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Immune reactivity to food coloring
Abstract
Artificial food dyes are made from petroleum and have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the enhancement of the color of processed foods. They are widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries to increase the appeal and acceptability of their products. Synthetic food colorants can achieve hues not possible for natural colorants and are cheaper, more easily available, and last longer. However, since the use of artificial food coloring has become widespread, many allergic and other immune reactive disorders have increasingly been reported. During the past 50 y, the amount of synthetic dye used in foods has increased by 500%. Simultaneously, an alarming rise has occurred in behavioral problems in children, such as aggression, attention deficit disorder (ADD), and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The ingestion of food delivers the greatest foreign antigenic load that challenges the immune system. Artificial colors can also be absorbed via the skin through cosmetic and pharmaceutical products. The molecules of synthetic colorants are small, and the immune system finds it difficult to defend the body against them. They can also bond to food or body proteins and, thus, are able to act in stealth mode to circumvent and disrupt the immune system. The consumption of synthetic food colors, and their ability to bind with body proteins, can have significant immunological consequences. This consumption can activate the inflammatory cascade, can result in the induction of intestinal permeability to large antigenic molecules, and could lead to cross-reactivities, autoimmunities, and even neurobehavioral disorders. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recently found a 41% increase in diagnoses of ADHD in boys of high-school age during the past decade. More shocking is the legal amount of artificial colorants allowed by the FDA in the foods, drugs, and cosmetics that we consume and use every day. The consuming public is largely unaware of the perilous truth behind the deceptive allure of artificial color.
... However, there are some dark sides to those colorants. Their consumption can drive the inflammatory cascade, enhance intestinal permeability to larger antigenic molecules, and induce human self-cross-reactive antibodies with the colorants, thus pushing toward autoimmunogenesis [48,132]. Even neurobehavioral disorders such as attention-deficit disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are attributed to colorant's intake [132,133]. ...
... Their consumption can drive the inflammatory cascade, enhance intestinal permeability to larger antigenic molecules, and induce human self-cross-reactive antibodies with the colorants, thus pushing toward autoimmunogenesis [48,132]. Even neurobehavioral disorders such as attention-deficit disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are attributed to colorant's intake [132,133]. Food colorants were shown to alter the microbiome toward a dysbiotic profile [134]. Basic colorants such as pararosaniline, auramine O, and rhodamine B are unauthorized food additives because of their toxicity; despite this, they find their way to the markets. ...
... It appears that those microbes metabolize the food dyes to create ANSA-Na, which induces a relapse of the colitis [147]. In conclusion, food colorants/dyes can be regarded as adjuvants since they can be immunostimulant for human lymphocytes, activate cell-mediated immune responses and increase immunoglobulin's secretion, and induce cross-reactive antibodies [132,[148][149][150]. Finally, some experts suggested that "the evidence for carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, and hypersensitivity, coupled with the fact that dyes do not improve the safety or nutritional quality of foods, indicates that all of the currently used dyes should be removed from the food supply and replaced, if at all, by safer colorings" [151]. ...
... As discussed in the previous section, animal and human exposure to mercury in its different forms was shown to be associated with inflammatory and autoimmune reactivity; however, relatively little is known or has been discussed regarding the role of food coloring in the pathophysiology of autoimmune disorders. In fact, using Med Search, we found only two different articles: one by this author under the title "Immune reactivity to food coloring" [94], and a second article by Lerner and Matthias, who described how industrial food additives contribute to the rising incidence of autoimmune diseases [33]. Due to this lack of information on food coloring's possible involvement in inflammation and autoimmunity, we decided to investigate the matter in this current article. ...
... This is still not as alarming as the legal number of synthetic colorants permitted by the FDA to be mixed into or applied to the foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic products that we actually ingest or otherwise use on a regular basis. Sadly, the general public is for the most part oblivious to the shockingly dangerous true nature behind the enticing bright colors of synthetic food dyes [94]. ...
... With this knowledge, the author enjoins everyone not to be deceived by the visual enticements of brightly colored candies, pastries, drinks, medications, cosmetics, andyes-even Tandoori chicken [94]. ...
