and Endurance Performance
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006
http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm
92
increase of skeletal muscle carnosine concentration
supplementation of carnosine and anserine. However,
the present study did not examine if long-term
supplementation of CBEX rich in carnosine
muscle carnosine, which is a buffering agent in
supplemented carnosine is absorbed as dipeptide
(Hama et al., 1976), dissolved by serum carnosinase
into βalanine and histidine, and thereby used to
reproduce carnosine in skeletal muscle (Bauer and
Schultz, 1994; Bakardjiev and Bauer, 1994). In our
previous study, from human supplementation with
CBEX for thirty days, we recognized that the group
with low skeletal muscle carnosine concentration
(low carnosine group)
before supplementation
signi cantly increased skeletal muscle carnosine
these, it is assumed that the subjects participating
in the present study (general healthy males who do
not engage in physical training) increased skeletal
muscle carnosine concentration by taking CBEX rich
in carnosine for a long time. In adition, anserine is
hardly detected in human organisms (Mannion et al.,
1992) and its metabolic mechanism is unknown. In its
molecular architecture, we know that it is composed
by adding methyl group to carnosine (Boldyrev et
used for reproducing carnosine
in muscle
.
In conclusion, the present study recognized that
long-term supplementation of a CBEX extract rich
in carnosine and anserine signi cantly decreased
blood lactate concentration at sub-maximal exercise
duration
time
until exhaustion in 100%
V
4
O
2
max
intensity. These results suggest that, the long-term
ingestion of carnosine and anserine could enhance
muscle buffering capacity, and in turn improve
relatively high intensity endurance performance such
of the muscle fatigue at submaximal exercise.
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Maemura, H. et al.
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Carnosine Supplementation and Endurance Performance
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 86-94, 2006
http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm
94
Name:
Hirohiko Maemura
Af liation:
R & D Center Nippon Meat Packers, Inc.
Address:
3-3 Midorigahara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 300-2646 Japan
Brief Biographical History:
2000- Doctoral Program in Health and Sport Sciences, University
of Tsukuba
2005- Researcher, R & D Center, Nippon Meat Packers Inc.
Main Works:
• Factors in uencing excessCO
2
out put during a nd after shor t
du r ation int e nsive e xe r cis e: fo cus ing on s kelet a l muscle
char act eri stics. In ter nat iona l Journal of Sp ort a nd Health
Science, Vol.2, 129-135, 2004.
Membership in Learned Societies:
• American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
• Japan Society of Physical Education, Health and Sport Sciences
• The Japanese Society of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine
• Japan Society of Exercise and Sports Physiology
• Japan Society of Athletics
• Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science
... The dipeptides anserine (β-alanyl-3-methyl-L-histidine) and carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) are good sources of antioxidant substances and serve as biomarkers in the muscle of chickens [9,11,12]; interestingly, their levels are higher in native chickens compared with commercial broilers and other meat [9,10]. In addition, anserine, also available for antifatigue with balancing of lactic acid, represents a physiological buffer in skeletal muscles [13][14][15]. ...
... Reference [45] suggested that anserine (beta-alanyl-3-methyl-L-histidine) supplementation improves memory functions in the context of Alzheimer's disease in a mouse model, with a protective effect on the neurovascular units. In addition, ref. [13] reported that the lactate concentration in blood decreased and endurance performance improved after consuming chicken breasts, which is beneficial for people who like to exercise. Therefore, TNC and their crossbred forms have the potential to be a source of functional meat. ...
