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Black Woodpecker Nest Sites: Characteristics, Selection, and Reproductive Success
Abstract
To assess whether modern forestry practices pose a threat to the black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius), we studied nest-site selection and reproductive success in an intensively managed, boreal forest landscape of southcentral Scandinavia during 1990-95. We recorded 501 nesting events in 457 excavated holes in 367 trees, of which 180 events were monitored for reproductive success. Radiotelemetry was used to monitor 219 birds. All naturally occurring tree species were used as nest sites, but most nest holes were in live aspen (Populus tremula; 50%) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris; 25%). Dead trees were rare (8% of available nest-trees, 0.7 dead trees/100 ha) but constituted the most strongly selected tree type, being used 2.5 times more often than expected from random use of nest trees. The birds selected trees retained on recent clearcuts (used 2 times more often than expected), and they avoided trees in old forest. Selection of nest habitat was consistent with nesting success; the predation rate was lower and fledging rate was higher in clearcuts than in old forest. Selection of nest trees was not consistent with nesting success; the predation rate did not differ, but fledging rate was lower in dead trees compared to live aspen and pine. Habitat characteristics of cavities used for roosting (n = 124) did not differ from cavities used for nesting. Aspen and pine reached minimum critical dimensions (36 and 40 cm dbh) at the age of 55 and 110 years, respectively. In boreal Scandinavia black woodpecker nest sites do not seem to be threatened by modern forestry, provided that dead and green trees are retained on clearcuts and that scattered aspen trees are allowed in young conifer plantations.
... The importance of aspen as a cavity tree is mediated especially by GSW and BW, which are the most important species making middle-size (GSW; see chapter above) and large cavities (BW; Johnsson et al. 1993;Pouttu 1985;Rolstad et al. 2000) in Eurasian boreal forests. The maintenance of aspen trees as admixtures in managed forests should thus be one of the key management options to facilitate availability of suitable cavity trees. ...
... The four less common woodpecker species (TTW, GHW, WBW and LSW) excavated their cavities mostly in dead or dying trees (see also Pakkala et al. 2018cPakkala et al. , 2019bPakkala et al. , 2022. Even the strongest excavators, GSW and BW, commonly use weakened and injured, but still living trees (GSW: see above; BW: Rolstad et al. 2000;Zahner et al. 2012), in our study area typically aspens and Scots pines. Thus, the decaying and dead trees are important as nest trees for the total cavity-excavating species group, and presumably their relative significance increases with decreasing cavity excavating capacity of the species. ...
... Only GSW, WT and CT have generally smaller breeding territories than the median value of our study plots (Ekman 1979;Cramp 1985;Cramp and Perrins 1993;Michalek and Miettinen 1993;Karlsson 1994;Rolstad et al. 1995;Siffczyk et al. 2003). For the other cavity-making species, the sizes of study plots are approximately of the same size or slightly smaller (TTW, LSW;Cramp 1985;Höntsch 1996;Wiktander et al. 2001;Pakkala et al. 2002;Pechacek 2004;Pechacek and d'Oleire-Oltmanns 2004) or clearly smaller compared with their breeding territory sizes (BW, GHW, WBW; Cramp 1985;Tjernberg et al. 1993;Ahola 1995;Blume 1996;Rolstad et al. 2000;Campion et al. 2020;Pakkala et al. 2020). Outside the breeding season all abovementioned species also use the surrounding forests. ...
Cavities made by birds are an important microhabitat for many taxa in forests. Long-term dynamics of cavity patterns and the effect of forest management on cavities are, however, largely unknown. We studied cavity production, measured as nest cavity production rates (CPR = no. of new cavities/km 2 /year), of woodpeckers and tits in forests with different management intensity in southern Finland, based on a data from 37 years. Forests were divided into managed, seminatural and natural stands. The data covered 56 forest stands with the total area of 1690 ha. Stands were inventoried annually for new cavities. The total numbers of woodpecker and tit cavities were 2238 and 329, respectively. There were large differences in CPRs between forest stands with different management intensity. For woodpeckers, the CPR was highest in natural forests (5.7) and lowest in managed forests (1.5). For the tit species, the respective numbers were 0.9 and 0.3. The CPRs of different cavity-making bird species and cavity tree characteristics (e.g. tree condition and species) were consistent, suggesting that different cavity-makers benefit from similar forest and tree characteristics. The results also suggest that forests managed with currently prevailing methods limit the production of cavities. To promote cavities, the results from this and other studies suggest that managed forests should include more features of natural forests, such as more diverse tree species and within-stand structural variability distribution (tree-level heterogeneity), larger amount of decayed wood, more retention trees and snags and longer rotation periods.
... Most boxes were installed c. 5 m above ground. In comparison, cavities excavated by the black woodpecker in Sweden were on average 7 m above ground, (Johnsson et al., 1993;Rolstad et al., 2000). When installed, all boxes were lined with a 5-10 cm deep layer of fine wood shavings covering the bottom. ...
... canopy. This reflected the habitat preferences of black woodpeckers selecting a tree in which to excavate a nest cavity (see Rolstad et al., 2000) and made the boxes attractive for goldeneyes as well (cf. Pöysä et al., 1999). ...
... Sonerud, 1985a). Similarly, for the black woodpecker, the probability of pine marten nest predation was higher in mature forest than in clear-cuts (Rolstad et al., 2000). Studies based F I G U R E 4 Predicted probability of predation of a goldeneye nest as function of cavity age for three values of distance from forest edge for all nests located anywhere in the study area (n = 509). ...
According to the alternative prey hypothesis (APH), the temporal synchrony in population fluctuations of microtine rodents and other small herbivores in boreal areas is caused by generalist predators with numerical and functional response to microtines, leading to an increased predation of prey alternative to microtines in the low phase of the microtine population fluctuations. The tree-climbing pine marten (Martes martes) is a food generalist that includes bird eggs among its alternative prey, also eggs of the cavity-nesting common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula). We used long-term data to test whether pine marten predation of goldeneye eggs in nest boxes varied as predicted by the APH. As a measure of microtine abundance at the time of nesting, we applied two measures. First, for goldeneye nests located <40 km from our microtine trapping site, we applied the trapping index of microtine rodents. Second, to also use data from nests located >40 km from our microtine trapping site, and from nests in years when trapping was not conducted, we used two proxies for the microtine abundance: whether boreal owls (Aegolius funereus) nested in any of our boxes <40 km from each goldeneye nest and the average clutch size of these boreal owls. The probability of predation of a goldeneye nest was independent of the microtine trapping index and independent of the proxies for microtine abundance. However, it increased with cavity age, taken as the number of nesting seasons elapsed since the actual nest box was installed, and declined with distance from habitat with forest canopy. The effect of cavity age confirms that the long-term spatial memory of pine marten is an important factor in the pattern of its predation on nests in tree cavities. K E Y W O R D S alternative prey hypothesis, cavity age, forest edge, long-term spatial memory, microtine rodents, nest box, nest predation
... Previous studies of the black woodpecker have mainly described the basic characteristics of trees Rolstad et al. 2000;Kosiński and Kempa 2007;Zahner et al. 2012;Zawadzka and Zawadzki 2017;Puverel et al. 2019) and nest sites, which are defined as the close surroundings of nest trees (Rolstad et al. 2000;Garmendia et al. 2006;Bocca et al. 2007;De Rosa et al. 2016). Many of the studies focus on montane or deciduous forests in Western Europe (Olano et al. 2015;Saporetti et al. 2016;Puverel et al. 2019). ...
... Previous studies of the black woodpecker have mainly described the basic characteristics of trees Rolstad et al. 2000;Kosiński and Kempa 2007;Zahner et al. 2012;Zawadzka and Zawadzki 2017;Puverel et al. 2019) and nest sites, which are defined as the close surroundings of nest trees (Rolstad et al. 2000;Garmendia et al. 2006;Bocca et al. 2007;De Rosa et al. 2016). Many of the studies focus on montane or deciduous forests in Western Europe (Olano et al. 2015;Saporetti et al. 2016;Puverel et al. 2019). ...
... In mature forests, tree mortality is increasing as a result of natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Such trees are often preferred by black woodpeckers for cavity excavation (Rolstad et al. 2000;Gorman 2011;Zahner et al. 2012;Puverel et al. 2019). Old, dying and dead trees are often infested with fungi, and their softer wood makes it easier to excavate cavities (Białobok et al. 1993;Bernadzki 2003;Jackson and Jackson 2004;Brichta et al. 2023). ...
The black woodpecker, Dryocopus martius, a creator of tree cavities, is considered a keystone species and a priority in terms of forest biodiversity conservation. The aim of this paper was to understand how the structure of managed forests impacts the choice of tree for excavating cavities of the black woodpecker. The study was conducted in an extensive forest complex in northeastern Poland dominated by the pine Pinus sylvestris. The parameters of the cavity trees and surrounding forest were analyzed on different levels to determine what trees and stand types were selected by the black woodpecker. In the period from 2018 to 2021, analyses were carried out for 367 cavities excavated in trees growing in forest areas from 0 to 225 years old. The most numerous cavity trees were between 121 and 160 years old. Cavity trees were found in the stands (62%), in the residual forest patches (19%) and in the single trees remaining after logging (19%). Forty-four percent of all cavities were excavated in dead trees. Black woodpecker nesting stands were characterized by lower canopy closures and low understory and shrub layer cover. We did not find a difference between the diameters or the heights of cavity entrances among the black woodpecker nesting trees growing in different habitat types. The black woodpecker is capable of nesting in small fragments of an old stand and even in single old trees growing in clearcut areas. This is due to the high proportion of dead trees in these habitats, which are preferred by woodpeckers for excavating cavities. Leaving patches of old-growth stands in commercial forests positively affects the habitat formation of the black woodpecker and perhaps, as a consequence, that of other animal species that depend on it.
... Black woodpeckers have been documented to excavate cavities in more than 50 tree species (Gorman 2011). The preferred nesting tree species differ greatly depending on the geographical location and local forest conditions (Rolstad et al. 2000;Gorman 2011;Zahner et al. 2012;Puverel et al. 2019;Zawadzki 2020). The results of previous studies indicate that black woodpeckers most often choose to excavate cavities in trees that are alive and weakened by fungi or insects (Gorman 2011;Zahner et al. 2012;Zawadzka and Zawadzki 2017;Puverel et al. 2019). ...
... Thus, pines appear to be the most suitable nest trees for black woodpeckers in northeastern Poland. This may partly be due to the location of the study area being beyond the range of beech, as well as the small share of aspen in the Augustów Forest, while aspen is the most selected nesting tree in Fennoscandia (Rolstad et al. 2000). ...
... The smallest dimensions were found in deciduous trees younger than 90 years. This did not differ from the diameters of trees in other study plots in Europe (e.g., Rolstad et al. 2000;Kosiński and Kempa 2007;Puverel et al. 2019), although the nesting trees in Romania were bigger--an average of 63.3 cm (Domokos and Cristea 2014). The DBH of the trees used by black woodpeckers to excavate cavities was larger than the average DBH of the surrounding stand. ...
The black woodpecker Dryocopus martius is an ecologically disproportionately important forest species owing to its abundance. Its large cavities provide breeding sites and shelter for many species—large birds, mammals, and social insects. I evaluated the nest tree preferences of black woodpeckers in the Augustów Forest, northeast Poland. Approximately 400 black woodpecker cavities were observed. The Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris, was the most commonly selected tree species, accounting for 90%. The cavity trees were 55–225 years old. All trees younger than 90 years were broadleaved tree species. The trees used to excavate the cavities had a larger diameter at the breast height (DBH) than the average of the stand. The trees selected by black woodpeckers were significantly shorter than the average height of the stands. Over 60% of the cavities were excavated 10–16 m above ground level. I found that the DBH and the first branch height were critical factors affecting the cavity entrance height. In pine-dominated forests, black woodpeckers preferred dead trees. Approximately 44% of new cavities were excavated from dead trees. Leaving dead or dying large trees in commercial forests benefits black woodpeckers and large secondary cavity nesters that depend on it and promotes biodiversity conservation. Birds excavate new cavities at a high rate yearly, in contrast with beech-dominated forests.