Autoimmune diseases affect 5–9% of the world’s population. It is now known that genetics play a relatively small part in the pathophysiology of autoimmune disorders in general, and that environmental factors have a greater role. In this review, we examine the role of the exposome, an individual’s lifetime exposure to external and internal factors, in the pathophysiology of autoimmune diseases. The most common of these environmental factors are toxic chemicals, food/diet, and infections. Toxic chemicals are in our food, drink, common products, the air, and even the land we walk on. Toxic chemicals can directly damage self-tissue and cause the release of autoantigens, or can bind to human tissue antigens and form neoantigens, which can provoke autoimmune response leading to autoimmunity. Other types of autoimmune responses can also be induced by toxic chemicals through various effects at the cellular and biochemical levels. The food we eat every day commonly has colorants, preservatives, or packaging-related chemical contamination. The food itself may be antigenic for susceptible individuals. The most common mechanism for food-related autoimmunity is molecular mimicry, in which the food’s molecular structure bears a similarity with the structure of one or more self-tissues. The solution is to detect the trigger, remove it from the environment or diet, then repair the damage to the individual’s body and health.
... They are mainly used to produce beverages, sweets, processed foods and medicines (Table 1). Over the past 50 years, the amount of synthetic dyes used in food has increased by 500% [2]. Originally, azo dyes were derived from coal tar [3], but now they are synthetically produced with the presence of formaldehyde, aniline, hydroxide, and sulfuric acid [2]. ...
... Over the past 50 years, the amount of synthetic dyes used in food has increased by 500% [2]. Originally, azo dyes were derived from coal tar [3], but now they are synthetically produced with the presence of formaldehyde, aniline, hydroxide, and sulfuric acid [2]. ...
... It is suspected that several mechanisms are involved, and perhaps some responses are dose-dependent [1]. They can also be absorbed through the skin from cosmetic and pharmaceutical products [2]. Nettis et al. demonstrated in a double-blind placebo-controlled trial that the rate of hypersensitivity to tartrazine was about 1% [5]. ...
Introduction:
The role of azo dyes in urticaria is not fully understood.
Aim:
To assess the incidence rate of hypersensitivity reactions to food azo dyes based on a placebo-controlled oral challenge in a group of patients with suspected urticaria exacerbation after consuming food additives.
Material and methods:
The study included patients over 18 years of age with chronic urticaria, in whom hypersensitivity to food additives was suspected based on a questionnaire and medical history. Patients suspected of urticaria exacerbations after ingestion of azo dyes were enrolled in a placebo-controlled single-blind oral challenge (OC) with a mixture of azo food dyes: tartrazine, Quinoline Yellow, Sunset Yellow, Cochineal Red, Allura Red, and azorubine.
Results:
Out of 110 patients (76 women and 34 men, mean age 46.1 (20-76 years), 39 patients were qualified for the oral challenge. We observed two subjects (5.1%) with a positive result.
Conclusions:
Azo dyes ingested in food or medications incidentally cause urticaria but may exacerbate its course. Oral challenge-confirmed hypersensitivity to azo dyes is much less common than reported by patients.
... Azo dyes are widely used as colourants in processed food and drinks, especially those specifically marketed to children (Stevens et al., 2014(Stevens et al., , 2015Doell et al., 2016;Leo et al., 2018;Lehmkuhler et al., 2022). Artificial food colourants, including azo dyes, have been linked to adverse neurobehavioural, inflammatory, allergic and other immune reactions, and food intolerance Kwon et al., 2022;Feketea and Tsabouri, 2017;Vojdani and Vojdani, 2015;McCann et al., 2007). Pertinent to their use as food additives, reductive enzymes and chemicals present in the gut microbiome, specifically azoreductases, other oxidoreductases, and hydrogen sulfide, are all capable of reducing the azo bond (Suzuki, 2019;Chung et al., 1978;Feng et al., 2018;Clarke et al., 2019;Mahmood et al., 2016;Wolfson et al., 2022). ...
... While tartrazine is non-toxic towards human cells, preliminary testing identified that its reduction metabolite SCAP and the derivative PPA are moderately toxic to human cells, with inhibition of HEK-293 cell proliferation in the micromolar range. As tartrazine is reductively metabolised to SCAP, its continued use as a food dye is concerning (Stevens et al., 2014(Stevens et al., , 2015Vojdani and Vojdani, 2015;Feketea and Tsabouri, 2017). Our work has therefore begun to address the recognised need to better understand the toxicology of synthetic food dyes, particularly with regard to their metabolism in the gut . ...