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This study identified anserine and anserine/carnosine in chicken breast of Thai native chicken (TNC; 100% Thai native), Thai synthetic chicken (TSC; 50% Thai native), and Thai native crossbred chicken (TNC crossbred; 25% Thai native) compared with commercial broiler chicken (BR; 0% Thai native) using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and the effect on antioxidant activity using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay (DPPH). We conducted experiments with a completely randomized design and explored principal components analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projection to latent structure-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) to identify the distinguishing metabolites and relative concentrations from 1H NMR spectra among the groups. The relative concentrations and antioxidant properties among the groups were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the general linear model (GLM). This study revealed seven metabolites alanine, inositol monophosphate (IMP), inosine, and anserine/carnosine, lactate, anserine, and creatine. Lactate, anserine, and creatine were major components. In terms of PCA, the plots can distinguish BR from other groups. OPLS-DA revealed that anserine and anserine/carnosine in the chicken breast were significantly higher in TNC, TSC, and TNC crossbred than BR according to their relative concentrations and antioxidant properties (p < 0.01). Therefore, TNCs and their crossbreeds might have the potential to be functional meat sources.
... Consequently, various supplements containing Car have been commercialized. Ans possesses functions similar to those of Car, including good antioxidant activity [10,11], suppression of inflammatory cytokine production [12], and enhancement of muscle strength and endurance [13]. Additionally, the effects of Ans on glycemia [14] and uric acid levels [15] have been reported. ...
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Imidazole dipeptides (IDPs) and taurine (Tau) have several health benefits and are known to be contained in natural seafoods. However, their levels vary widely in different natural seafoods, making their simultaneous determination desirable. Herein, we employ a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry approach using a novel amino group derivatization reagent, succinimidyl 2-(3-((benzyloxy)carbonyl)-1-methyl-5-oxoimidazolidin-4-yl) acetate ((R)-CIMa-OSu), for the simultaneous quantification of IDPs (carnosine (Car) and anserine (Ans)), their related amino acids, and Tau in natural seafoods. Each seafood sample contained different concentrations of IDPs (Car: ND to 1.48 mmol/100 g-wet, Ans: ND to 4.67 mmol/100 g-wet). The Car levels were considerably higher in eel, while Tau was more abundant in squid, boiled octopus, and scallop. Thus, the derivatization reagent (R)-CIMa-OSu provides a new approach to accurately assess the nutritional composition of seafoods, thereby providing valuable insight into its dietary benefits.
... Studies report that chicken breast extract (CBE) is a potential dietary source of dipeptides [10]. Its use has been shown to increase muscle carnosine content [11] and to improve high-intensity endurance performance through the attenuation of muscle fatigue and also the enhancement of post-exercise muscle regeneration [12]. The ergogenic potential of the pre-exercise intake of chicken extracts (containing both carnosine and anserine) has already been tested [11,13]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Exposure to intense physical exercise increases reactive oxygen and nitrogen species production. The process can be modulated by dipeptide bioavailability with antioxidant scavenger properties. The effects of dipeptide intake in combination with physical exercise on the oxi-antioxidant response were examined in a randomized and placebo-controlled trial. Blood samples were collected from 20 males aged 21.2 ± 1.8 years before and after 14-day intake of chicken breast extract (4 g/day), which is a good source of bioactive dipeptides. A significant increase in the NO/H2O2 ratio was observed in the 1st and 30th minute after intense incremental exercise in dipeptides compared to the placebo group. Total antioxidant and thiol redox status were significantly higher in the dipeptide group both before and after exercise; η2 ≥ 0.64 showed a large effect of dipeptides on antioxidant and glutathione status. The level of 8-isoprostanes, markers of oxidative damage, did not change under the influence of dipeptides. By contrast, reduced C-reactive protein levels were found during the post-exercise period in the dipeptide group, which indicates the anti-inflammatory properties of dipeptides. High pre-exercise dipeptide intake enhances antioxidant status and thus reduces the oxi-inflammatory response to intense exercise. Therefore, the application of dipeptides seems to have favourable potential for modulating oxidative stress and inflammation in physically active individuals following a strenuous exercise schedule.