... In comparison, cavities excavated by the black woodpecker in Sweden and Norway were on average ca. 7 m above ground Rolstad et al. 2000). When installed, all boxes were lined with a 5-10 cm deep layer of fine wood shavings covering the bottom. ...
... Most boxes were installed in single trees in clear-cut areas or other open habitats, or in trees in edges between old forest and clear-cuts or other habitats, and fewer in the interior of old forest stands. This reflected the habitat preferences of black woodpeckers selecting a tree in which to excavate a nesting cavity (see Rolstad et al. 2000) and made the boxes attractive for boreal owls as well (cf. Sonerud 1985b). ...
... Independent of cavity age, the probability of depredation tended to decline from the interior of forest stands 100 m from forest edge to the same distance from forest edge into open habitats. Similarly, for the black woodpecker the probability of pine marten nest predation was higher in mature forest than in clear-cuts (Rolstad et al. 2000). Studies based on radio telemetry in boreal forests in Norway and Sweden found that pine martens prefer habitats with forest canopy and tall trees, and avoid clear-cuts and other open areas, although they are able to utilize a wide range of succession stages of the forest (Brainerd and Rolstad 2002). ...
The alternative prey hypothesis (APH) states that temporally synchronous population fluctuations of microtine rodents and other small herbivores are caused by generalist predators that show functional and numerical responses to the abundance of microtines. This would lead to an increased predation of alternative prey in the low phase of the microtine population fluctuations. One candidate for such a predator is the tree-climbing pine marten ( Martes martes ), which includes bird eggs in its diet, among them eggs of the cavity-nesting boreal owl ( Aegolius funereus ). I used long-term data to test whether pine marten predation of boreal owl eggs in nest boxes varied as predicted by the APH. The probability of predation of owl nests situated < 45 km from a site where microtines were trapped in spring during four decades increased with microtine trapping index, which is opposite to the prediction from the APH. As the data set was limited to one nest per box, I extended it spatially and temporally using the clutch size of each boreal owl nest as a proxy for the actual microtine abundance at the site. The probability of nest predation increased with clutch size. However, the effects of microtine index and owl clutch size became non-significant when I controlled for habitat, and in particular cavity age, which had an overriding effect. The increase in predation probability with cavity age suggests that the long-term spatial memory of pine marten is an important factor in the pattern of its nest predation in tree cavities.
... Se considera al picamaderos negro Dryocopus martius (Linnaeus, 1758) una especie clave de los ecosistemas forestales porque proporciona cavidades que son utilizadas por otros vertebrados cuyas necesidades ecológicas se ven limitadas por las prácticas intensivas de la silvicultura moderna (Johnson et al., 1990;Rolstad et al., 2000;Mikusinski et al., 2001, Konsinski et al., 2010. Es un pájaro carpintero ampliamente distribuido por el Paleártico, desde el norte de la península Ibérica hasta Japón. ...
... Se trata, por tanto, de un claro indicio de que la expansión no sólo se está produciendo en los pisos montanos y subalpinos, sino que afecta también a zonas más atemperadas, en las que desde hace décadas se cultivan estas dos especies arbóreas exóticas como alternativa a la histórica deforestación y retracción posterior de las actividades agropecuarias (Tellería & Galarza, 1990). Todos los árboles-nido localizados en ejemplares del género Pinus estaban muertos, lo que sugiere una selección negativa de los pinos vivos, consecuencia probable de su alto contenido en resinas (Rolstad et al., 2000;Pirovano & Zecca, 2014). Seleccionan además pinos descortezados con el probable objetivo de reducir la depredación, del mismo modo que tienden a seleccionar árboles vivos de corteza lisa, aunque se desconoce si los descortezan ellos mismos o si eligen ejemplares ya descortezados. ...
... Desde el punto de vista de la gestión, la mayoría de los autores coinciden en que sería deseable una política forestal que favoreciera la conservación y la madurez de todos los tipos de vegetación que habita la especie y también la preservación de sus árboles-nido durante las labores silvícolas (Rolstad et al., 2000;Cárcamo, 2006;Camprodon et al., 2007;Pirovano & Zecca, 2014). En el área de estudio, una región fuertemente parcelada y sometida a una intensa explotación forestal, el picamaderos negro podría mantener una población estable compensando la escasez de bosques naturales maduros y extensos con la utilización de múltiples parcelas de otros tipos de arbolado añoso integrados en territorios más amplios (Tjernberg et al., 1993; ...
... Se considera al picamaderos negro Dryocopus martius (Linnaeus, 1758) una especie clave de los ecosistemas forestales porque proporciona cavidades que son utilizadas por otros vertebrados cuyas necesidades ecológicas se ven limitadas por las prácticas intensivas de la silvicultura moderna (Johnson et al., 1990;Rolstad et al., 2000;Mikusinski et al., 2001, Konsinski et al., 2010. Es un pájaro carpintero ampliamente distribuido por el Paleártico, desde el norte de la península Ibérica hasta Japón. ...
... Se trata, por tanto, de un claro indicio de que la expansión no sólo se está produciendo en los pisos montanos y subalpinos, sino que afecta también a zonas más atemperadas, en las que desde hace décadas se cultivan estas dos especies arbóreas exóticas como alternativa a la histórica deforestación y retracción posterior de las actividades agropecuarias (Tellería & Galarza, 1990). Todos los árboles-nido localizados en ejemplares del género Pinus estaban muertos, lo que sugiere una selección negativa de los pinos vivos, consecuencia probable de su alto contenido en resinas (Rolstad et al., 2000;Pirovano & Zecca, 2014). Seleccionan además pinos descortezados con el probable objetivo de reducir la depredación, del mismo modo que tienden a seleccionar árboles vivos de corteza lisa, aunque se desconoce si los descortezan ellos mismos o si eligen ejemplares ya descortezados. ...
... Desde el punto de vista de la gestión, la mayoría de los autores coinciden en que sería deseable una política forestal que favoreciera la conservación y la madurez de todos los tipos de vegetación que habita la especie y también la preservación de sus árboles-nido durante las labores silvícolas (Rolstad et al., 2000;Cárcamo, 2006;Camprodon et al., 2007;Pirovano & Zecca, 2014). En el área de estudio, una región fuertemente parcelada y sometida a una intensa explotación forestal, el picamaderos negro podría mantener una población estable compensando la escasez de bosques naturales maduros y extensos con la utilización de múltiples parcelas de otros tipos de arbolado añoso integrados en territorios más amplios (Tjernberg et al., 1993; ...
La distribución del picamaderos negro en la península Ibérica ha experimentado recientemente una expansión que ha dado lugar a la coalescencia de sus poblaciones cantábrica y pirenaica. El presente estudio analiza la distribución de la especie y realiza una estima de
su abundancia en una de las zonas de contacto recientemente colonizadas. Asimismo, este trabajo aporta información sobre sus preferencias ecológicas a nivel regional. Para ello se recopilaron las citas de los últimos años y se realizaron itinerarios de censo, así como una búsqueda intensiva de nidos durante la primavera de 2019. También se analizó la tipología
forestal en el entorno de los nidos, las características de los árboles-nido y la productividad media. Se registraron 375 citas repartidas por gran parte del área de estudio, estimándose un mínimo de 50 territorios. Se observó que la cobertura de pino, haya y roble americano en torno a los nidos fue mayor que la esperada mientras que fue menor la de eucalipto, encina y bosque de ribera. Como árbol-nido utilizaron ejemplares de haya, pino de Monterrey, pino marítimo y roble americano, emplazados en parcelas de estos tipos de arbolado. También utilizaron eucaliptos viejos que crecían en repoblaciones de coníferas. El éxito de cría fue elevado (80%) pero la tasa media de pollos volados (2,1) fue inferior a la media
observada en otras regiones europeas. Se concluye que las coníferas están jugando un importante papel en la colonización y que su sustitución por cultivos de eucaliptos podría limitar el proceso expansivo.
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Abstract : The distribution area of the black woodpecker in the Iberian Peninsula has expanded in recent years, leading to a unification of its Cantabrian and Pyrenean populations. The present study evaluates the distribution of this species and estimates its abundance in one of
the recently-colonised contact areas. Likewise, this work provides information on their ecological preferences at a regional level. To this end, records from the last years were compiled and line transects were carried out, as well as an intensive search for nests during the spring of 2019. We also analysed the forest type in the area surrounding the nests, the characteristics of the nest-trees and the average rate of chicks per nest. 375 records were compiled throughout much of the study area, estimating a minimum of 50 territories. It was observed that the coverage of pine, beech and American oak around the nests was greater than expected, while that of eucalyptus, holm oak and riverside forests was lower. The species of nest-trees they used were Monterey pine, maritime pine and American oak, located in areas with the same types of trees. They also used old eucalyptus trees that grew in coniferous plantations. Breeding success was high (80%) but the average rate of fledglings per nest (2.1) was lower than the average observed in other European regions. We conclude that conifers are playing an important role in colonisation and that their replacement by eucalyptus plantations may limit the expansion process.
... Greek fir (Abies cephalonicae) at its south range, whereas in northern Greece it may be found in mixed deciduous/coniferous forests, from altitudes about 800m and upwards, reaching up to the limit of tree growth, in areas of scattered stunted trees At its European distribution the black woodpecker is a habitat generalist and uses several tree species for excavation of holes (Angelstam & Mikusinski, 1994). The beech (Fagus sylvatica) often comprises over 90% of the nesting trees in western and central Europe, whilst the Scots pine (Pinus silvestris) and the aspen (Populus tremula) are very important tree species in eastern and northern Europe (Nilsson et al, 1991;Johnsson et al, 1993;Rolstad et al, 2000). Other tree species used by woodpeckers include oaks and fir trees, and it could be concluded that the tree selection is related to the geographic region (Mikusinski, 1995). ...
... Openings in the forest are also considered to be very important for birds, and woodpeckers are abundant on fresh burns, feeding on the insects in the snags and fallen timber (Peterken, 1996). In Scandinavia Rolstad et al. (2000) reported that most of the nest trees of black woodpeckers were found in open habitats. ...
... Mature trees in forest stands of temperate forests in Europe, are considered as the most important elements for the presence of primary hole nesters, such as the black and the great spotted that require old trees for excavating large nesting holes (Mikusinski, 1995;Flade, 1997;Smith, 1997;Rolstad et al, 2000). The results showed that all tree categories, i.e. snags, broken trees and living trees, were chosen for the excavation of nests by both woodpeckers. ...
The occurrence of woodpeckers in a managed forest dominated by the Black Pine (Pinus nigra) in the region of Valia Calda, in N. Pindos Mt Range in NW Greece was investigated in the summer of 2001. The black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) and the great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopus major) were the two resident woodpecker species nested in the study area. A number of forest and landscape variables in a 100 randomly selected plots of 15m-radius area were assessed in relation to woodpecker presence using discriminant function analysis. The most important discriminators between plots with and without nests included tree maturity, steep slopes and high undergrowth regeneration classes for the black woodpecker and tree maturity, low altitude and undergrowth regeneration for the great spotted woodpeckers black pines. Models developed predicted correctly 74% of the plots within compartments with black woodpeckers and 78% of the plots with great spotted woodpeckers. The characteristics of trees used for nesting and feeding were also investigated. Over 70% of the trees used for nesting by black woodpeckers were large snags (dead/dying trees) whilst 50% used by great spotted woodpeckers were large snags. Black woodpeckers exacted nests in trees with mean dbh of 50cm and mean tree height of 28m, whilst great spotted woodpeckers used trees with mean dbh of 40cm and mean tree height of 20m. Trees used for feeding by both species had mean dbh of 34.5cm and tree height of 18.1m. Woodpeckers are considered as "keystone species" in forest biodiversity, providing nesting and roosting holes for other wildlife species. A reduction in large snags, important components in temperate and boreal forest ecosystems, and tree size in forest stands could reduce populations of woodpeckers, as these species are highly dependent upon snags. Recommendations and guidelines for snag retention in forests are also discussed.