... However, the scientific community has continued working to establish the possible harmful effects of AFCs, having evidenced so far the potential of azo colorant to alter the normal functioning of the kidneys and liver, generation of reactive oxygen species, induction of hypersensitivity [11], proinflammatory responses [17] and, principally, an effect on ADHD [18]. In addition, in recent years, the use of AFCs in the food industry has exponentially increased, to the point that in some categories, mainly in children's products such as cakes, chips, chocolates, ice creams, drinks, etc., all products contain at least one AFC, and it should be noted that there have even been cases where the product exceeded the allowed level [18][19][20]. ...
... However, the scientific community has continued working to establish the possible harmful effects of AFCs, having evidenced so far the potential of azo colorant to alter the normal functioning of the kidneys and liver, generation of reactive oxygen species, induction of hypersensitivity [11], proinflammatory responses [17] and, principally, an effect on ADHD [18]. In addition, in recent years, the use of AFCs in the food industry has exponentially increased, to the point that in some categories, mainly in children's products such as cakes, chips, chocolates, ice creams, drinks, etc., all products contain at least one AFC, and it should be noted that there have even been cases where the product exceeded the allowed level [18][19][20]. On the whole, the different results have evidenced that is highly possible that many children may be consuming higher amounts of AFCs than previously thought [21]. ...
In recent years, the demand of healthier food products and products made with natural ingredients has increased overwhelmingly, led by the awareness of human beings of the influence of food on their health, as well as by the evidence of side effects generated by different ingredients such as some additives. This is the case for several artificial colorants, especially azo colorants, which have been related to the development of allergic reactions, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. All the above has focused the attention of researchers on obtaining colorants from natural sources that do not present a risk for consumption and, on the contrary, show biological activity. The most representative compounds that present colorant capacity found in nature are anthocyanins, anthraquinones, betalains, carotenoids and chlorophylls. Therefore, the present review summarizes research published in the last 15 years (2008–2023) in different databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect) encompassing various natural sources of these colorant compounds, referring to their obtention, identification, some of the efforts made for improvements in their stability and their incorporation in different food matrices. In this way, this review evidences the promising path of development of natural colorants for the replacement of their artificial counterparts.
... These metabolites are produced in the human body, though their toxic effect depends on the ingested amount of the target substance/colorant [3,18,20]. However, it is reported that regular evaluation and assessment of potential toxicity of food colorants by regulatory authorities is necessary [3,18,21]. ...
... Based on various scientific findings, several toxicity effects, have been reported including behavioral effects on children, effects on the respiratory system, connection with allergies, development of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children, or neuro-developmental effects at the No-Adverse Effect Limit levels [3,18,21]. In any case, further investigation to assess the potential associated risks of these compounds is needed [3][4][5][6][7][8][9]11,14,18]. ...
Color additives are widely used by the food industry to enhance the appearance, as well as the nutritional properties of a food product. However, some of these substances may pose a potential risk to human health, especially if they are consumed excessively and are regulated, giving great importance to their determination. Several matrix-dependent methods have been developed and applied to determine food colorants, by employing different analytical techniques along with appropriate sample preparation protocols. Major techniques applied for their determination are chromatography with spectophotometricdetectors and spectrophotometry, while sample preparation procedures greatly depend on the food matrix. In this review these methods are presented, covering the advancements of existing methodologies applied over the last decade.
... Discover Food (2025) 5:4 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00275-z of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children [3][4][5][6][7]. Consequently, the food industry is increasingly adopting for natural colorants as alternative to the synthetic colorant used in foods [2,8]. ...
Pigments are widely valued as colorants or bioactive agents in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors. The increasing attention on the natural pigments can be associated with the availability, dietary, low-cost, bioactivity and safety. Sorghum bicolor is a common plant crop with many health benefits commonly. 3-deoxyanthocyanidin derivatives are the predominant anthocyanidins in the leaf sheaths of red sorghum. In this review, the phytochemical and nutritional properties of the leaf sheaths of red sorghum and the stability of the main pigments are discussed. In addition, the taxo-nomical and geographic distribution and traditional uses of the red sorghum are discussed. Anthocyanidins (luteolinidin, apigeninidin, apigeninidin-flavene dimer, apigeninidin-7-o-methylflavene dimer and 7-o-methylapigeninidin) as well as other flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, saponins, steroids and tannins have been reported as dominant phyto-chemicals in the leaf sheaths of red sorghum. They are rich source of micronutrients like essential vitamins and minerals. These properties attract populations to use the leaf sheaths of red sorghum for diverse purposes. It is also resulted that 3-deoxyanthocyanidins in the leaf sheaths of red sorghum are resistant to pH, temperature, light and copigments.