... Meat is an important nutritional source of functional amino acids and dipeptides (41), and the renoprotective properties derived from these (42, 43) might be of high relevance considering the inflammatory milieu that might take place in the kidney of KTR. Furthermore, because histidinecontaining peptides and taurine also promote skeletal muscle health (44,45), it is likely that they also contribute in preventing protein energy wasting in KTR. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background It is unknown whether meat intake is beneficial for long-term patient and graft survival in kidney transplant recipients (KTR). Objectives We first investigated the association of the previously described meat intake biomarkers 1-methylhistidine and 3-methylhistidine with intake of white and red meat as estimated from a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Second, we investigated the association of the meat intake biomarkers with long-term outcomes in KTR. Methods We measured 24-h urinary excretion of 1-methylhistidine and 3-methylhistidine by validated assays in a cohort of 678 clinically stable KTR. Cross-sectional associations were assessed by linear regression. We used Cox regression analyses to prospectively study associations of log2-transformed biomarkers with mortality and graft failure. Results Urinary 1-methylhistidine and 3-methylhistidine excretion values were median: 282; interquartile range (IQR): 132–598 µmol/24 h and median: 231; IQR: 175–306 µmol/24 h, respectively. Urinary 1-methylhistidine was associated with white meat intake [standardized β (st β): 0.20; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.28; P < 0.001], whereas urinary 3-methylhistidine was associated with red meat intake (st β: 0.30; 95% CI: 0.23, 0.38; P < 0.001). During median follow-up for 5.4 (IQR: 4.9–6.1) y, 145 (21%) died and 83 (12%) developed graft failure. Urinary 3-methylhistidine was inversely associated with mortality independently of potential confounders (HR per doubling: 0.55; 95% CI: 0.42, 0.72; P < 0.001). Both urinary 1-methylhistidine and urinary 3-methylhistidine were inversely associated with graft failure independent of potential confounders (HR per doubling: 0.84; 95% CI: 0.73, 0.96; P = 0.01; and 0.59; 95% CI: 0.41, 0.85; P = 0.004, respectively). Conclusions High urinary 3-methylhistidine, reflecting higher red meat intake, is independently associated with lower risk of mortality. High urinary concentrations of both 1- and 3-methylhistidine, of which the former reflects higher white meat intake, are independently associated with lower risk of graft failure in KTR. Future intervention studies are warranted to study the effect of high meat intake on mortality and graft failure in KTR, using these biomarkers.
... Harris et al. [4] demonstrated that long-term administration of β-alanine -one of the constituent amino acids -is able to raise muscle carnosine concentrations, which leads to enhanced high-intensity exercise performance [5,6]. The chronic use of chicken breast extract, containing carnosine and anserine, is shown to enhance muscle carnosine levels in humans [7] and to improve high-intensity endurance performance by attenuation of muscle fatigue [8], demonstrating the same mechanism of action of the β-alanine supplementation approach. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: chicken meat extract is a popular functional food in Asia. It is rich in the bioactive compounds carnosine and anserine, two histidine-containing dipeptides (HCD). Studies suggest that acute pre-exercise ingestion of chicken extracts has important applications towards exercise performance and fatigue control, but the evidence is equivocal. This study aimed to evaluate the ergogenic potential of the pre-exercise ingestion of a homemade chicken broth (CB) vs a placebo soup on a short-lasting, high-intensity cycling exercise. Methods: fourteen men participated in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover intervention study. Subjects ingested either CB, thereby receiving 46.4 mg/kg body weight of HCD, or a placebo soup (similar in taste without HCD) 40 min before an 8 min cycling time trial (TT) was performed. Venous blood samples were collected at arrival (fasted), before exercise and at 5 min recovery. Plasma HCD were measured with UPLC-MS/MS and glutathione (in red blood cells) was measured through HPLC. Capillary blood samples were collected at different timepoints before and after exercise. Results: a significant improvement (p = 0.033; 5.2%) of the 8 min TT mean power was observed after CB supplementation compared to placebo. Post-exercise plasma carnosine (p < 0.05) and anserine (p < 0.001) was significantly increased after CB supplementation and not following placebo. No significant effect of CB supplementation was observed either on blood glutathione levels, nor on capillary blood analysis. Conclusions: oral CB supplementation improved the 8 min TT performance albeit it did not affect the acid-base balance or oxidative status parameters. Further research should unravel the potential role and mechanisms of HCD, present in CB, in this ergogenic approach.
