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Abstract—There is no gain saying our Planet has changed
fundamentally. Our World is undergoing a catastrophic
climatic drift and is hotter today than it has been in two
thousand years. Global temperatures are believed to be on an
ever increasing high, with its attendant consequences and it is
feared that the trend will continued if not controlled. Some of
the causative agents/ indicators of this menace are human
propelled and induced and can be curtailed to the barest
minimum. The consequences of not attending to these variables
are dire, affecting global temperatures, weather patterns, sea
acidity and aquatic life, prevalence of pests and diseases, poor
agricultural yield, to mention but a few. This paper is an
expose on the imperativeness of, inter-relationship between,
and negative impacts of climate change and global warming,
on the entire ecosystem. Comparative excerpts are highlighted
and solutions proffered.
Index Terms—Climate, ecosystem, global warming, weather
patterns.
I. INTRODUCTION
Climate is defined by the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary as
the regular pattern of weather condition of a particular place.
These weather conditions could be classified into mild,
temperate, warm and wet depending on season and/ or
location. Conclusive evidences however show a drift from
the normal pattern of weather condition to a rather harmful
and adverse trend as climate is now known to have a
negative effect on the environment and invariably on the
Ecosystem, both animate and inanimate [1].
The Planet Earth is known to be surrounded by an
atmosphere composed primarily of Nitrogen and Oxygen
and is 149,600,000 Km from the Sun. Gases known as
GREENHOUSE GASES contribute to the warming of the
Earth’s atmosphere by reflecting radiation from the Earth’s
surface (examples are Carbon dioxide, Ozone and Water
Vapor). The term which most appropriately describes the
aforementioned process is called Greenhouse Effect, which
is the warming of the Earth’s surface as a result of
atmospheric pollution by gases (Encarta Dictionary). It is
now feared that the warming effect are being undesirably
increased, causing climatic changes and melting Polar Ice
caps.
Since the 1980s, research findings have indicated that the
Ozone Layer of the Earth’s crust, which is the upper layer of
the atmosphere where most atmospheric Ozone gas collects
Manuscript received November 20, 2012; revised January 25, 2013.
Dafang John Maton is with Nigerian Building and Road Research
Institute (NBRRI), Abuja (e-mail: dafangmaton@yahoo.com)
and absorbs harmful Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, is
being depleted by Industrial pollutants such as Chloroflouro
carbons (CFCs) which are slowly but surely creating holes
on this layer of the atmosphere. This is especially so over
the Antarctic with the resultant effect of direct penetration
of unalloyed, uncushioned radiation, which poses great
danger in ripple-effect sequence on the entire Globe.
It can thus be inferred that Climate change in the context
of Global trends affects negatively all forms of life since it
leads to land degradation, fresh water shortages, food
shortages/ insecurity, Global warming, flooding and shelter/
comfortable accommodation deficits, health care challenges
etc [1].
II. CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE ISSUES
The Greenhouse effect is natural and many of these
greenhouse gases are actually life-enabling, for without
them, heat would escape back into space and the Earth’s
average temperature would be a lot colder.
However, if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, and
it is, more heat is trapped than needed, and the Earth is
becoming less habitable for humans, plants and animals. It
can thus be inferred that the ability of greenhouse gases to
absorb sunlight is the root cause of global warming.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), though not the most potent of
greenhouse gases, is the most significant one. As seen in Fig.
1, it is released into the atmosphere through animal
respiration and when wood and fossil fuels burn or decay.
When trees are harvested and used in housing, the carbon
remains captive in the wood even though it is no longer
living but if it burns or decays, the carbon stored in the
wood over its life returns to the atmosphere as CO2 [2].
Human activity has obviously caused an imbalance in the
natural cycle of the greenhouse effect and related processes.
In Australia, for example, land clearing and burning
vegetation release millions of tons of CO2 into the
atmosphere every year. Scientific measurement over time
reveals a clear correlation between CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere and global temperature. Research records also
indicate that before the Industrial Revolution, the level of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was 280 parts per million;
today it is 380 ppm [2]. NASA’s Earth Observatory is worth
quoting, on the effect human activity has on the natural
carbon cycle, for example:
“In addition to the natural fluxes of carbon through the
Earth system, anthropogenic (human) activities, particularly
fossil fuel burning and deforestation, are also releasing
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
When we mine coal and extract oil from the Earth’s crust,
Climate Change and Global Warming: Signs, Impact and
Solutions
D. S. Matawal and Dafang John Maton
International
Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1, February 2013
62
DOI: 10.7763/IJESD.2013.V4.305
and then burn these fossil fuels for transportation, heating,
cooking, electricity, and manufacturing, we are effectively
moving carbon more rapidly into the atmosphere than is
being removed naturally through the sedimentation of
carbon, ultimately causing atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations to increase. Also, by clearing forests to
support agriculture, we are transferring carbon from living
biomass into the atmosphere (dry wood is about 50 percent
carbon). The result is that humans are adding ever-
increasing amounts of extra carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Because of this, atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations are higher today than they have been over
the last half-million years or longer. Greenhouse gases are
essential for our planet; the planet may be able to deal with
slightly increased levels of such gases, but too much will
affect the health of the whole planet”.