... It provides essential habitats for a multitude of large, secondary cavity users (Johnsson et al., 1993). With a home range ranging from 200 ha to > 1000 ha (Cuisin, 1986;Fernandez and Azkona, 1996;Bocca et al., 2007;Olano et al., 2015), Black Woodpeckers require large patches of mature forest (Garmendia et al., 2006), though they are able to adapt to different forest landscape contexts (Rolstad et al., 2000;Angelstam et al., 2002;Saporetti et al., 2016). However, the drivers of the Black Woodpecker's cavity excavation behavior are not fully understood yet, especially in the context of managed temperate forests in Western Europe. ...
... Moreover, selecting an appropriate nest site that minimizes offspring, and adult, predation is important for bird fitness (Lima, 2009). Black Woodpeckers seem to preferentially excavate straight trunks free of branches, reducing predation risks (Cuisin, 1967;Rolstad et al., 2000;Bocca et al., 2007;Zahner et al., 2017). However, in western Europe, the studies documenting tree characteristics favorable for the Black Woodpecker have rarely been carried out in forests used for wood production. ...
... Our findings on distance to the closest neighbor refine studies which suggest Black Woodpeckers prefer to dig cavities in relatively open areas (Rolstad et al., 2000;Saporetti et al., 2016). This result seems to extend to the forest interior (a closed area at the stand scale), where Black woodpeckers preferentially chose trees standing apart from others (in an open area at the tree scale). ...
The Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martius L.) is both an ecosystem engineer and an umbrella species: it has the capacity to modify its environment through cavity excavation, which in turn favors a large range of species that depend on cavities but are unable to dig them themselves (secondary cavity nesters). However, the factors driving cavity excavation by the Black woodpecker at the tree scale remain poorly known. We analyzed the characteristics of trees bearing Black Woodpecker cavities to assess the bird's local habitat requirements and their conservation potential as habitat trees. We compared the traits and characteristics of trees bearing Black Woodpecker cavities (n=60) and control trees (n=56) in two managed lowland broadleave-dominated forests in France. We hypothesized that: (i) Cavity-trees would have lower wood density and display more conks of fungi than control-trees; (ii) The local environment of cavity-trees would be less crowded than those of the control trees. In particular, the first branch would be higher up, and their first neighboring tree would be further away from cavity-trees compared to control-trees; (iii) Cavity-trees would display a higher number of other woodpecker cavities and more saproxylic microhabitats than the control-trees. We validated most of our hypotheses and showed that cavity trees differed significantly from their control counterparts. Black Woodpeckers excavate trees with softer wood and higher first branches in a less crowded environment, thus minimizing both the energy dedicated to cavity excavation and predation risk. Second, cavitytrees bear more microhabitats and play a complementary umbrella role than what was documented before. They also appear a good candidate for habitat-tree conservation. In terms of biodiversity-friendly management measures, it would be beneficial to favor large isolated standing trees devoid of low branches (notably beech), especially in stands dominated by other tree species.
... In terms of reproduction, the Black Woodpecker is most likely the best-studied woodpecker in Europe (Pasinelli 2006;Paclik et al. 2009;van Manen 2012). However, data describing the effect of cavity age on breeding success are quite scarce and inconclusive (Lang and Rost 1990a;Nilsson et al. 1991;Lange 1996;Rolstad et al. 2000). The Black Woodpecker is the largest woodpecker of the Palearctic region (Winkler and Christie 2002). ...
... (Paclik et al. 2009). Pine Marten Martes martes is considered to be one of the most potential predators of large cavity users (Nilsson et al. 1991;Rolstad et al. 2000;Zahner et al. 2017). Though we observed dens of Pine Martens in cavities excavated in beeches in close proximity to cavities of Black Woodpeckers (57 ± 30 m; range 23-87 m; n = 5), their influence on broods was probably small. ...
... Results of a nest predation experiment in Sweden showed a low risk of predation for nests at > 9 m above ground level (Johnsson 1993). However, Rolstad et al. (2000) reported that in the middle boreal zone in Scandinavia, Black Woodpeckers tend to strongly select dead trees and old cavities and reject Scots pine, despite there being no difference in nest predation rate. ...
Nesting in old cavities may be adaptive for birds as it may offer an advantage of earlier laying and higher fitness through more recruiting offspring. Black Woodpeckers frequently use old cavities, which gives the opportunity to test how this behavior affects the timing and the success of reproduction. In this paper, we have tested a prediction that excavating a new cavity causes a delay in breeding, and that it is linked to lower productivity. We found that in the Wielkopolski National Park (western Poland) Black Woodpeckers nested exclusively in European beeches, mainly in living trees, and most frequently in their old cavities. The median relative egg-laying date in old cavities was 5.5 days earlier than in new cavities. We did not find a difference in clutch size between old and new cavities due to its low variation in the population. The proportion of offspring surviving to the end of the nestling period was 0.812 in old cavities and 0.632 in new cavities, although this did not differ significantly. However, survivorship dropped rapidly in the hatching period, especially in new cavities. In Black Woodpecker, the number of fledglings that succeeded was best explained by a model including the age of the cavity and the relative laying date. The estimated parameters of the best ranked model revealed that the number of fledglings is affected by the age of the cavity as it was higher for old cavities than for new cavities. This study shows that nest reuse is adaptive for primary excavators as it offers time and energy savings needed for cavity excavation, and increases productivity, compared to those pairs of birds that are forced to excavate a new cavity. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that cavity excavation is energetically expensive and support the prediction of tradeoffs between nest building and different components of reproduction. Responsible forest management should consider the need to protect living beeches with old cavities, which are frequently used by Black Woodpeckers.
... Many woodpecker species, including the three-toed woodpecker, are known to excavate several unfinished cavities each spring before the actual nesting cavity is made ready (Blume 1968, Ruge 1974, Cramp 1985, Pechacek & d'Oleire-Oltmanns 2004, Pakkala et al. 2006. Old, unfinished cavities can be completed even several years later and turned to nesting cavities (Blume 1968, Ivanchev 1997, Rolstad et al. 2000, Matsuoka 2010). In three cases when the time three-toed woodpeckers needed to complete old, unfinished cavities could be accurately estimated by observation, the excavation took 5, 7 and 8 days (T. ...
... Wiebe et al. 2006). In studies at northern latitudes with large data sets, the cavity reuse proportions were very near our results: in the black woodpecker 26.0% in southern Sweden (n = 264; Nilsson et al. 1991) and 30% in central Norway (n =106; Rolstad et al. 2000), and in the great spotted woodpecker 25.8% in western Russia (n = 198; Ivanchev 1997) and 21.4% in southern England (n = 135;Smith 1997). However, in a large data set on the black woodpecker in southern Finland (n = 300; P. Pouttu pers. ...
... Nesting success of northern flickers was slightly better in new cavities (Wiebe et al. 2007), and the success of the great spotted woodpecker either did not differ between fresh and reused cavities (Ivanchev 1997, Mazgajski 2002 or was slightly better in reused cavities (Smith 1997). Rolstad et al. (2000) did not detect a difference in predation rates between old and new cavities in the black woodpecker, and the rates did not correlate with the number of old holes adjacent to the nests. The new-cavity excavation process may also provide cues to potential nest predators, a subject that has so far not been studied (e.g. ...
Cavity-nesting birds can save time and energy by reusing old cavities. We studied
cavity reuse and its connections to nesting success and timing in the three-toed woodpecker
Picoides tridactylus in a 170-km2 area in southern Finland during 1987–2015.
The data include 520 nest trees, 645 nest cavities and 833 nestings in 86 territory sites,
including 211 cases of cavity reuse. Twenty-five percent of nestings was in previously
used cavities. Twenty-eight percent of cavities and 25% of nest trees were used more
than once. Reuse improved nesting success and facilitated early nesting in the year
following first nesting. Reuse of nest trees with several cavities was observed in 15%
of nest trees, and 62% of reused cavities were in those multi-cavity trees. Cavity reuse
and multi-cavity trees were most abundant in long-term territories with stable habitats.
In boreal forests, cavity and tree reuse can be an important adaptation allowing efficient
nesting during a short breeding season.
... The Black Woodpecker in Europe is considered the best studied species among Picidae (Pasinelli, 2006), at least in term of population biology (Cuisin, 1968;Rudat et al., 1981;Lang & Rost, 1990;Lange 1996, Meyer & Meyer, 2004, Kunzmann et al., 2008, habitat and nest selection (Blume 1996, Rolstad et al., 1998Rolstad et al., 2000;Bocca et al., 2007, Brambilla & Saporetti, 2014. Most publications refer to central and northern Europe (Pasinelli, 2007), while for Italy a large gap in knowledge exists about range, population size and demographic parameters, and no data are available on breeding success (Brichetti & Fracasso, 2007). ...
... 7). We can hypothesize three main causes to explain such figure: A) the small sample of nesting events monitored, B) a low level of food resources in our sub-optimal study area, at the base of the main distribution belt of the Alps, where the colonization process is still in progress, and where the species maintains its population stronghold in the optimal habitat with mixed and coniferous forests, C) an unbalanced age-classes population structure with a high number of 1-yr old females, factor that is quoted (Rolstad et al., 2000) as a cause of high desertion rate. In our sample the 14.3 % of the brood were deserted, one during the incubation period (territory n. 2, in Robinia pseudacacia) and two (territory n. 1 and n. 8) in the growing period: for the first one we can hypothesize the very small DBH of the selected trunk, then of the nesting chamber, to act as cue for abandonment; for the others, in particular for territory n. 1, we can't exclude the predation of a member of the pairs. ...
... It should be noted that very low diameters are also know: Falcone (2007) reports a minimum value of 22 cm for the natural Park of Mont Avic, whereas Pynnönen (1939) cites an example of 27 cm. Rolstad et al. (2000) provides different measures for different trees, with the modal class corresponding to a diameter of 35 cm for the dead trees without bark, 45 cm for Pinus sylvestris and 45 cm for Populus tremula. The mean nest heights in our study area are also in the upper level, with respect of other studies (Tab. ...
In the years 2008-2012 we studied the nest-site characteristics of the Black Woodpeckers Dryocopus martius in the Varese province, in 3 study-areas in north-western Lombardy. The Black Woodpecker is a recent immigrant in our study area and in the surrounding pre-Alps; it selects wide-diameter trunk of mainly broadleaf trees, and the forest structure near the nest is significantly different from that of random spots within 500 m from the nest, with less dense trees of greater Diameter at Breast Height. We monitored 21 nesting events, of which 18 were successful and fledged 42 young, while 3 were unsuccessful; the overall fledging rate is 2,33 young/pair. The Black Woodpecker may be considered a habitat specialist for the nest site and habitat generalist in the home-range, with some territories very close to busy paved road and urbanized areas. From the original mountain sector, the Black Woodpecker expanded its range to the lower hill and, and, further south towards the plain, through the ecological corridor of the forests adjoining Lake Maggiore and the Ticino river.
... Several studies proposed that retention practices should focus on retaining favoured nesting substrates or high-quality foraging microhabitats for targeted species (e.g. [127][128][129]), acting on smaller-scale features than usual for MPF. Also for grassland birds, nest survival has been found to be more strongly affected by fine-scale habitat than by patch-level management actions [130]. ...
... Surprisingly, multiple reviewed studies found higher nesting or fledging success in MPF treatments than in natural reference controls (e.g. [128,[160][161][162]). In the context of understorey retention, this suggests that certain shrubnesting species, otherwise expected to benefit from a denser understorey, are well-adapted to moderate disturbance of that layer [163]. ...