... IDPs, especially CAR, have been well-studied and they play physiological roles as neurotransmitters/modulators, immune-modulators (Bonfanti, Peretto, De Marchis, & Fasolo, 1999), antioxidants (Kohen, Yamamoto, Cundy, & Ames, 1988), and endogenous chelators (Mineo, Vitalini, La Mendola, Rizzarelli, Scamporrino, & Vecchio, 2002). Diet supplementation with CAR has been studied for treating chronic alcoholic liver injury (Liu, Liu, & Yin, 2008) and improving high-intensity sports performance (Maemura et al., 2006). IDPs generally have two nucleophilic sites, at the N-terminus and on the imidazole ring, and efficiently quench toxic aldehydes such as 4-hydroxy-2(E)-nonenal (Aldini, Carini, Beretta, Bradamante, & Facino, 2002;Liu, Xu, & Sayre, 2003), 4-oxo-2(E)-nonenal (Tatsuno, Lee, & Oe, 2018), acrolein (Baba et al., 2013), and methylglyoxal/malondialdehyde (Vistoli et al., 2017). ...
Article
Acrylamide (AA) is a toxic industrial chemical but is also found in heated potato foods such as French fries due to the Maillard reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars. However, high-temperature cooking is often required for flavoring, browning, and sterilizing of raw ingredients. Imidazole dipeptides, such as carnosine (β-alanyl-l-histidine, CAR) and anserine (β-alanyl-Nπ-methyl-l-histidine, ANS), are present in high concentrations in meat and are known to scavenge radical species and toxic aldehydes. Here, we investigated the reaction between CAR/ANS and AA under several conditions expected to detoxify AA by cooking with meat. The reaction products were characterized by LC–ESI-MS/MS as CAR/ANS-AA adducts at the N-terminus, and His-Nτ/Nπ. The reactivity of CAR sites toward AA were in the order N-terminus > Nτ > Nπ. A selective LC–ESI-SRM/MS method was also developed and confirmed the formation of CAR/ANS-AA adducts during pan frying of minced potato and chicken breast.
Article
Functional dipeptides carnosine and anserine are abundant in muscle. We determined the effect of short-term dietary histidine (His) content on muscle carnosine and anserine contents and meat quality of broilers. Three groups of 28-day-old female broilers were fed diets with His contents of 67%, 100%, or 150% of requirement for 10 days before market (His contents 0.21%, 0.32%, and 0.48%, respectively). The carnosine and anserine contents of 0-h aged muscle significantly increased with dietary His content; in particular, the carnosine content was 162% higher in the His 0.48% group than in the His 0.32% group. The contents of both peptides also increased with dietary His content in 48-h aged muscle, but carnosine was not detected in 0- and 48-h aged muscle of the His 0.21% group. The drip loss, cooking loss, shear force, and pH of meat were not affected by the dietary His content. The 2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances contents of 24- and 48-h aged muscles were lower in the His 0.48% group than in the other groups, and the a* and b* values were lower in the His 0.21% group. These results suggest that short-term dietary His content affects imidazole dipeptide contents, antioxidative capacity, and color of broiler meat.
Article
Full-text available
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of a high protein diet comprising breast meat from commercial broiler (BR), Thai native (PD), and commercial broiler × Thai native crossbred (KKU-ONE) chicken on serum uric acid, biochemical parameters, and antioxidant activities in rats. Male Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into four groups. The control group received a standard chow diet, and the other three groups were fed a high protein diet (70% standard diet + 30% BR, PD, or KKU-ONE chicken breast) for five weeks. The PD- and KKU-ONE-fed rats had lower plasma total cholesterol and triglyceride levels than the control rats. A decrease in HDL-c was also observed in rats fed a diet containing BR. Liver weight, liver enzyme, plasma ALP, xanthine oxidase activity, serum uric acid, creatinine, superoxide production, and plasma malondialdehyde levels increased in BR-fed rats. The findings of this study might provide evidence to support the use of Thai native and Thai native crossbred chicken breast meat as functional foods.