Fig. 1. Carbon cycle. source: NASA.
There are a myriad of consequences that are attendant
with the aforementioned situation, some of which are:
A. Air Pollution
According to the NRDC (Natural Resource Development
Council), rising temperatures can make smog pollution
worse and increase the number of "bad air days" as in Fig. 2,
when it's hard to breathe. This puts many at risk of irritated
eyes, noses, and lungs and it is particularly dangerous for
people with respiratory diseases like asthma. As the climate
changes, unhealthy air pollution worsens [3].
Fig. 2. Smog reduces visibility over a city. Source: U.S EPA
Research findings reveal that people with asthma,
allergies, and other respiratory diseases (as in Fig. 3) face
the most serious threats, since exposure to increased
pollution heightens sensitivity to allergens, impairs lungs,
triggers asthma attacks, sends people to the hospital, and
even results in death. In 2010, the American Lung
Association estimated that about 23 million Americans
suffered from asthma [3]. It has also been realized that the
prevalence of Asthma in the United States has quadrupled in
part due to climate-related factors. For Caribbean Islanders,
respiratory irritants come in dust clouds emanating from
Africa’s expanding deserts, swept across the Atlantic Ocean
by trade winds which have been accelerated by warmer
ocean temperatures.
Fig . 3. A respiratory health condition. Source : NRDC
Ozone smog forms from vehicular, factory, and other
pollution sources as they react with sunlight and heat.
Increasing temperatures speed this process and result in
more smog.
B. Diseases
Warmer temperatures, heavy rainfall and high humidity
have reportedly increased the rate of human infections.
Many diseases that were reportedly eliminated appear to be
resurfacing. For example, for many infectious diseases that
were hitherto eliminated from the United States, there's
evidence that climate change is a factor that could help them
expand their range and make a comeback. In developed
countries today it is well known that recurrent influenza
epidemics occur in mid-winter.
Dengue Fever, also known as "Break-bone Fever", is
characterized by high fever, headaches, bone and joint aches,
and a rash [3] and is transmitted by more than 130 Species
of Mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions [4].
Unlike Malaria however, Dengue Fever is spread by
Mosquitoes that thrive in urban areas [5]. Fig. 4, shows a
Specie of Mosquitoes and infection by one of the strains
will create immunity to only that strain and will
unfortunately increase the chances of infection by another
strain (Ibid). It has also been established that the number of
months with average temperatures above 18OC and the
degree of urbanization correlate with increasing risk of
dengue fever [6]. The most deadly strain causes Dengue
Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF), and although it is rarely fatal if
diagnosed early, it severely damages the circulatory system
and internal organs [5]. Recurrent infection can lead to
bleeding, seizures, and death [3].
Fig. 4. A disease vector. source: U.S EPA
International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1, February 2013
63
The reported case in the U.S is a miniature picture of the
global scale: increase in heat, precipitation, and humidity
can allow tropical and subtropical insects which act as
disease vectors and move from regions where infectious
diseases thrive into new places (see Fig. 5). These, coupled
with increased international travels to and from various
Continents, mean that the Globe is increasingly at risk of an
interchange of various diseases, even if through human
hosts.
Fig. 5. A disease vector. Source: NRDC
C. Drought
Water is life, and climate change is undoubtedly
threatening this precious resource. Nearly every U.S. region
for example, is facing some increased risk of seasonal
drought. With rise in temperature and decreased
precipitation, water quality can be jeopardized.
A drought is said to occur when a region stays
abnormally dry for a long period of time, such as causes an
imbalance in the water cycle. Shrinking amounts of water
can concentrate contaminants such as heavy metals,
industrial chemicals and pesticides, and sediments and salts.
During drought, drinking water supplies are susceptible to
harmful algal blooms and other microorganisms. Aquatic
life is also endangered as seen in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. A typical drought scenario. source: NRDC
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change’s (IPCC) 2012 report on extreme events, the June
2012 droughts across the Midwest of the U.S, makes the
month “one of the 10 worst months” in the past century and
farmers in the U.S are slogging through the largest drought
in 50 years [7]. Projections indicate that climate change will
significantly affect the sustainability of water supplies in the
coming decades. As parts of the world get drier, the amount
of water available and its quality will likely decrease -
impacting people's health and food supplies.