Purpose of Review
We aimed to summarize the evidence linking multi-purpose forest management (MPF) to bird nesting and fledging success in temperate and boreal forests and to identify outstanding research gaps. Forest birds are in decline worldwide, but an ongoing move from production-oriented management towards MPF, integrating biodiversity conservation with other uses, may help counteracting these trends. The effects of MPF on bird diversity and abundance are well-studied, but less is known about effects on bird demographics.
Recent Findings
We retrieved 101 studies, reporting 342 outcomes of MPF for nesting and fledging success. Due to the heterogeneity of the studies, we opted for a systematic mapping approach, accompanied by vote-counting and narrative review. Studies covered 11 types of MPF and 151 bird species. The most frequently studied interventions were overstorey retention and prescribed burning, but research was markedly biased towards temperate North America. Most outcomes (79.5%) were non-significant, and studies often found that breeding success was driven by ecological processes at both broader and finer scales than management interventions. Thus, managing for breeding success likely requires complementary management actions at various scales. Nonetheless, significant positive and negative outcomes of MPF were also found, inclusively affecting species of conservation concern, highlighting the variability and context-dependence of MPF effects.
Summary
In order to foster effectiveness of MPF for forest birds, future research should focus on a set of under-researched interventions and regions, as well as on ecosystem-wide experiments accounting for functional links between bird abundance, demographics, nest predation, and food supply.
... 20 cm × 20 cm, a depth of ca. 30 cm, and a circular entrance hole with a diameter of ca. 10 cm. In comparison, natural cavities excavated by the black woodpecker in Norway and Sweden were on average 7 m above ground, and had a depth of 31 cm and an entrance 8 cm wide and 11 cm high (Johnsson et al. 1993b, Rolstad et al. 2000. The boxes were installed in single trees in clear-cut areas if possible, or in trees on edges between clear-cuts and old forest, independent of distance to lakes and rivers. ...
... The boxes were installed in single trees in clear-cut areas if possible, or in trees on edges between clear-cuts and old forest, independent of distance to lakes and rivers. This reflected the habitat preferences of black woodpeckers selecting a tree in which to excavate a nesting cavity (see Rolstad et al. 2000), and made the boxes attractive for goldeneyes as well (cf. Pöysä et al. 1999). ...
Site fidelity after successful nesting is an adaptation to spatially heterogeneous and temporally auto-correlated risk of nest predation. Cavity-nesting common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) females use this strategy to minimize nest predation from pine marten (Martes martes), but because goldeneyes migrate they may save time when deciding where to nest by relying on information about successful nests gained in the previous year. I tested whether reuse of a nest box where the previous nest was successful is affected by the content. After a goldeneye had successfully nested, I manipulated nest box availability by offering two nest boxes; one in the original nest tree and one in a new tree for the season, each containing either old nest material from the successful nest or new nest material, i.e. wood shavings. The boxes were installed and relocated when goldeneyes were absent from the study area. The manipulation was designed to test whether goldeneyes reuse a cavity based on information conveyed by its current content, or on private or public information gained in the previous nesting season. Goldeneyes consistently reused the box in the original nest tree, independent of box content. Thus, when the information available in the current nesting season conflicted with information acquired in the previous nesting season, the goldeneyes relied on the latter rather than on information that would cost valuable time to update after arrival in spring. The common practice among ornithologists and land managers to clean nest boxes after each nesting would not affect cavity reuse in the goldeneye.
... Previous studies in other managed landscapes also suggested that Williamson's Sapsuckers prefer establishing their nesting territory in proximity to forest openings created by fire or logging (Whitcomb et al., 1981;Keller and Anderson, 1992;Hutto et al., 2015;Drever et al., 2015). A similar pattern of habitat selection has been reported in several other woodpecker species in North America and Europe (Rolstad et al., 2000;Drever et al., 2008;Tremblay et al., 2009;Tozer et al., 2012;Lorenz et al., 2015a;Craig et al., 2019). These woodpecker species may choose stands previously disturbed by harvesting, insects or wildfire to establish their nesting territories because of the increased number of decaying trees suitable for nesting and foraging. ...
... The selection for nest trees near forest openings could also be related to the enhanced visibility for detecting and deterring smaller predators that can enter the cavity (Li and Martin, 1991;Crockett and Hansley, 1977;Paclík et al., 2009). Predation risk may also be lower in openings because areas with little cover are avoided by common nest predators such as red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus; Mahon and Martin, 2006) and mustelids (Martes spp.) in North America and Europe (Chapin et al., 1998;Rolstad et al., 2000). ...
Williamson’s Sapsuckers, like most woodpeckers, require live and dead standing trees for foraging and nesting. Forest management plans that include Williamson’s Sapsucker habitat conservation guidelines currently focus on nesting trees because little is known about foraging habitat requirements, but foraging habitat in close proximity is also essential for the survival and reproduction of the species. We conducted a study on the selection of stand-level characteristics for foraging and nesting territories to improve knowledge on the habitat requirements of this endangered woodpecker in Canada during the breeding season. We tracked 27 radio-tagged Williamson’s Sapsuckers in managed forest at their northern range limit in two regions of southern British Columbia. We examined the selection of forest composition and configuration characteristics at the foraging patch and stand levels by comparing use and availability, and described foraging trip distances. In the Okanagan region, sapsuckers did not show a selection pattern for foraging patch characteristics. In the Western region, Williamson’s Sapsuckers selected foraging patches with higher densities of large live Douglas-fir trees. Nest patches were usually in small openings and had lower tree densities than foraging patches in the Western region, but not in the Okanagan region. Open areas (e.g., clear-cuts, seed tree cuts, pastures, roads, powerlines) were avoided during foraging trips in both regions. Regarding stand-level configuration, Williamson’s Sapsuckers selected continuous stands for foraging – with ≥30% crown closure in both regions. We used the 50th and 95th percentiles of foraging trip distances to recommend zones for nest reserve (no-harvest; 0–140 m from the nest) and nest management (Okanagan: 340 m, Western: 410 m). For the nest management zone, we recommend only partial harvesting with retained groups of trees extending from 140 to 340 m in the Okanagan region and from 140 to 410 m in the Western region. We suggest that Williamson’s Sapsuckers exhibited stronger selection when foraging in the Western region, because they compensated for longer foraging distances due to higher proportions of open area in their nesting territories.
... Black Woodpecker usually utilizes tall and large trunks of many coniferous and broadleaved trees forming extensive unbroken forests (Glutz & Bauer 1980, Cramp 1985. Habitat use is possibly related to its peculiar food requirements, especially carpenter ants (Formicidae) (Cuisin 1988, Ceugniet 1989, Pechacek & Krisvtin 1993, Rolstad & Rolstad 2000. ...
... For this study, the park was divided into 2.5 × 2.5 km grid plots using ArcGIS. Although a Black Woodpecker's home range may vary in size, depending on the region, plot size was based on an average of the minimum home range sizes known for Europe (western Italian Alps: 3 km 2 , Bocca & Rolando 2003;Sweden: 5 km 2 , Tjernberg et al. 1993; Norway: 1 km 2 , Rolstad et al. 2000;Denmark: 1.30 km 2 , Johansen 1989; Hungary: 2 km 2 , Gorman 2011). A first selection of 104 grid plots was made, on the criterion that each plot had to be at least 50% covered by woodland. ...
The Black Woodpecker has a wide northern Palearctic range, but in much of western Europe it has a highly fragmented distribution. As these isolated populations are vulnerable to land cover change, a better understanding of the factors driving their presence is needed in the perspective of conservation. To shed light on the habitat preferences of the Black Woodpecker in the southern part of its range, we carried out a research in a large protected area, the Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park (the first investigation on this species anywhere in southern Italy). We used a playback technique to detect occurrence of Black Woodpeckers, as well as sympatric woodpecker species, and recorded environmental characteristics that might explain the bird's occurrence, such as tree species and stand age. The " extent of occurrence " of the Black Woodpecker was calculated, and its habitat preferences investigated. Occurrence of the species was clearly dependent on beech dominance, in contrast with the other woodpecker species, with an estimated total population for National Park 18.56 (± 6.19) pairs in beech-dominated woods. Habitat preferences were narrower compared to northern European populations, highlighting the dependence of this species on beech forests in southern Europe. Since beech forests in the Mediterranean region are predicted to recede due to climate change, our findings highlight the vulnerability of southern Black Woodpecker populations.
... The smooth bark, nesting at greater height and the harder substrate of beech may be a form of protection from arboreal predators like the beech marten (Martes foina) and the less common pine marten (Martes martes) (Kosiński & Kempa 2007). These arboreal mammals can easily enter BW cavities with an entrance of 7 x 12 cm (Rolstad et al. 2000, Nilsson et al. 1991, Paclík et al. 2009) and steal eggs and nestlings (Nilsson et al. 1991, Lange 1996, Rolstad 2000. Preference for nest-sites in live and harder substrate is also because these holes can persist over several years and are used successfully over a longer period (Wesołowski 2011). ...
... The smooth bark, nesting at greater height and the harder substrate of beech may be a form of protection from arboreal predators like the beech marten (Martes foina) and the less common pine marten (Martes martes) (Kosiński & Kempa 2007). These arboreal mammals can easily enter BW cavities with an entrance of 7 x 12 cm (Rolstad et al. 2000, Nilsson et al. 1991, Paclík et al. 2009) and steal eggs and nestlings (Nilsson et al. 1991, Lange 1996, Rolstad 2000. Preference for nest-sites in live and harder substrate is also because these holes can persist over several years and are used successfully over a longer period (Wesołowski 2011). ...
In this paper we present the abundance, distribution, nest-site characteristics and habitat analysis of woodpecker species in managed forests. The studied territory is part of a Special Protection Area for bird species. We found breeding evidence of six of the eight sedentary woodpecker species from Romania: Greyheaded- (Picus canus), Green- (Picus viridis), Great Spotted- (Dendrocopos major), Middle Spotted- (Dendrocopos medius), White-backed- (Dendrocopos leucotos) and Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martius). The most abundant was the Middle Spotted Woodpecker. Middle Spotted-, Green- and Great Spotted Woodpeckers excavated nest-holes most commonly in oak (Quercus petraea), Black Woodpeckers in beech (Fagus sylvatica), Greyheaded Woodpeckers in aspen (Populus tremula). White-backed Woodpeckers used only oaks as nest-trees. Weak excavators selected large trees, dead trees or soft woods for nesting, but most of the species used primarily live trees for excavation. The average diameter of nesting tree, tree height, nest height and relative nest height did not increase with the body size of the woodpecker species. Nearest neighbor analysis indicated that the local distribution of woodpecker species in most forest fragments differs from randomness. Great Spotted Woodpeckers and Black Woodpeckers presented uniform distributions, while Middle Spotted Woodpeckers aggregated distribution. Tree diameter and diversity, relative abundance of oak and aspen but also altitude affected woodpecker abundance. Black Woodpecker and Middle Spotted Woodpecker presence depends on large trees and diversity of trees. The results will contribute to forest restoration operations.
... Black Woodpecker usually utilizes tall and large trunks of many coniferous and broadleaved trees forming extensive unbroken forests (Glutz & Bauer 1980, Cramp 1985. Habitat use is possibly related to its peculiar food requirements, especially carpenter ants (Formicidae) (Cuisin 1988, Ceugniet 1989, Pechacek & Krisvtin 1993, Rolstad & Rolstad 2000. ...
... For this study, the park was divided into 2.5 × 2.5 km grid plots using ArcGIS. Although a Black Woodpecker's home range may vary in size, depending on the region, plot size was based on an average of the minimum home range sizes known for Europe (western Italian Alps: 3 km 2 , Bocca & Rolando 2003;Sweden: 5 km 2 , Tjernberg et al. 1993; Norway: 1 km 2 , Rolstad et al. 2000;Denmark: 1.30 km 2 , Johansen 1989; Hungary: 2 km 2 , Gorman 2011). A first selection of 104 grid plots was made, on the criterion that each plot had to be at least 50% covered by woodland. ...