... The use of synthetic colorants in dietary products has significantly increased over the past 50 years. 25 These compounds can be metabolized in the gut releasing aromatic amines which are potentially carcinogenic and mutagenic 26,27 as shown in Table 1. ...
The gut microbiome is indispensable for the host physiological functioning. Yet, the impact of non-nutritious dietary compounds on the human gut microbiota and the role of the gut microbes in their metabolism and potential adverse biological effects have been overlooked. Identifying potential hazards and benefits would contribute to protecting and harnessing the gut microbiome’s role in supporting human health. We discuss the evidence on the potential detrimental impact of certain food additives and microplastics on the gut microbiome and human health, with a focus on underlying mechanisms and causality. We provide recommendations for the incorporation of gut microbiome science in food risk assessment and identify the knowledge and tools needed to fill these gaps. The incorporation of gut microbiome endpoints to safety assessments, together with well-established toxicity and mutagenicity studies, might better inform the risk assessment of certain contaminants in food, and/or food additives.
... Azo dyes, one of the synthetic colorant additives widely utilized in food products, include tartrazine (Yellow 5), Sunset Yellow FCF (Yellow 6), Ponceau 4R, Allura Red AC (Red 40), Quinoline yellow, and Carmoisine, with Red 40, Yellow 5, and Yellow 6 being the most popular ones [4]. Known for their vivid colors, these additives are under scrutiny due to concerns about their potential toxicity. ...
... They are currently marketed in the European Union as E-162 and in the USA as 21 . It is important to highlight that some dyes used in foods are being replaced by dyes obtained from plant sources since synthetic dyes are reported to have neurobehavioral impacts (Miller et al. 2022) and other effects such as hypersensitivity, atopic dermatitis, and allergic rhinitis (Vojdani and Vojdani 2015). ...
Stenocereus stellatus is one of the 10 species of cactus of greatest economic importance in Mexico, although its fruits contain bioactive components such betalains and phenolic compounds, which in turn cause multiple positive pharmacological effects on health, very little has been explored. This study aimed to employ a response surface methodology (RSM) approach to optimize the extraction conditions for maximizing the concentration of betalains (betacyanins and betaxanthins), total phenolic compounds (TPC), and antioxidant capacity (AC). To optimize the extraction of betalains, pH (W), extraction temperature (X), extraction time (Y), and water:ethanol solvent ratio (Z) were evaluated. For TPC and AC, the same factors were evaluated, except Z. All these factors influenced on the concentration of betalains. The optimal extraction conditions were found to be pH 4.2, extraction temperature of 10 °C, extraction time of 60 min, and a water:ethanol solvent ratio of 55%, and under these conditions, 0.51 mg per g total betalains (BT) were obtained, of which 0.25 mg per g corresponded to BC and 0.26 mg per g to BX. In TPC and AC, only pH and temperature affected these determinations. The optimal conditions for both variables were pH of 4 and extraction temperature of 60 °C, and under these conditions, 2.34 mg of gallic acid equivalents per g and 18.60 µmol of Trolox equivalents per g were obtained. The results suggest that Stenocereus stellatus could be a promising source for these compounds, which have potential applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries due to their excellent stability under these conditions.
... Therefore, the eradication of BB from industrial waste is need of time. Different researchers reported different process such as adsorption [25], precipitation [26], oxidative degradation [27] and catalytic reduction [28,29] to treat toxic BB dye. Yet, these reported methods have some drawbacks like cost issue and transfer of toxic dyes from one medium to another rather than its permanent removal. ...
... They are widely used in the food and 155 pharmaceutical industries to increase the appeal and acceptability of their products. The 156 use of synthetic colorants in dietary products has significantly increased over the past 50 157 years 22 . These compounds can be metabolized in the gut releasing aromatic amines 158 which are potentially carcinogenic and mutagenic 23,24 . ...