Preprint
Full-text available
Background: chicken meat extract is a popular functional food in Asia. It is rich in the bioactive compounds carnosine and anserine, two histidine-containing dipeptides (HCD). Studies suggest that acute pre-exercise ingestion of chicken extracts has important applications towards exercise performance and fatigue control, but the evidence is equivocal. This study aimed to evaluate the ergogenic potential of the pre-exercise ingestion of a homemade chicken broth (CB) vs a placebo soup on a short-lasting, high-intensity cycling exercise. Methods: fourteen men participated in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover intervention study. Subjects ingested either CB, thereby receiving 46.4 mg/kg body weight of HCD, or a placebo soup (similar in taste without HCD) 40 min before an 8 min cycling time trial (TT) was performed. Venous blood samples were collected at arrival (fasted), before exercise and at 5 min recovery. Plasma HCD were measured with UPLC-MS/MS and glutathione (in red blood cells) was measured through HPLC. Capillary blood samples were collected at different timepoints before and after exercise. Results: a significant improvement (p=0.033; 5.2%) of the 8 min TT mean power was observed after CB supplementation compared to placebo. Post-exercise plasma carnosine (p<0.05) and anserine (p<0.001) was significantly increased after CB supplementation and not following placebo. No significant effect of CB supplementation was observed either on blood glutathione levels, nor on capillary blood analysis. Conclusions: oral CB supplementation improved the 8 min TT performance albeit it did not affect the acid-base balance or oxidative status parameters. Further research should unravel the potential role and mechanisms of HCD, present in CB, in this ergogenic approach.
Preprint
Full-text available
Background: chicken meat extract is a popular functional food in Asia. It is rich in the bioactive compounds carnosine and anserine, two histidine-containing dipeptides (HCD). Studies suggest that acute pre-exercise ingestion of chicken extracts has important applications towards exercise performance and fatigue control, but the evidence is equivocal. This study aimed to evaluate the ergogenic potential of the pre-exercise ingestion of a homemade chicken broth (CB) vs a placebo soup on a short-lasting, high-intensity cycling exercise. Methods: fourteen men participated in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover intervention study. Subjects ingested either CB, thereby receiving 46.4 mg/kg body weight of HCD, or a placebo soup (similar in taste without HCD) 40 min before an 8 min cycling time trial (TT) was performed. Venous blood samples were collected at arrival (fasted), before exercise and at 5 min recovery. Plasma HCD were measured with UPLC-MS/MS and glutathione (in red blood cells) was measured through HPLC. Capillary blood samples were collected at different timepoints before and after exercise. Results: a significant improvement (p=0.033; 5.2%) of the 8 min TT mean power was observed after CB supplementation compared to placebo. Post-exercise plasma carnosine (p<0.05) and anserine (p<0.001) was significantly increased after CB supplementation and not following placebo. No significant effect of CB supplementation was observed either on blood glutathione levels, nor on capillary blood analysis. Conclusions: oral CB supplementation improved the 8 min TT performance albeit it did not affect the acid-base balance or oxidative status parameters. Further research should unravel the potential role and mechanisms of HCD, present in CB, in this ergogenic approach.