Nell’ambito del Progetto Avifauna Campana è stata effettuata un’indagine sui Picidi del Parco Nazionale del
Cilento e Vallo di Diano. La specie oggetto di studio è il picchio nero Dryocopus martius, relitto glaciale di
cui non è mai stata fatta una stima della popolazione nel suddetto territorio. Grazie all’utilizzo del playback
sono state accertate la presenza e le preferenze ambientali di questa e altre 4 specie di Picidi: picchio rosso
maggiore Dendrocopos major, picchio rosso mezzano D. medius, picchio rosso minore D. minor e picchio
verde Picus viridis. Il territorio del parco è stato diviso in 104 parcelle utilizzando una griglia di 2.5 × 2.5 km.
Sebbene l’home range del picchio nero possa variare di dimensioni a seconda della regione, la grandezza
del reticolo è stata basata su una media delle dimensioni minime degli home range noti per questa specie
in Europa. Delle 104 parcelle iniziali ne sono state investigate 34 scelte in modo random. Ogni particella è
stata esaminata una volta con la tecnica del playback. In ogni sito sono stati misurati i seguenti parametri
ambientali: i) tipologia del bosco, ii) età del bosco, iii) altimetria e iv) presenza di alberi morti. I dati di
presenza di tutte le specie di Picidi rilevate sono stati analizzati mediante una Principal Component Analysis
(PCA) per evidenziare eventuali differenze nelle richieste ecologiche di ciascuna. A partire dai dati relativi al
picchio nero è stato elaborato un Generalised Linear Model (GLM) con presenza del faggio e età del bosco
come variabili esplicative, per verificare se questa specie predilige le faggete mature. Inoltre un GLM è stato
elaborato per verificare la relazione tra presenza del picchio verde ed età del bosco. Del picchio nero è
stato infine costruito l’extent of occurrence nel territorio del parco ed in tutto il sud Italia mediante l’utilizzo
di uno stimatore Kernel. La PCA evidenzia che il picchio nero ha preferenze ambientali marcatamente
differenti dalle altre quattro specie nell'area di studio. Il 72.7% delle presenze della specie sono state
registrate in particelle dominate a faggio, mentre solo il 27.3% è stato riscontrato in particelle di faggio con
bosco misto di querce. Il modello statistico con questi due fattori ambientali spiega il 20.1% della varianza
totale nei dati di presenza del picchio nero. La probabilità di trovare un picchio nero è risultata
significativamente correlata alla crescente dominanza di faggio (GLM, P < 0.01) ma non all’età del bosco (P
> 0.1). La densità del picchio nero è stata stimata in 0.09 (± 0.03) coppie per km2
. In base al numero totale
di particelle identificate come dominate dal faggio, la stima della popolazione di picchio nero presente nel
Parco Nazionale del Cilento è di 18.56 (± 6.19) coppie. È stato osservato che la probabilità di rilevare il
picchio verde diminuisce con l’età del bosco, ma la relazione non è significativa alla soglia del 5% (P = 0.08).
È stato altresì verificato che il picchio rosso mezzano è presente esclusivamente in cerrete pure o in boschi
misti di querce in cui il cerro risulta dominante.
... Because pine martens tend to be more restricted to forest, they are likely to discover nests within forest interiors earlier than nests located closer to clearcuts (Sonerud et al. 2023). Pine marten predation on the nests of black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius ) was also greater in mature forest compared to clearcuts (Rolstad et al. 2000). ...
... Regarding forest and canopy structure, our findings showed that a heterogeneous diameter distribution and the presence of gaps in the forest cover resulted in more diverse bat and bird communities, with generalist species entering the forest; however, our analysis also indicated that a mature forest with large trees was the preferred habitat for forest-specific birds. In the case of a threatened species in need of conservation efforts (for example, Dryocopus martius listed in annex I of the Bird Directive (79/409/CEE) requiring mature big trees for nesting and feeding, mainly on ants (Rolstad et al., 2000;Saporetti et al., 2016)) such knowledge would allow forest managers to plan for specific silvicultural interventions in a target area, and promote certain forest characteristics that align best with the species' habits. Alternatively, fostering a complex and heterogeneous forest structure in an area designated for biodiversity conservation (e.g., a regional park), with both gaps and some large trees, would allow generalist species to enter the forest but also forest-specific species to be present as already reported from other taxa by Heidrich et al. (2023). ...
The global decline of biodiversity has affected European forests, involving many tree species and forest-dwelling threatened animals. An integrated approach linking forest structure and multi-taxon diversity is increasingly needed to maintain the multifunctionality of forest ecosystems. We investigated the relationship between forest structure, deadwood elements, canopy attributes, and tree-related microhabitats on bat and bird communities in the northeastern Italian Alps. We collected forest attributes, bats, and bird data on 40 forest plots encompassing the diversity of forest types. To assess the different contributions of each forest attribute variables we performed a two-step statistical analysis using generalised and linear models, including bat and bird taxonomical and functional diversity indices as response variables. Our findings reveal that bats and birds respond differently to variation in forest structural characteristics. Specifically, bat species richness was higher in forests with both higher standing tree and lying deadwood volume. The Shannon diversity index for bird community was higher in forests with high volumes of coarse lying deadwood and stumps. Moreover, plots with mature trees, gaps, and heterogeneous diameter distribution fostered the presence of generalist species of bats and birds, while the abundance of tree-related microhabitats was not significant for these two taxa. This study demonstrates that the optimal habitat conditions for bats and birds in Alpine forests are multifaceted. Promoting distinctive elements within forest stands and a complex forest structure through adaptations in forest management interventions would enhance the conservation of multi-taxon forest biodiversity.
... This is probably related to the lack of old living broadleaved trees that have dead branches or decayed parts of the stem with soft wood formed by fungal decomposition. Hardwood trees with presence of wood decaying fungi such as Fomes fomentarius are preferred by woodpeckers for cavity excavation, presumably to save energy (Rolstad et al. 2000;Zahner et al. 2012). Trees in managed forests are relatively young and since forest management commonly removes injured and decaying trees, large living hardwood trees with signs of decay are rare. ...
Retention of habitat trees is a common biodiversity conservation practice in continuous cover forests of temperate Europe. Commonly, living habitat trees are selected on the basis of their tree-related microhabitats (TreMs) such as cavities or crown deadwood. Owing to the increasing frequency and intensity of climate change-related disturbances, habitat trees in particular are expected to experience increased mortality rates. This may impact the long-term provisioning of TreMs. Here, we compared the TreM occurrence on living and dead trees to investigate whether dead trees support more and other TreMs than living trees. We also hypothesized that a combination of living and dead trees results in the most diverse stand-level TreM composition. We surveyed the TreM composition of living and dead habitat trees in 133 one-hectare plots in the Black Forest region managed according to a continuous cover approach. We fitted generalized linear mixed models to identify the main predictors of TreM occurrence to predict their abundance and richness. Tree identity (as a combination of species and vitality status) and diameter were the main drivers of TreM abundance and richness, which were highest on dead Abies alba. Even though dead A. alba and Picea abies supported TreM numbers similar to those provided by large living trees, their TreM composition was significantly different. This suggests that dead trees cannot substitute the habitat functions of living habitat trees, but they can complement them to increase the overall stand-level TreM diversity, in particular through decayed, large snags.
... On the other hand, the cavities of Grey-headed Woodpecker in living trees were long-lasting, and they were reused much more often during their lifespan, compared to cavities in dead trees. This cavity type resembles the cavities of Great Spotted Woodpecker and Black Woodpecker, which are often excavated in relatively hard wood, compared to cavities created by other European woodpecker species (Rolstad et al. 2000, Kosiński & Winiecki 2004, Zahner et al. 2012, Hebda et al. 2017, Kosiński & Walczak 2019, and thus also exhibit longer persistence times (see above). Although the cavity tree characteristics of Great Spotted Woodpecker were highly variable in our study area, the longest lasting cavities were found in large living Aspen and Scots Pine trees (T. ...
Cavities provide suitable microhabitats for various organisms. Therefore, cavity excavators are important species in forest environments. We observed large differences in both persistence and occupancy of the cavities of Grey-headed Woodpecker Picus canus monitored during the whole cavity lifespan in a 33-year study in southern Finland. Of a total of 80 cavities studied, the median persistence time was 17 years, but this varied from a median lifespan of 29 years for cavities in living trees to only 9 years for cavities in dead trees. The expected number of lifespan nests of forest bird species per old cavity was 4.2 in living, and only 1.6 in dead trees. Ten bird species utilised the old cavities (most frequently Great Tit Parus major, Grey-headed Woodpecker and Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca). The results show that both suitable living and dead trees should be available for cavity excavators such as the Grey-headed Woodpecker, and that living and dead trees may have different, but important ecological roles for cavity-nesting birds in boreal forests.
... Additionally, the timing of nest initiation also appears to be one of the few factors influencing nest success in other species of woodpeckers (Ingold 1994, Stillman et al. 2019, Fullerton et al. 2021. Although the results of some studies, like ours, have revealed no relationship between nest-site selection and nest survival, other studies of woodpeckers, even in burned habitat, have found nest-site characteristics associated with nest success (e.g., Li and Martin 1991, Hooge et al. 1999, Rolstad et al. 2000. Thus, the role of nest-site characteristics on woodpecker nest success remains worthy of additional study. ...
For species with declining populations across their range, such as Lewis’s Woodpeckers (Melanerpes lewis), understanding habitat selection and its influence on reproductive outcomes are critical for effective management, especially in human-modified landscapes. We identified factors associated with habitat selection by Lewis’s Woodpeckers in the floodplain and burned forests across the Bitterroot Valley in Montana. We estimated population densities, determined reproductive outcomes, and examined the possible influence of forest characteristics on nest-site selection. Mean adult population densities of Lewis’s Woodpeckers were over three times greater in floodplain forest than burned forest (13.2 adults/km2 vs. 4.1 adults/km2, respectively). However, nest success was lower in floodplain (73%; CI = 62%, 82%) than in burned forest (88%; CI = 78%, 94%). Nest success also declined across the breeding season. Lewis’s Woodpeckers in the floodplain forest were more likely to nest in cavities in taller trees, forested areas with reduced canopy cover, and stands with more trees. In burned forests, the height of nest trees was the only distinguishing feature of nest-site selection. However, the characteristics of nest sites used by Lewis’s Woodpeckers did not predict nest success. Ultimately, nest success was high in both forest types and both play an important role in maintaining populations of Lewis’s Woodpeckers in our study system. Management strategies to conserve habitat for Lewis’s Woodpeckers in western Montana should focus on retention of trees and snags > 18 m in height in both forest types, as well as enhancing recruitment of cottonwoods in a floodplain forest.
... Our study was conducted near Oulu, Northern Finland (65°N, 25° 50´E), between 2012 and 2019, in a study area of approximately 60 km 2 that consisted of open scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forests. Natural cavities in our study site vary from large entrances made by black woodpeckers (Dryocopus martius, ca., 9 cm, Rolstad et al. 2000), medium-sized cavities of great spotted woodpecker and three-toed woodpecker (Dendroscopus major and Picoides tridactyla, ca., 5 cm and 4.5 cm, Gorman 2004;Kosiński and Ksit 2007), to small cavities made by willow and crested tits (Parus montanus and P. cristatus, ca., 3 cm, Denny and Summers 1996;Wesolowski 2002). Cavities are used by different secondary cavity-nesters. ...