The gut microbiome is indispensable for the host physiological functioning. Yet, the impact of non-nutritious dietary compounds on the human gut microbiota and the role of the gut microbes in their metabolism and potential adverse biological effects have been overlooked. Identifying potential hazards and benefits would contribute to protecting and harnessing the gut microbiome’s role in supporting human health. We discuss the evidence on the potential detrimental impact of certain food additives and microplastics on the gut microbiome and health endpoints, with a focus on underlying mechanisms and causality. We provide recommendations for the incorporation of gut microbiome science in food risk assessment and identify knowledge and tools needed to fulfill the gaps. The incorporation of gut microbiome endpoints to safety assessments, together with well-established toxicity and mutagenicity studies, might better inform the risk assessment of certain contaminants in food, and/or food additives.
... In addition to emulsifiers, the consumption of synthetic food colourants, such as Allura Red (AR or Red 40), Brilliant Blue (BB or Blue 1), and Sunset Yellow (SY or Yellow 6), have been increasing steadily since the 1950s (99,100). Studies show that Allura Red and Sunset Yellow are connected with fibrosis and leukocyte infiltration in both the liver and kidneys of rats by the promotion of oxidative stress (101), AR induces significant DNA damage in colonic tissue (102), and synthetic food dye consumption may also play a role in Figure 3. Serotonin (5-HT) and intestinal inflammation. ...
Although the exact etiology of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) is unknown, studies have shown that dysregulated immune responses, genetic factors, gut microbiota, and environmental factors contribute to their pathogenesis. Intriguingly, serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) seems to be a molecule with increasingly strong implications in the pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation, affecting host physiology, including autophagy and immune responses, as well as microbial composition and function. 5-HT may also play a role in mediating how environmental effects impact outcomes in IBD. In this review, we aim to explore the production and important functions of 5-HT, including its impact on the gut. In addition, we highlight the bidirectional impacts of 5-HT on the immune system, the gut microbiota, and the process of autophagy and how these effects contribute to the manifestation of intestinal inflammation. We also explore recent findings connecting 5-HT signalling and the influence of environmental factors, particularly diet, in the pathogenesis of IBD. Ultimately, we explore the pleiotropic effects of this ancient molecule on biology and health in the context of intestinal inflammation.
... Supporting the premise of this study, there evidence shows that Red 40 interacts with inflammatory components, impacts the microbiome, and can be perceived as foreign by the body [28][29][30][31][32][33]. Indeed, it has recently been shown that Red 40 drives colitis under experimental conditions by several groups [34][35][36], and synthetic food dyes elevate inflammatory cytokines and modulate protein and gene expression related to inflammation [28,37,38]. Here, we present data consistent with the hypothesis that Red 40 damages DNA in vitro and in vivo; and that a westernized diet combined with Red 40 causes dysbiosis, functional mutations, and low-grade inflammation in the distal colon and rectum. ...
The incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) among young people has been on the rise for the past four decades and its underlying causes are only just starting to be uncovered. Recent studies suggest that consuming ultra-processed foods and pro-inflammatory diets may be contributing factors. The increase in the use of synthetic food colors in such foods over the past 40 years, including the common synthetic food dye Allura Red AC (Red 40), coincides with the rise of early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC). As these ultra-processed foods are particularly appealing to children, there is a growing concern about the impact of synthetic food dyes on the development of CRC. Our study aimed to investigate the effects of Red 40 on DNA damage, the microbiome, and colonic inflammation. Despite a lack of prior research, high levels of human exposure to pro-inflammatory foods containing Red 40 highlight the urgency of exploring this issue. Our results show that Red 40 damages DNA both in vitro and in vivo and that consumption of Red 40 in the presence of a high-fat diet for 10 months leads to dysbiosis and low-grade colonic inflammation in mice. This evidence supports the hypothesis that Red 40 is a dangerous compound that dysregulates key players involved in the development of EOCRC.
... reactions, cancer in animal studies [6][7][8], and hyperactivity in children [3]. ...
Background
Betalains, comprising red–violet betacyanins and yellow–orange betaxanthins, are the hydrophilic vacuolar pigments that provide bright coloration to roots, fruits, and flowers of plants of the Caryophyllales order. Betanin extracted from red beets is permitted quantum satis as a natural red food colorant (E162). Due to antioxidant activity, betanin has potential health benefits.