The NRDC also says, with some parts of Western U.S.
already experiencing water crises because of severe dry-
spells, and with continued climate change, the entire country
will likely face some level of drought. NRDC's Climate
Change, Water, and Risk report found that 1,100 counties
- one-third of all counties in the lower 48 states - face higher
risks of water shortages by mid-century as the result of
climate change [8]. More than 400 of these counties will
face extremely high risks of water shortages. That again is a
mirror to global imperatives in the same vein.
As seen in Fig. 7, such changes in precipitation and water
availability could have serious consequences not just for
safe drinking water but also for commercial agriculture –
crops yield less and food security suffers. Drought
conditions can also help fuel out-of-control wildfires.
Fig. 7. A typical drought scenario. source: NRDC
D. Flooding
Climate change has contributed to a rise in extreme
weather events - including floods and higher-intensity
hurricanes. Projections by Scientists indicate an increase in
the frequency of heavy rainstorms, putting many
communities at risk for devastation from floods. This is
because warmer air holds more moisture and thus more
precipitation [9].
Flooding can cause a range of health impacts and risks,
including: death and injury, contaminated drinking water,
hazardous material spills, increased populations of disease-
carrying insects and rodents, moldy houses, and community
disruption and displacement.
As rains increase, streams, rivers, and lakes tend to
overflow, increasing the risk of water-borne pathogens
flowing into drinking water sources. Downpours can also
damage critical infrastructure like sewer and solid waste
systems, triggering sewage overflows that could spread into
local waters [8]. Fig. 8 shows the aftermath of Hurricane
Katrina on a New Orleans flooded street.
Fig. 8. A typical flood situation. source: NRDC
In Nigeria for instance, flood incidences in 2012 alone
have ravaged about seven states of the federation claiming
363 lives and displaced 2.1 million people from their homes,
destroying properties and farmlands, whose values are yet to
be estimated [10].
International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1, February 2013
64
E. Extreme Weather
Carbon dioxide (CO2) from cars, industries and power
plants trap heat near the earth’s surface. More heat means
more energy and adding so much more energy to the
atmosphere creates the potential for more extremes
(department of ecology, state of Washington). Thus,
droughts, wildfires, heat waves and hurricanes are becoming
normal occurrences in America because of climate change
[7].
Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 for example, show how global
warming brings about more extreme heat waves with urban
centers experiencing more of its effect because asphalt,
concrete and other structures absorb and reradiate heat,
causing temperatures to be as much as 10OF higher than
nearby rural areas. Washington residents for instance,
experienced weather extremes in the fall of 2006. First,
record rains churned up rivers and caused landslides and
floods around Western Washington. This was followed by
record cold with ice and snowfall paralyzing parts of the
west side of the state. Closely following was a record gale
force wind, 14 deaths, extensive property damage and days
of power outages for 1 million homes and businesses in
Washington [11].
Fig. 9. New or leans after hurricane katrina. source: FEMA (2005)
Fig. 10. Extreme sunshine in a city. source: U.S EPA (2010)
Fig. 11. Extreme heat. source: NRDC
III. POSTULATIONS/ REMEDIATION
This is a bleak proposition but it is open to remedy.
Recent researches seem to indicate that CO2 can be kept out
of the atmosphere for many centuries if released into the sea,
where phytoplankton when sinking in the seafloor takes the
carbon with it [2]. On the other hand, global warming can
be addressed through behavioural change, emissions
reductions and renewable forms of energy, community
education and a new vision. This is because on the most part,
CO2 and other greenhouse gases are humanly induced
emissions and can be controlled. There are choices
regarding sustainability open to the world but steps must be
taken now.
The UN Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change
estimates the world needs to reduce emissions to 40 percent
of current levels to stabilize the atmosphere. And since
forests are crucial elements in the carbon cycle; they act as
air filters taking CO2 from the atmosphere, forestation and/
or landscape architecture should be encouraged and
enforced where there are policies backing them.
In photosynthesis, trees use sunlight to make complex
carbohydrates like sugar and cellulose from CO2 and
water—a process that sequesters CO2 from the atmosphere
and releases oxygen. Trees also sequester methane. This
adds to the benefit of planting trees adjacent to pastureland
(Paul W Newbury). The CO2 trees sequester becomes part
of its cells and is released into forest soils. If in a forest,
more carbon dioxide is being taken from the atmosphere
than is being released through fire or decay, the forest is
know as a carbon sink—a measurable amount of CO2 in the
trees and soils of the forest. Planting and conserving forests
are key factors in carbon emissions trading because the CO2
sequestered can be offset against CO2 released elsewhere.