Article
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The differences in ergometric power and in biochemical characteristics of the vastus lateralis muscle (VL) between 100-m and 800-m runners (R) were studied in 2 groups of 8 male athletes (100m-R and 800m-R) during a 45-s all-out cycle ergometer exercise. Peak power (PP), mean power (MP) and percentage of fatigue were respectively 24%, 13% and 24% higher in the 100m-R than in 800m-R, whereas total work output was similar in both groups. In 100m-R, there was a higher percentage of fast twitch (FT) fibres, a higher buffer (mß) titration capacity and a lower oxidative potential expressed by citrate synthase, 3-hydroxyacyi-CoA dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase than in 800m-R. During all-out exercise, muscle lactate [lact] and protons [H+] accumulated significantly more in 100m-R than in 800m-R with a corresponding muscle pH of 6.49 ± 0.07 and 6.63 ± 0.12. However, the decreases in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate were not different between the two groups. Significant correlations were found between PP (or % fatigue) and Δ[H+], Δ[lact], Δ[ATP], %FT or oxidative capacity when the two groups were pooled together. It was concluded mat the difference in %FT, in titration mß and in the contribution of the glycolytic and oxidative processes observed in VL between 100m-R (pure anaerobic training) and 800m-R (mixed aerobic-anaerobic training) are determinant factors in the pattern of energy output during supramaximal exercise.
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The present study examined the effect of the long-term intake of chicken breast extract(CBEX), which contains carnosine and anserine, on carnosine content in skeletal muscles of humans and on short-period exercise performance with high intensity. Before and after CBEX was orally given to 13 healthy male subjects for 30 days, pieces of their muscle (M. vastus lateralis) were excised and carnosine concentration in the muscle was measured. Before and after the test period, the subjects' exercise performance (mean and peak power/body weight) was determined by pedaling for 30 sec. On the basis of baseline concentrations of carnosine, the subjects were classified into two groups: low (n=8) and high (n=5) carnosine-baseline groups. In the former group, intake of CBEX increased carnosine concentration in the muscle (p<0.05), resulting in significant correlation between increased rate of carnosine concentration and mean power. These results suggest that exercise performance depends on carnosine concentration in the muscle, and that taking carnosine-containing foods may improve exercise performance.
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トリ胸肉より, ヒスチジン含有ジペプチドであるアンセリン・カルノシンを豊富に含むチキンエキスを調製し, マウスに投与した場合の体内動態および運動能力への影響について検討した。チキンエキスをマウスに経口投与すると, アンセリン・カルノシンは分解されずにジペプチドのまま吸収されて血流に乗り, その血中濃度は投与約30分後に最大に達した。また, チキンエキスを10% (固形分換算) 配合した飼料を継続投与することにより, 大腿四頭筋内にアンセリン・カルノシンの有意な濃度増加がみられた。このチキンエキスを投与したマウスは, 投与開始6日目以降, 速い水流 (10L/min) のあるプールにおける疲労困憊までの遊泳持久時間が対照群に比べて有意に向上していた。この持久運動能力向上効果の一因として, チキンエキスの経口摂取により, 生体緩衝能力をもつアンセリン・カルノシンが血流を介して骨格筋内に蓄積されることによって, 骨格筋内の緩衝能が高まったことが推察された。
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トリ胸肉より抽出したチキンエキスは, 緩衝作用を有するカルノシンを豊富に含有しており, マウスに長期摂取させることにより遊泳持久力が向上することが確認されている。今回われわれは, チキンエキスおよびカルノシンの水溶液を単回投与した際に運動能力向上効果が認められるか否かを検討した。マウスを疲労困憊するまで遊泳させた直後にチキンエキス, カルノシン溶液および対照として生理的食塩水を投与し15分後に再遊泳させ, 1回目遊泳時間に対する2回目遊泳時間の割合を疲労回復度としたとき, 対照の (56.9±3.4%) と比較して, カルノシン投与時の疲労回復度は有意に高く (79.9±6.4%, p<0.01), チキンエキス投与時にも同様の傾向が認められた (70.9±9.0%, p=0.09)。さらにカルノシン投与時においては, 2回目遊泳開始時および終了時の大腿四頭筋中カルノシン濃度およびpHが対照と比較して高く, 遊泳終了15分後にはどちらも有意に高値を示した (p<0.01)。これらの結果より, カルノシンの単回投与により, 骨格筋中緩衝能が一時的に高められ, 疲労回復効果がもたらされることが示唆された。