Results
We applied combinatorial engineering to find the optimal combination of a dozen tyrosine hydroxylase (TyH) and 4,5-dopa-estradiol-dioxygenase (DOD) variants. The best-engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains produced over six-fold higher betaxanthins than previously reported. By genome-resequencing of these strains, we found out that two copies of DOD enzyme from Bougainvillea glabra together with TyH enzymes from Abronia nealleyi, Acleisanthes obtusa, and Cleretum bellidiforme were present in the three high-betaxanthin-producing isolates. Next, we expressed four variants of glucosyltransferases from Beta vulgaris for betanin biosynthesis. The highest titer of betanin (30.8 ± 0.14 mg/L after 48 h from 20 g/L glucose) was obtained when completing the biosynthesis pathway with UGT73A36 glucosyltransferase from Beta vulgaris. Finally, we investigated betalain transport in CEN.PK and S288C strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and identified a possible role of transporter genes QDR2 and APL1 in betanin transport.
Conclusions
This study shows the potential of combinatorial engineering of yeast cell factories for the biotechnological production of betanin.
... The use of synthetic colorants in dietary products has significantly increased over the past 50 years 13 . These compounds are metabolized to generate free aromatic amines in the gut lumen, some of which are potentially carcinogenic and mutagenic 14,15 . ...
Chemicals in food are widely used leading to significant human exposure. Allura Red AC (AR) is a highly common synthetic colorant; however, little is known about its impact on colitis. Here, we show chronic exposure of AR at a dose found in commonly consumed dietary products exacerbates experimental models of colitis in mice. While intermittent exposure is more akin to a typical human exposure, intermittent exposure to AR in mice for 12 weeks, does not influence susceptibility to colitis. However, exposure to AR during early life primes mice to heightened susceptibility to colitis. In addition, chronic exposure to AR induces mild colitis, which is associated with elevated colonic serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) levels and impairment of the epithelial barrier function via myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). Importantly, chronic exposure to AR does not influence colitis susceptibility in mice lacking tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1), the rate limiting enzyme for 5-HT biosynthesis. Cecal transfer of the perturbed gut microbiota by AR exposure worsens colitis severity in the recipient germ-free (GF) mice. Furthermore, chronic AR exposure elevates colonic 5-HT levels in naïve GF mice. Though it remains unknown whether AR has similar effects in humans, our study reveals that chronic long-term exposure to a common synthetic colorant promotes experimental colitis via colonic 5-HT in gut microbiota-dependent and -independent pathway in mice.
... The study suggests that very small dose of azo FCs able to absorb from the skin and can trigger the immune response 18 . Clinical study on 100 patients with chronic idiopathic urticaria (CIU) showed only 2 patients had positive response on single blind challenge to tartrazine and sunset yellow, but on double blind, placebo-controlled food challenges neither patient reacted, which indicate that the prevalence of tartrazine and sunset yellow sensitivity in adult patients with CIU was estimated to be less than 1% 19 . Thus the prevalence of allergic reaction due to FCs is unknown, but it can consider being low which likely to elicit an allergic reaction in patients with atopic disease than healthy. ...
Food colourants are important food additives which not only enhance the appearance of food, but also appetite and hold a very significant position in the food industry. These can be obtained from natural and synthetic sources, but synthetic sources are more popular, efficient and potential in its functional terms. Although food colourants don’t have any nutritional value, but their quantity and quality present in food materials imparts serious health risks. Earlier, studies reported that azo food colourants are injudiciously used in the food products and also developed suitable analytical methods for their detection in food materials. Further, evidences from various literatures suggested that food colourants which contains azo dyes are the causal factors for neurotoxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, hypersensitivity and therefore not safe for the human consumption. The present review article has been aimed to evaluate the toxicological profile of azo food colourants and associated adverse health impact. The findings of the study will add insightful facts to the literature and help the regulatory agencies to revisit and improve their toxicity testing procedures and exercise greater caution regarding continued approval of these dyes, and in the future approve only welltested and, safe dyes.
... The consumption of colors, specifically, can activate the inflammatory cascade, resulting in the induction of intestinal permeability to large antigenic molecules. In addition to allergic reactions, intestinal permeability can lead to autoimmune diseases and neurobehavioral disorders 115 . A clinical report on the subject points out that there are no data on the prevalence of allergy to food additives in children, which makes the diagnosis difficult. ...