There is a compelling argument for converting marginal
grazing land to native woodlands or forests. The benefits
include habitat and biodiversity enhancement, greenhouse
gas mitigation and water catchment security. Recent
research shows methane uptake is significantly increased
and nitrous oxide release is decreased when trees are planted
on previously grazed pastureland.
Sustainable development is a term that has found use in
various human endeavors particularly as it pertains to
Climate Change and Global warming. Some of its principles
and benefits are well known and are yet being researched
into. Some of them are:
y Sustainable building designs, materials and
construction methods.
y Sustainable energy utilization.
y Efficient waste disposal and recycling methods.
y Forestation and/ or landscape architecture.
y Dredging of waterways.
Global Warming and Climate Change are global
challenges and the consequences are indeed dire as we have
seen and experienced lately, all over the world. It behooves
us all therefore, especially governments, to ensure stringent
policies and compliance to well known safety principles that
will curb these menace, lack of which is tantamount to the
extinction of not just some species of animals and plants but
also of the human race.
International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1, February 2013
65
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We wish to acknowledge the following groups and
associations for using of their resource in writing this paper:
y NASPA-CCN (National Adaptation Strategy and
Plan of Action on Climate Change for Nigeria).
y NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council).
y NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration).
y U.S EPA (United States Environmental Protection
Agency)
y FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency).
y NEMA (National Emergency Management Agency).
y NBRRI (Nigerian Building and Road Research
Institute).
y NWF (National Wildlife Federation).
y IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change).
y Department of Ecology, State of Washington.
REFERENCES
[1] D. S. Matawal, Contributions of The Nigerian Building and Road
Research Institute (NBRRI), to the Memoranda on Climate Change
Policy (NCCP) and Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action on
Climate Change for Nigeria (NASPA-CCN).
[2] P. W Newbury, “Global Warming: A natural disaster opens to
remedy- A three-part series.”
[3] Sneezing and Wheezing: How Global Warming could increase
Ragweed Allergies, Air pollution and Asthma. [Online]. Available:
http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/sneezing/contents.asp
[4] T. W. Chun, “Estimating the economic impacts of climatic change on
infectious diseases,” A case study on dengue fever in Taiwan, 2008.
[5] N. Brian, “Dengue Fever Outbreak Far Worse Than Swine Flu,”
Ecoworldly, 2009.
[6] P. Wu et al., “Higher temperatures and urbanization affect the spatial
patterns of dengue fever transmission in subtropical Taiwan,” Science
of the Total Environment, vol. 407, pp. 2224-2233, 2009.
[7] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) [Online].
Available: http://www.ipcc.ch/
[8] Fever Pitch: Mosquito-Borne Dengue Fever Threat Spreading in the
Americas. [Online]. Available: http://www.nrdc.org/health/dengue/
[9] National Wildlife Federation. [Online]. Available: http:
www.nwf.org /
[10] National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA). [Online].
Available: www.bbc.co.uk/world-africa.
[11] T. R. Karl, J. M. Melillo, and T. C. Peterson, Global climate change
impacts in the United States, New York: Cambridge University Press,
2009.
[12] Impacts of climate change on Washington’s economy. [Online].
Available: http: www.ecy.wa.gov/
Dafang John Maton was born in Jos, Plateau,
Nigeria, on February 10, 1975. He attended
Government Science Secondary School, Kuru, near
Jos, Nigeria, graduating in November, 1990. He
then took to free-lance on-air radio presentations
and public speaking, subsequent to which he studied
architecture in the University of Jos, Jos-Nigeria and
graduated with a B. Sc (Hons) in architecture, 2005.
Between December 2006 and March 2012, he worked as architect II and
later as architect I, with the Local Government Civil Service
Commission. He presently holds an M.Sc degree in architecture (2011)
from the University of Jos, Jos-Nigeria and his current employment as
Research Officer I, with the Nigerian Building and Road Research
Institute, Abuja Nigeria, has exposed him to Workshops, Seminars,
Conferences and the ever-versatile field of Research and technical Paper
writing with a bias for Sustainable Architectural practices and the built
environment.
Mr. Dafang John Maton awaits membership of the Nigerian Institute of
Architects’ and has recently applied for the membership of the Asia-
Pacific Chemical, Biological & Environmental Engineering Society
(APCBEES). He has on-going Research works and yet to be published
Papers in the areas of Sustainability and the built- environment.
International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1, February 2013
66