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The purpose of this study was to assess the relationships among ventilatory threshold T(vent), running economy and distance running performance in a group (N=9) of trained experienced male runners with comparable maximum oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O2max). Maximal oxygen uptake and submaximal steady state oxygen uptake were measured using open circuit spirometry during treadmill exercise. Ventilatory threshold was determined during graded treadmill exercise using non-invasive techniques, while distance running performance was assessed by the best finish time in two 10-kilometer (km) road races. The subjects averaged 33.8 minutes on the 10km runs, 68.6 ml · kg -1 · min -1for [Vdot]O2max, and 48.1 ml · kg -1 · min -1for steady state [Vdot]O2running at 243 meters · min -1. The T(vent) (first deviation from linearity of [Vdot]E, [Vdot]CO 2) occurred at an oxygen consumption of 41.9 ml · kg -1 · min -1. The relationship between running economy and performance was r = .51 (p>0.15) and the relationship between T(vent) and performance was r = .94 (p < 0.001). Applying stepwise multiple linear regression, the multiple R did not increase significantly with the addition of variables to the T(vent); however, the combination of [Vdot]O2max, running economy and T(vent) was determined to account for the greatest amount of total variance (89%). These data suggest that among trained and experienced runners with similar [Vdot]O2max, T(vent) can account for a large portion of the variance in performance during a 10km race.
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from the onset of exercise until 15 min after exercise was not signifi cantly correlated with any muscle fi ber types, while it was signifi cantly correlated with capillary-to-fi ber ratio (r = 0.791, p < 0.01). A signifi cant negative correlation was also demonstrated between ExcessCO 2-to-La peak ratio and muscle buffering capacity (r = -0.645, p < 0.05). These results suggest that ExcessCO2 during and after short duration-intensive exercise is affected by the amount of H + buffered by nonbicarbonate system and the amount of H + diffusion from muscle to blood depending on the development of muscle capillaries.
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Carnosine is a naturally occurring dipeptide (β-alanyl-l-histidine) found in brain, innervated tissues, and the lens at concentrations up to 20 mM in humans. In 1994 it was shown that carnosine could delay senescence of cultured human fibroblasts. Evidence will be presented to suggest that carnosine, in addition to antioxidant and oxygen free-radical scavenging activities, also reacts with deleterious aldehydes to protect susceptible macromolecules. Our studies show that, in vitro, carnosine inhibits nonenzymic glycosylation and cross-linking of proteins induced by reactive aldehydes (aldose and ketose sugars, certain triose glycolytic intermediates and malondialdehyde (MDA), a lipid peroxidation product). Additionally we show that carnosine inhibits formation of MDA-induced protein-associated advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs) and formation of DNA-protein cross-links induced by acetaldehyde and formaldehyde. At the cellular level 20 mM carnosine protected cultured human fibroblasts and lymphocytes, CHO cells, and cultured rat brain endothelial cells against the toxic effects of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and MDA, and AGEs formed by a lysine/deoxyribose mixture. Interestingly, carnosine protected cultured rat brain endothelial cells against amyloid peptide toxicity. We propose that carnosine (which is remarkably nontoxic) or related structures should be explored for possible intervention in pathologies that involve deleterious aldehydes, for example, secondary diabetic complications, inflammatory phenomena, alcoholic liver disease, and possibly Alzheimer's disease.
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A review on the distribution and biological effects of carnosine and a hypothesis for its biological mechanisms of action are presented. Carnosine and its structural and functional relative, anserine, were found in skeletal muscles at the beginning of the century. Their effects on muscle-working capacity, on the stability of membrane-bound enzymes, as well as their potent immunomodulating property, could not be explained by their pH-buffering capacity or formation of the secondary metabolites histidine and β-alanine alone. This article suggests that the basis for the biological activities of carnosine and relative compounds is their potent antioxidant and membrane-protecting activity. The plausible chemical mechanism of this activity is discussed, and data regarding the usage of carnosine as a drug for treatment of immunodeficiency are summarized.