Breeding- and nest-site choice is a behavioral strategy often used to counter negative interactions. Site choices before breeding prevent costs of predation and competition but have been neglected in the context of brood parasitism. For hosts of brood parasites, the earlier brood parasitism is prevented in the breeding cycle the lower the future costs. Suitable nest-sites for cavity-nesting common redstarts (Phoenicurus phoenicurus), a host of the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), are a limited resource, but their cavity-nesting strategy could potentially deter predators and brood parasites. We altered the entrance size of breeding cavities and investigated redstart nest-site choice and its consequences to nest predation and brood parasitism risk, although accounting for potential interspecific competition for nest sites. We set-up paired nest-boxes and let redstarts choose between 7 cm and 5 cm entrance sizes. Additionally, we monitored occupancy rates in nest-boxes with 3 cm, 5 cm, and 7 cm entrance sizes and recorded brood parasitism and predation events. We found that redstarts preferred to breed in 5 cm entrance size cavities, where brood parasitism was eliminated but nest predation rates were comparable to 7 cm entrance size cavities. Only in 3 cm cavities both, brood parasitism and predation rates were reduced. In contrast to the other cavity-nesting species, redstart settlement was lowest in 3 cm entrance size cavities, potentially suggesting interspecific competition for small entrance size cavities. Nest-site choice based on entrance size could be a frontline defense strategy that redstarts use to reduce brood parasitism.
... Certain TreMs such as lightning scars might benefit from both age and dbh since lightning strikes on trees are quite rare in temperate forests and a large dbh often accompanies tree dominance and canopy exposure. Finally, TreMs such as woodpecker breeding holes require trees large enough to provide adequate trunk volume (Rolstad et al., 2000). Moreover, the ontogenic stage of the tree (i.e. ...
A Tree-related Microhabitat (TreM) is a distinct, well-delineated morphological singularity occurring on living or standing dead trees, which constitutes a crucial substrate or life site for various species. TreMs are widely recognized as key features for biodiversity. Current TreM typology identifies 47 TreM types according to their morphology and their associated taxa. In order to provide a range of resolutions and make the typology more user-friendly, these 47 TreM types have been pooled into 15 groups and seven forms. Depending on the accuracy required and the time available, a user can now choose to describe TreMs at resolution levels corresponding to type, group or form. Another way to more easily record TreMs during routine management work would be to use co-occurrence patterns to reduce the number of observed TreMs required. Based on a large international TreM database (2052 plots; 70,958 individual trees; 78 tree species), we evaluated both the significance and the magnitude of TreM co-occurrence on living trees for 11 TreM groups. We highlighted 33 significant co-occurrences for broadleaves and nine for conifers. Bark loss, rot hole, crack and polypore had the highest number of positive co-occurrences (N = 8) with other TreMs on broadleaves; bark loss (N = 4) had the highest number for conifers. We found mutually exclusive occurrences only for conifers: Exposed Heartwood excluded both dendrotelm and sap run. Among the four variables we tested for their positive contribution to significant co-occurrences, tree diameter at breast height was the most consistent. Based on our results and practical considerations , we selected three TreM groups for broadleaves, and nine for conifers, and formed useful short lists to reduce the number of TreM groups to assess during routine forest management work in the field. In addition, detecting potential similarities or associations between TreMs has potential theoretical value, e.g. it may help researchers identify common factors favouring TreM formation or help managers select trees with multiple TreMs as candidates for retention.
... During the tree senescence and decay process, favourable conditions for microhabitats are at work: softened and dried wood allows cavity builders to nest and forage more easily (woodpeckers, e.g. Rolstad et al., 2000; Table 4 Model selection (GLMM with binomial distribution) by AICc for individual microhabitats. The number of degrees of freedom was that specified by the log-likelihood function (named logLik, Bolker et al., 2009). ...
Une étude du Cemagref livre ses premiers résultats; suprenants: la fréquence des micro-habitats dépend moins du mode de gestion que des caractéristiques des arbres.
... Our results showed that conifer-dominated forests are generally poorer in microhabitats, especially in tree cavities (see also Paillet et al., 2017). This is likely related to the foraging and nesting habits of cavity excavators, which tend to prefer broadleaved trees (e.g., Kosinski et al., 2018;Rolstad, Rolstad, & Saeteren, 2000), as well as to the higher persistence of decayed cavities on broadleaved trees (Paillet et al., 2019;Wesołowski, 2011). Unsurprisingly, unmanaged forests displayed significantly higher cavity densities than their managed counterparts, due to the higher occurrence of large trees and snags in these forests (Kozák et al., 2018;Paillet et al., 2017). ...
Recent studies reveal the use of tree cavities by wild honeybee colonies in European forests. This highlights the conservation potential of forests for a highly threatened component of the native entomofauna in Europe, but currently no estimate of potential wild honeybee population sizes exists. Here, we analyzed the tree cavity densities of 106 forest areas across Europe and inferred an expected population size of wild honeybees. Both forest and management types affected the density of tree cavities. Accordingly, we estimated that more than 80,000 wild honeybee colonies could be sustained in European forests. As expected, potential conservation hotspots were identified in unmanaged forests, and, surprisingly, also in other large forest areas across Europe. Our results contribute to the EU policy strategy to halt pollinator declines and reveal the potential of forest areas for the conservation of so far neglected wild honeybee populations in Europe.
... Im Wesentlichen maßgeblich für das Angebot an Großhöhlen ist die Bestandessituation des Schwarzspechts (SCHLOTE 1994). Schwarzspechte beanspruchen Territorien von 300 bis 600 ha, die neben ausreichend dimensionierten Bäumen für die Anlage von Höhlen einen entsprechenden Anteil an Totholz aufweisen müssen, um den Nahrungsbedarf der Vögel mit holzbewohnenden Insekten zu decken (KOSINSKI & KEMPA 2007;LANG & SIKORA 1981;SCHERZINGER 1981;ROLSTAD et al. 2000). Spechte nutzen die von ihnen angelegten Höhlen als Brut-und Schlafraum (BLUME 1996). ...
... The Three-toed Woodpecker, like many other woodpecker species, is known to excavate several unfinished cavities each spring before the actual nesting cavity is made ready (Blume 1968, Ruge 1974, Cramp 1985, Pechacek & dOleire-Oltmanns 2004, Zahner et al. 2012, Pakkala et al. 2017. Furthermore, old unfinished cavities can be completed for nesting even several years after they were started (Blume 1968, Ivanchev 1997, Rolstad et al. 2000, Meyer & Meyer 2001, Matsuoka 2010. The suitability of a nest tree, especially its hardness, is also commonly tested by excavating several small trial holes in different parts of the tree (Blume 1968, Matsuoka 2008, 2010, Lorenz et al. 2015. ...
The Three-toed Woodpecker Picoides tridactylus is a mature and old-growth forest specialist but how the species uses trees for nesting in its breeding sites and whether cavity trees are a critical habitat feature is poorly known. We studied the nest tree characteristics of the species in a 170-km2 area in southern Finland during 1987-2016. The data included 538 nest trees of eight different species and 665 nest cavities in 86 territory areas. Norway spruce Picea abies was the predominant nest tree comprising 71 % of all nest trees. Proportionally, deciduous nest trees were more common in moist forests on mineral soils and conifer nest trees more common in spruce swamps. The majority of nest trees (85 %) were dead or decaying trees; higher numbers of dead deciduous nest trees were recorded than dead conifer trees. The mean diameter of a nest tree at diameter at breast height (DBH) was 29.4 cm and the mean height of a cavity hole was 5.1 m; size and height were significantly positively correlated. The proportion of deciduous nest trees was significantly higher (45 %) in natural forests compared with other areas subjected to variable amounts of forest management, where the respective proportion was only 9-17 %. In addition, cavity holes were significantly higher in natural forests than in managed ones. In general, the results highlight the substantial flexibility in nest tree use but also the importance of large dead and decaying trees (including deciduous trees) as nest cavity sites for the species. Spruce swamps can be considered as key nesting habitats in managed forest landscapes.
... However, based on the information of nest trees of different woodpecker species in boreal forests (e.g. Pynnönen, 1939;Pouttu, 1985;Hågvar et al., 1990;Johnsson, 1993;Rolstad et al., 1995;Stenberg, 1996;Rolstad, et al., 2000;T. Pakkala, unpublished), we can expect substantially longer survival times for Great Spotted and Black Woodpecker cavities compared with those of the Three-toed Woodpecker, because the former two species use bigger, harder, and healthier trees for their nest cavities. ...
Primary cavity-producers like woodpeckers are often considered as keystone species, because they produce nest-sites also for several other cavity-nesting animals and, thus, maintain ecological webs of cavity-breeders. However, the detailed temporal dynamics of cavities and their lifetime occupancy rates and survival are not usually known which makes it difficult to assess the actual significance and full impact of primary cavity-breeders. In this study, we monitored cavities in a large forest landscape, covering the full lifetime of cavities. We focused on a mature and old-growth forest specialist cavity-breeder, the Three-toed Woodpecker Picoides tri-dactylus. The data include the annual occupancy history of 655 old cavities of the Three-toed Woodpecker in 86 territories in a 170-km 2 area in southern Finland during 1987-2017. The study area included both managed and natural forest types. The median survival time of a cavity was 10 years, but there were significant differences between forest area types with a range of 7-13 years. The occupancy in all cavities was 21.3%, and the cavities were available for secondary cavity-breeders each year. There was a significant negative correlation between the occupancy and the age of the cavity. The first five years of a cavity were important for the total occupancy, and 86% of occupancies took place before the median age of the cavities. In cavities older than 15 years the occupancy was only 7%. The pattern was similar in all types of forests. Our results show that cavities made by Three-toed Woodpeckers have rather long lifespan but also that their active use by other cavity-breeding species is restricted mostly to few years only. The result indicates that new, fresh cavities are needed continuously in a forest landscape, in order to maintain the role that Three-toed Woodpecker has as a keystone species.
... This rule also applies to the black woodpecker, which is considered to be an old forest specialist (Raivio & Haila 1990) and keystone species especially in suitable habitat for secondary-cavity breeders (Brambilla & al. 2013). Requires large dead decaying trees and a sufficient food source in its habitat, such as the larvae of saproxylic insects, which are dependent on dead wood matter (Rolstad & al. 2000). In order to sustain its population, the fragments of old-growth forests must be large enough and include numerous old and dead trees (Jokimäki & Solonen 2011. ...
This paper presents the results of the ornithological research performed in the oldest dry coniferous forests of Kampinos National Park (central Poland). The field study took place on three 25-ha-sites overgrown with Scots pine Pinus sylvestris over 150 years old. The species composition of the dominant group was found to differ from that of other forests. Hole-nesters constituted the most important part of the population of birds together with old and mature forest specialists and residents. Hole-nesters were numerously represented (50% of all noted pairs). Old and mature forest specialists constituted 40% of all pairs. Seven species connected to natural forest clearings were also found to be of significant importance. The presence of such ecological groups is proof of the biological balance and diversity of the researched forests.
... Differences in size of nesting holes excavated by different woodpeckers could affect the usage of nest sites by secondary cavity-nesters, which may have an impact on avian community structure in secondary forests. Key words: great spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major), grey-headed woodpecker (Picus canus), yellow-rumped flycatcher (Ficedula zanthopygia), Eurasian nuthatch (Sitta europaea), nest sites characteristics 洞巢鸟类集团作为温带次生林鸟类群落的重 要组成部分, 其繁殖期活动都是从竞争有限的洞巢 资源开始的 (Minot & Perrins, 1986)。适宜的洞巢资 源对于洞巢鸟的繁殖非常重要, 进而影响洞巢鸟的 种群大小 (Scott, 1979;Newton, 1994;Holt & Martin, 1997 Rolstad et al., 2000;Aubry & Raley, 2002;Czeszczewik & Walankiewicz, 2003;Mitrus & Soćko, 2004), 而从种间关系层面上探讨洞巢鸟巢址差异 的研究较少 (Martin & Eadie, 1999;Kosiński & Wi- niecki, 2004;Martin et al., 2004)。另外, 目前的研究 主要在原始森林中进行 (Arsenault, 2004;Bai et al., 2005 & Rolstad, 1995;Wiktander et al., 2001), & Nilsson, 1983;Wang et al., 2007 Table 4 Comparison of characteristics of nest-sites between yellow-rumped flycatcher (Ficedula zanthopygia) and Eurasian nuthatch (Sitta europaea) & Gauthier, 1985;Martin et al., 2004 & Eadie, 1999)。 在温带次生阔叶林中, 洞巢资源作为种内和种 间竞争的一种有限资源而受到关注( Waters et al., 1990;Sánchez et al., 2007;周大庆等, 2009 ...