Objective:
To discuss the context of scientific publications on the consumption of food additives by children and the possible health consequences in this age group.
Methods:
A literature review, with a search carried out between April 2020 and April 2021 in the Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar databases, as well as in websites of Brazilian and foreign official bodies. Official documents and studies published since 2000 were selected. Keywords related to food additives, children, food consumption, and health were used for the search.
Results:
Food additives are substances intentionally added to foods for technological purposes. Processed foods are the main sources of additives in food and their consumption occurs since childhood. It is observed, however, that there are limitations inherent to the scientific method regarding the analysis of consumption and toxicity of food additives in humans, causing scarcity of data in the scientific literature. Additionally, existing data suggest that the additives have a higher toxic potential in children, considering that the body weight in this age group is lower than in adults. This context emphasizes the need to observe the precautionary principle, according to which risks of harm must be prevented.
Conclusions:
This is a scenario in which the literature points to a risk to people's health and, in particular, to children, about whom the duty of protection must be even greater, with absolute priority. Thus, the relevance of an expanded technical-scientific debate regarding the establishment of specific and stricter parameters for children is considered, regarding the consumption and toxicity of additives, as well as the different sources of exposure to these substances.
... Both natural and synthetic colorants are used as food additives to improve the appearance of products and to increase consumer demand. Although synthetic food colorants have lower production costs, higher stability and usability, some studies have emphasized the strong relationship between synthetic food colorants and their adverse health effects [4,5]. ...
Natural colorants/pigments such as anthocyanins, carotenoids, betalains, and chlorophylls have been generally used in the food industry as coloring agents. However, there are challenges related to color fading during food processing, storage, and commercialization due to the low stability of natural colorants compared to synthetic ones. Among them, anthocyanins are potential food colorants due to their color, low toxicity, and biological properties. However, the low chemical and thermal stability of anthocyanins have limited their use on a commercial scale. Copigmentation is the most commonly used technique for anthocyanin stabilization. This technique provides many advantages associated with the stability of anthocyanins. Natural anthocyanin pigments and copigments (e.g. polymers, phenolic compounds, and carbohydrates) form non-covalent complexes, which stabilize and modulate colors in a wide range of plants, fruits, and food products derived from them (including wines, jams, purees, and syrups). Over the past decade, research studies have been conducted to understand the molecular structure of copigment and the mechanism of copigmentation. This review summarizes this phenomenon to provide a comprehensive description of the interactions between anthocyanin and copigment (the dispersion and electrostatic components of π−π stacking, the hydrophobic effect, and hydrogen-bonding) occurring in copigmentation complexes. The trend of integrating copigmentation and encapsulation has been recently started to develop. In this paper, we also attempt to provide a comprehensive view of the effective approaches including spray and freeze-drying, emulsification, gelation, and their combinations for encapsulating copigmented anthocyanins.
... It has been reported that synthetic food dyes, the use of which has increased rapidly in recent years, lead to an increase in many allergic diseases and immune system disorders (Vojdani, 2015). Synthetic food dyes have been found to increase histamine and leukotriene production, leading to allergic and inflammatory diseases in both IgE-mediated and non-IgE-mediated immune responses. ...
... Synthetic food colours have many advantages compared to natural colours, such as high stability to light, oxygen, and pH, and colour uniformity (Beto et al., 2015). However, based on various scientific findings, several toxicity effects have been reported, including behavioural effects on children, effects on the respiratory system, connection with allergies, the development of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children, and neurodevelopmental effects at No-Adverse Effect Limit levels (Amchova et al., 2015;Oplatowska-Stachowiak & Elliott, 2017;Uysal et al., 2017;Vojdani & Vojdani, 2015). In order to evaluate the possible effects that food additives can have on health, it is important to have data on exposure to these substances. ...
... Food colorants should never be used to hide defects and deceive consumers (Code of Federal Regulations, 2016). Many studies showed that synthetic colors have potential negative side effects, such as allergies, hypersensitivity, behavioral problems in children, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and others (Feketea & Tsabouri, 2017;Laura et al., 2019;McCann et al., 2007;Vojdani & Vojdani, 2015). Therefore, natural food colorants are increasingly demanded by consumers to replace the synthetic ones (Masone & Chanforan, 2015). ...