Diverse group of cavity-nesting birds inhabit secondary forests of northeastern China, accounting for about one-third of breeding avian species. We examined differences in nest-site characteristics amongfour cavity-nesting birds, including two cavity excavators (i.e., great spotted woodpecker [Dendrocopos major] and grey-headed woodpecker [Picus canus]) and two secondary cavity-nesters (i.e., yellow-rumped flycatcher [Ficedula zanthopygia] and Eurasian nuthatch [Sitta europaea]) in Dagang Forestry Farm, Jilin Province, China. We detected total 160 active hole nests in the breeding season of 2008, including 58 nests of cavity excavators and 102 of secondary cavity-nesters. Secondary cavity-nesters tend to prefer Salix pierotii for nestingtrees, but the excavators not. Picus canus used south-facing cavities, which may have been due to thermal advantages. Nest tree and nest-site quadrat characteristics were different between the two excavator species. Specifically, there were significant differences in the entrance diameter and cavity inner diameter between the nest sites of Dendrocopos major and Picus canus, and the entrance length and canopy height of nest tree between Ficedula zanthopygia and Sitta europaea. The characteristics at the scale of nest tree were important for distinguishing nest sites for cavity excavators as well as secondary cavity-nesters. Discriminant analyses illustrated that Ficedula zanthopygia and Sitta europaea used cavities excavated by Dendrocopos major and Picus canus, respectively. Differences in size of nesting holes excavated by different woodpeckers could affect the usage of nest sites by secondary cavity-nesters, which may have an impact on avian community structure in secondary forests.
... Although clutch size has been reported to be influenced by latitude in many bird species, other breeding parameters such as the number of fledglings per successful nest probably depend less on geographical determinants (Sanz, 1998). Reproductive performance in the black woodpecker is influenced by territory quality (Rolstad et al., 2000) and, possibly, by age, experience, duration of bond and kinship between the pair members, although these latter aspects have seldom been investigated in European woodpeckers (Christensen & Kampp, 2003;Passinelli, 2006). Regarding our study area, we do not have data to exclude any of these hypotheses. ...
... The characteristics of the nest trees are an average DBH of 63.33 cm and an average tree height of 26.67 m (Domokos and Cristea, 2014). They mainly breed in living beech, aspen and Scots pine (Zahner et al., 2012; Rolstad et al., 2000) The White-backed woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos) is a forest specialist and prefers mainly broad-leaved forests (Glutz von Blotzheim and Bauer, 1980 ), low proportion of spruce plantations , and a large amount of deadwood (fallen timber: 50-58.2 m 3 /ha, snags >11-20 cm DBH, 56 snags/ha) (Czeszczewik and Walankiewicz, 2006; Czeszczewik, 2009; Gjerde et al., 2005; Kajtoch et al., 2013 ). ...
... In the long term, even generalist woodpeckers depend on a connected habitat network of high-quality habitats and 'stepping stones' (Saura et al. 2014) but small set-asides in production forests ('key habitats') cover only 0.3 % of the Estonian forest area (Keskkonnateabe Keskus 2013). On the other hand, the increasing use of retention forestry (Gustafsson et al. 2012) can create alternative resources for woodpeckers in commercial forests (e.g., Rolstad et al. 2000a). In fact, deadwood-dependent cryptogams are not necessarily aggregated to current key habitats in Estonia and their colonization of afforested areas indicates relatively favorable connectivity of the landscape matrix (Lõhmus and Lõhmus 2008;Lõhmus 2011a). ...
We assessed ecological sustainability of seminatural forestry by analyzing 80-year dynamics and the current distribution of all woodpecker species in Estonia. We found that, despite the clear-cutting-based forestry system, woodpeckers inhabited commercial seminatural forests in substantial numbers, including the species generally considered vulnerable to timber harvesting. The only negative trend, a drastic decline in the Green Woodpecker, paralleled the loss of seminatural, wooded grasslands and is mostly an issue for landscape planning and agricultural land use. Major silvicultural factors supporting other species in commercial forests include natural regeneration with multiple native tree species and deadwood abundance. In such context, the main role of protected areas is to provide ecological resilience; however, we estimated that the current strict reserves could further double their carrying capacities for woodpeckers through successional recovery and, perhaps, active restoration. The long time series used were instrumental in detecting unexpected dynamics and the impacts of climatically extreme years. We conclude that (1) seminatural forestry can serve as a basis for reconciling timber harvesting and biodiversity protection at the landscape scale, given appropriate attention to key structures and landscape zoning and (2) woodpeckers represent a biological indicator system for the sustainability of forest landscapes in Europe.
... Ziemowit Kosiński , Marcin Kempa of Black Woodpecker holes , nesting at greater height may be a form of protection against Pine Martens . Moreover , preference for nest - sites in live substrate may positively affect the nest microclimate and , in consequence , reproductive success and offspring fitness ( Rolstad et al . 2000 , Wi eb e 2001 ) . Further - more , such nest - holes may be used success - fully over a longer period ( but see Ni l ls on et al . 1991 ) . Since nest - site preferences appear to be influenced by microclimatic conditions it could be expected that woodpeckers would prefer to orient nest - holes to direct insola - tion , i . e . , towar ...
Abundance, distribution and nest-site characteristics of woodpecker species (family Picidae), i.e., Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major L.), Middle Spotted Woodpecker (D. medius L.), Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (D. minor L.), Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martius L.), Grey-faced Woodpecker (Picus canus Gmel.) and Wryneck (Jynx torquilla L.), coexisting in managed forest are described. All species preferred old deciduous forest stands (≥81 years old) as nest-sites, however, they differed in most aspects of nest site selection. Great- and Middle Spotted Woodpeckers excavated nest-holes most commonly in oaks (78 and 86% of nests, respectively), but Black- and Grey-faced Woodpeckers in beeches (71 and 100% of nests). However, placement of nest-holes within the same tree species differed among woodpecker species. Great Spotted- and Grey-faced Woodpeckers nested three meters lower (9 m) compared to Middle Spotted and Black Woodpeckers (12 m), Lesser Spotted- Woodpeckers excavated breeding holes relatively the highest in respect to tree height. With the exception of Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers, all specie used live trees as nest sites. Weaker excavators such as Middle Spotted- and Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers, nested more frequently in limbs and branches (31 and 25% of nests, respectively) compared to strong excavators, i.e., Great Spotted-, Black- and Grey-faced Woodpeckers (<8% of nests in limbs or branches). Weaker excavators more frequently selected dead tree fragments compared to strong excavators.
... Therefore, our results suggest that this fitness decline may be attenuated by the level of retention in cutblocks which would provide favorable foraging substrates near the nest and also by the lower nest predation pressure suggested in these stands. Indeed, some studies report that woodpeckers may prefer to nest in retention trees in cutblocks, because of the lower risk of nest predation observed there (Rolstad et al., 2000;Craig, 2013). Specific studies are needed to clarify predator pressure and nest occupancy by cavity users in harvested and old forest stands in boreal coniferdominated forests. ...
The Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius in Honshu, Japan, lost much of its habitat due to logging of native beech forests, mainly during the period of rapid economic growth during the 20th century. Black Woodpeckers occur only in a few areas of natural beech forest in the northern Tohoku region, although there is much uncertainty concerning the species' current distribution in Honshu. Details of the ecology of the woodpeckers in the region have yet to be unraveled. Here, I give a brief review of the history of research into the Black Woodpeckers in Honshu, and describe its ecology. My aim is to summarize what has been clarified so far and to present the issues that need to be addressed in future if this population is to survive. Black Woodpeckers forage on ants, mainly consisting of Camponotus obscuripes. The roles of both sexes in breeding are equally clear, although female woodpeckers are thought likely to choose their nesting sites. It has been reported that even when one of the pair dies, the remaining adult continues caring for the nestlings until they fledge. Fledglings are observed mainly in mid-June, with an average of 2.2 nestlings fledging per nest (close to the average number reported from West Germany). The woodpeckers use only live trees, the ecological reasons for which are unknown. Their nest holes are used by other birds and mammals, and the woodpeckers may play a role as a keystone species in their habitat. Observations of the Black Woodpecker in Honshu were reported in the Kanbun-Kinpu, published in the Edo period in 1831. Later researchers, such as Magojiro Kawaguchi, confirmed the species's occurrence in Honshu, and this became widely known. It is likely that gene flow between the major population of the species in Hokkaido and small populations in northern Honshu has always been limited. The Black Woodpecker population in Honshu is suspected of requiring urgent conservation activities. It is important to investigate the criteria that these woodpeckers use to select their nesting sites. For example, the characteristics of the environment around their nest trees, the diameter at breast height range of nest trees, the distance from lower branches to nest holes, the inclination of nesting trees, and the sizes of nest holes in Honshu are not well understood and require urgent study.
Site fidelity after successful nesting and site shift after nest predation (win–stay, lose–shift) is a well-documented adaptation to spatially heterogeneous and temporally auto-correlated predation risk. However, site shift even after a successful nesting (win–shift) may become a better tactic than site fidelity (win–stay), if a successful nest site becomes more risky until the next nesting opportunity, and if new low-risk nest sites regularly appear. Correspondingly, selecting a new non-used nest site may become a better tactic than selecting one previously used successfully by a conspecific. I studied this dynamic by focusing on nest cavities that may be available for many years, and using nest boxes to allow an experimental design. At localities where Boreal Owls ( Aegolius funereus ) had nested successfully, a dyad of nest boxes was made available each year, one box in the original nest tree and one in a new tree for the season, each containing either old nest material from the successful nesting or new wood shavings. Boreal owls were more likely to select the box in the new tree when more years had elapsed since the successful nesting and since a box was installed in the original nest tree, independent of box content. The pattern of selection differed between young and old individuals for males, but not females. Young males based their selection of nest tree mainly on box content, while old males based it on time elapsed since the successful nesting in the original nest tree and how long a box had been present there. The probability of depredation of Boreal Owl nests by Pine Marten ( Martes martes ) has previously been found to increase with cavity age and number of nesting seasons elapsed since the previous successful nesting. This pattern of nest predation thus predicted the pattern of nest site selection found.
Cambridge Core - Natural Resource Management, Agriculture, Horticulture and forestry - Ecology and Conservation of Forest Birds - edited by Grzegorz Mikusiński
Ecology and Conservation of Forest Birds - edited by Grzegorz Mikusiński March 2018
This chapter discusses challenges and possibilities involved in preserving biological diversity and the diversity of ecosystem services in the boreal zone and yet at the same time maintaining intensive timber extraction in boreal forests. Our focus is on Fennoscandian forests at the landscapes level, and we consider economic, social, and ecological in the sustainability of forest management. We provide an outlook to boreal forest ecosystems and their history and an overview of the forestry practices and policies that aim to ensure multifunctionality of Fennoscandian forests, i.e., diversity of efforts on sustaining biodiversity, timber production, and other ecosystem services from forest landscapes. We review the current scientific understanding management effects on the structure and dynamics of the forest at different spatial, and the consequent repercussions on forest biodiversity and ecosystem services. Evidence suggests that many ecosystem services and biodiversity are in conflict with intensive timber production in boreal forests. We therefore present methods for assessing conflicts among alternative forest uses and for finding solutions for conflicts. We conclude the chapter by providing insights for future management aiming at sustainability from economic, ecological, and social perspectives.
Zawadzka D., Zawadzki G. 2017. Charakterystyka drzew gniazdowych dzięcioła czarnego w Puszczy Augustowskiej. Sylwan 161 (12): 1002−1009. The Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius excavates nesting holes in big trees and use dead wood for foraging. It is considered as a key and an indicator species in the protection of biodiversity of forest ecosystems, because its cavities condition the possibility of breeding the biggest secondary cavity−nesters, bats, and some species of wasps. We studied preferences of the Black Woodpecker towards the nesting trees in the Augustów Forest (NE Poland). It is an extensive forest complex covering 114 000 ha, dominated by fresh and mixed fresh coniferous forest sites. Scots pine Pinus sylvestris occupies 78% of forest area. Stands older than 100 years cover about 18% of the study area. We searched for trees with cavities of the Black Woodpecker in stands older than 60 years. We identified tree species, their age and health condition. The breast height diameter and height of trees and height of the cavities above ground were measured. Additionally, cavity entrance orien− tation were estimated. We found a total number of 150 nesting trees with 229 cavities excavated by the Black Woodpecker. Pines constituted 95% of nesting trees. Cavities were found also in Betula pendula and Populus tremula. Live trees predominated among trees with cavities. Dead trees (only pines) constituted 12% of all. More than one (form 2 to 6) cavity entrances were recorded in almost 30% of nesting trees. Woodpeckers excavated cavities in pines in age from 92 to 222, 159 years old on average. Taken together, 90% of cavity pines were older than 110 years. The height of nesting trees varied from 21 to 37.5 m (30.5 m on average), and its breast height diameter was 32−96 cm with mean of 54 cm. Over 90% of trees with woodpeckers' cavities had dbh larger than 40 cm, and almost 50% between 50 and 60 cm. The mean height of cavity entrances was 12.8 (6−27) m. There was no dependence between the height of cavities and the thickness of trees. The entrance orientation was dominated by east and north (together 58%). Birds selected the least often an entrance in southwest (only 2.3%). The Augustów Forest is the only study plot in Europe, where so strong domination of pines among nesting trees of the Black Woodpecker was recorded. The preferred tree species in south and west part of the continent is Fagus sylvatica. The Black Woodpecker uses for nests mainly the oldest pines, but it is related to the thickness, and not directly to the age of these trees. The maintenance of pine dominated stands older than 120 years is necessary for the Black Woodpecker protection in the Augustów Forest.
The Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) is described as a key creator of nesting cavities. Nevertheless, data on nest depredation at Black Woodpecker cavities are scarce. We continuously monitored 72 Black Woodpecker tree cavities by means of camera trapping during one breeding season in different temperate Beech forest (Fagus sylvatica) areas in southern Germany. We assessed the frequency of visits of the different predator species at the tree cavities. We found that cavities visited by predators and those which remained undetected by potential predators did not differ according to factors that are assumed to drive cavity selection in order to reduce predation risk. We conclude that, under the conditions prevailing in our study regions, Black Woodpecker cavity nesters cannot substantially further reduce depredation risk by nest cavity site selection.
Investigation of the ecological characteristics of wildlife species and determination of habitat
suitability for them is one of the main pillars for wildlife management and protection. In this
study, the winter and spring habitat suitability of black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) was
studied in Shast Kalateh forest. Habitat characteristics, including forest vegetationtype, structural
characteristics of vegetation and topographic parameters together with presence and absence of
woodpeckers were recorded within each of 103 sampling plots with a radius of 25 m. The
Results of binary logistic regression showed that forest vegetation type, the number of snags,
fallen dead trees and trees with height more than 20 m together with habitat elevation (a.s.l.)
were the most important parameters affecting the presence of black woodpecker in spring.
Moreover, forest vegetation type, the number of snags, trees with height more than 20 m and
trees with dbh more than 20 cm together with the elevation (a.s.l.) and slope of habitat were the
most important parameters affecting the presence of black woodpecker in winter. The results
indicated that this bird species prefers old forest habitats composed with tall and thick trees
specially beech trees. Due to high dependency of species such as black woodpecker on the old
and undisturbed forest habitats, controlling severe exploitation of such habitats is therefore essential
for the conservation of such bird species.
Oak‑hornbeam forests are among the most densely populated by birds forest
types. Due to this research on hole‑nesters
was performed in a chosen oak‑hornbeam
stand in Kampinos National Park. One of the researched parameters was the availability of potential
nesting sites for this group of birds. The research was conducted in the year 2012 on a site
covering a total area of 13,5 ha and located in an oak‑hornbeam
fragment of Strict Protection
Area Zaborów Leśny. The territories of birds inhabiting tree‑hollows
and crevices, as well as
all existing tree‑hollows
and crevices (including not inhabited) were counted. The species of
trees in which the hollows were located were noted. The gathered data allowed the analysis of
the distribution of species, their habitat preferences regarding tree species and the potential
availability of hollows in various species of trees. The highest number of tree‑hollows
was
found in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) – the most numerous tree on the site. Aspen (Populus
tremula) appeared to be the species of highest importance to hole‑nesters
since many hollows
were noted in aspen trunks despite this species sparse proportion in the stand. Woodpeckers
frequently created tree hollows in oaks (Quercus sp.) mostly due to their advanced age
and poor technical condition. The hornbeams (Carpinus betulus)growing on the site were of
young age and no tree hollows were found in them, however the trunks of this species had
the most crevices and niches frequently inhabited by such birds as the tawny owl (Strix aluco)
and red‑
breasted flycatcher (Ficedula parva).
In 1995-2010, during territory mapping of birds in large woodland areas or during special surveys for the species, 176 breeding attempts of Black Woodpecker were monitored in The Netherlands (Fig. 1). Young were measured (maximum wing chord), weighed and ringed. Nestlings were sexed by the quantity of red on the head. Onset of laying was calculated by estimating the age of oldest chicks based on their wing length (Fig. 3). Although the monitored nests were concentrated in the northern and central parts of The Netherlands (Fig. 1), the data may be regarded as representative for the entire country. Woodland covers nearly 11% of The Netherlands. The larger woodland areas (which host most of the woodpecker pairs) have been planted after 1900 with mainly coniferous trees. Important tree species are Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris, Pedunculate Oak Quercus robur, Douglas Fir Pseudotsuga menziesii, Japanese Larch Larix kaempferi, Norway Spruce Picea abies and Beech Fagus sylvatica. Most stands are intensively managed and thinned every five years. Mean distance between territories in continuous habitat averaged 1498 m (SD=892, N=no). Minimum distances between occupied nests were 270-472 m. Densities varied between 0.1 and 0.5 pairs per 100 ha woodland. Nests were found mainly in Beech trees (89% of N=i75). Calculated laying date in 149 nests varied between 27 March and 21 May (Fig. 2), mean onset of laying was 15 April (SD=io.5). Probably most clutches that were started in May were repeat clutches. Complete clutches contained on average 3-82 eggs (SD=o.75, N=io6). Clutch size decreased with laying date. In most cases the number of chicks was lower than clutch size, but it remained unclear whether this was a result of mortality of embryos or mortality of young. Successful nests fledged on average 2.92 young (SD=o.74, N=i28). A negative correlation between laying date and number of fledglings per successful nest was partly explained by the seasonal decline in clutch size. The secondary sex ratio (10 or more days after birth) among chicks was 49.6% males (N=383) and not significantly different from 1. Sex ratio was not related to laying date, clutch size or brood size. Age differences between chicks within a brood, estimated from wing length, were limited (for the first four chicks, 0.4, 0.9 and 1.8 days respectively), hardly increased with age (Fig. 3) and were not influenced by laying date. Male nestlings were heavier than females, on average 30 g (12%) at fledging (Fig. 4). When corrected for sex and age, weight differences among chicks were larger between than within broods, but first-born chicks were up to 5% heavier than their later born siblings. In broods from which no or only one young fledged, young were in poorer condition than in broods fledging 2-4 chicks. Chicks in early-laid clutches were heavier than those in late ones (Fig. 5). In 103 breeding attempts, mean daily survival rate was 0.9943 (SE=o.ooi5), resulting in a nest success over 43 days of 78% (69-89%). Failures during incubation were due to usurpation by Jackdaw Corvus monedula (ix), hatching failure (ix), and (probable) predation (8x). In one fresh nest in a live Douglas Fir, the eggs probably were inadvertently removed by the inhabitants after becoming stuck to its plumage due to raisin leaking from the nest entrance. During the breeding stage chicks were deserted, possibly due to death of one or both parents (4X), became hypothermal by incoming rainwater (2x), drowned in the cavity after severe rainfall (7X), or were (probably) predated (7X). With on average 69-89% successful breeding attempts and 2.8-3.0 young per successful attempt, Dutch Black Woodpeckers produced 2.0-2.6 young per pair annually (95%-c.l.). This resulted in a stable population during the study period. The reproduction figures and density of breeding pairs from The Netherlands are not in contrast with figures from other European countries. Apparently the Black Woodpecker has not been hampered by the young age of trees, the plantation of exotic tree species and intensive harvesting of timber in Dutch forests.
In wildlife, fisheries, forestry, and range management departments around the country, natural resource scientists and their students advance understanding of the natural world largely through the collection and analysis of data. These students learn how to acquire data in the field and analyze them using modeling and other statistical methods. What they do not learn, contends author Fred S. Guthery, is what science means as an intellectual pursuit and where natural resource science fits in the scientific tradition. He argues that without education about the nature and philosophy of science, the wildlife field has become enamored with its methodologies at the expense of gaining real knowledge, leading to what some have characterized as "a crisis in how wildlife science is pursued." With A Primer on Natural Resource Science, Guthery intends to put learning about the nature of science into the natural resource scientist's university curriculum. In the first part of the book, "Perspectives," Guthery describes the principles of the scientific endeavor, discussing the nature of reasoning, of facts, of creativity and critical thinking. In the second part, "Practice," he presents the "mechanics" of science, explaining the roles of experiment, observation, models, and statistics. He also demystifies the essential activity of publishing, telling students and researchers why they must do it and how to do it successfully. Throughout the book, Guthery uses his long experience and the body of his own research to relate the philosophical underpinnings of science to the realities of field biology. By providing real-life examples in the practice of natural resource science, Guthery offers practical, occasionally painful, and sometimes humorous lessons on the human urge to know about nature through science.
Large snow depths are assumed to constrain the Black Woodpecker's (Dryocopus martius) ability to feed on carpenter ants (Camponotus herculeanus) in stumps and logging debris following clearcutting. To document foraging behavior in a snow-rich area, we radio-marked three Black Woodpeckers in Nordmarka, southcentral Norway, and compared the results with data from a nearby snow-poor area at Varaldskogen (Rolstad et al. 1998). At snow depths below ca. 1 m, birds were feeding on carpenter ants in stumps and dead downed wood. At snow depths above 1 m birds increasingly fed on carpenter ants in the base of trunks of infested living trees, and on bark beetles (Ips typographus) and beetle larvae in dead standing trees. Home ranges at Nordmarka were markedly larger (mean = 449 ha, SD = 71, n = 3) than at Varaldskogen (mean = 226 ha, SD = 109, n = 23). One female at Nordmarka, killed by a pine marten (Martes martes), had lost 20% of body mass due to starvation. The results indicate that winter food limits Black Woodpecker populations in snow-rich managed forests, and we suggest that arboreal feeding on bark beetles renders the birds more vulnerable to goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) predation.
On the Starkey Experimental Forest in northeastern Oregon pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) nested in dead ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) (73%), dead western larch (Larix occidentalis) (25%), or live grand fir (Abies grandis (2%). The diameter at breast height (dbh) of 105 nest trees averaged 84 cm, and nest height averaged 15 m. Fifty-five percent of nest trees had broken-off tops. At 67% of the nest sites the surrounding stand was Grand Fir Forest Type. Trees used for roosting were similar to nest trees but had been dead longer. Juveniles dispersed an average of 3.4 km from where they were raised to where they later nested.
During the last century the black woodpecker Drycopus maritus has expanded m range in central and western Europe Habitat changes were the most common explanations of these expansions I compared changes m forest characteristics in countries where different black woodpecker population trends were observed Results showed that countries with positive population trends had significantly higher increase in coniferous forest volume These countries had also significantly higher proportion of young forest stands The importance of coniferous forests, as well as importance of forest structure for the black woodpecker, are discussed