Anthocyanins (ACN) are natural pigments that produce bright red, blue, and purple colors in plants and can be used to color food products. However, ACN sensitivity to different factors limits their applications in the food industry. Whey protein (WP), a functional nutritional additive, has been shown to interact with ACN and improve the color, stability, antioxidant capacity, bioavailability, and other functional properties of the ACN‐WP complex. The WP's secondary structure is expected to unfold due to heat treatment, which may increase its binding affinity with ACN. Different ACN structures will also have different binding affinity with WP and their interaction mechanism may also be different. Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy show that the WP secondary structure changes after binding with ACN. Fluorescence spectroscopy shows that the WP maximum fluorescence emission wavelength shifts, and the fluorescence intensity decreases after interaction with ACN. Moreover, thermodynamic analysis suggests that the ACN‐WP binding forces are mainly hydrophobic interactions, although there is also evidence of electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding between ACN and WP. In this review, we summarize the information available on ACN‐WP interactions under different conditions and discuss the impact of different ACN chemical structures and of WP conformation changes on the affinity between ACN and WP. This summary helps improve our understanding of WP protection of ACN against color degradation, thus providing new tools to improve ACN color stability and expanding the applications of ACN and WP in the food and pharmacy industries.
... These are added intentionally by food processing, cosmetics, or pharmaceutical industries. Most of these additives are now considered harmless though accused of being sources of allergies, food intolerance and more serious diseases mainly related to immune disorders (Bourrier, 2006;Vojdani & Vojdani, 2015). As a result, consumer aversion to synthetic colorants has increased. ...
Food pathogens are causing many diseases with significant effects on human health and the economy. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that approximately 48 million Americans get sick, 128,000 are hospitalized, and 3000 die each year from food poisoning. As specified by the CDC, the known pathogens (bacteria, viruses, and parasites) account for most foodborne illnesses, hospitalization, and death in the United States. Opuntia spp. are, to a great extent, dispersed in Africa, Asia, America, and the Mediterranean bowl. This plant is utilized as a dietary and pharmaceutical operator in a different dietary and value-added push. Even though contrasts within the phytochemical composition exist between wild and tamed (Opuntia ficus-indica) Opuntia spp., all Opuntia vegetative (pear, roots, cladodes, pulp, and seeds) display useful properties as anticancer and antimicrobial agents (flavonoids, and ascorbate), and as antimicrobial (phenolic acids) agents. Other phytochemical components (soluble fibers and biopeptides) have been shared in the antimicrobial character of Opuntia spp. Bioactive peptides are composed of a few amino acids linked by covalent bonds called amide bonds or peptides. Depending on their grouping of amino corrosive, these peptides may influence the body’s major frameworks such as resistant, stomach related, cardiovascular, and anxious system. The bioactive peptides can be utilized as valuable nourishment additives. Their grouping measures contrast from 2 to 20 amino corrosive buildups, but a few peptides have a long chain of amino corrosive (lunasin 43 amino corrosive). Bioactive peptides have the plausibility to be utilized as characteristic nourishment added substance and pharmaceuticals constituents to avoid nourishment harming and nourishment added items due to their antioxidant and/or antimicrobial impacts. Moreover, natural molecules from Opuntia spp. ought to be planned in vitro, in vivo, in situ, and in a way to assess the risks to humans, animals, and food chains. This chapter is an upgrade on the bioactive molecule’s properties of Opuntia spp. and their potential intrigued as antimicrobial.
... Behavioural problems in children and immunological disorders have been associated with artificial colours (Pollock & Warner 1990, Voidani & Voidani 2015. Some synthetic dyes have been "delisted" by the American FDA out of health concerns (Aldridge 2014b). ...
A good, nutritious diet is essential for the health and well‐being of our domestic pets. Today, most pet dogs and cats are fed highly processed food bearing little resemblance to canine and feline ancestral diets. Additives are included in processed pet food to provide nutritional benefits, ensure food safety, and maintain the desirable features of colour, flavour, texture, stability and resistance to spoilage. This paper reviews the safety of various additives in processed pet food. Labelling, safety assessment, and ethical concerns regarding existing toxicity testing procedures are also considered. The adequacy of testing for many additives and the scientific basis for determining safety are questioned. Additives can be synthetic or ‘natural’ although the distinction can be blurred when naturally derived substances are synthesised in the laboratory, or extracted using a high level of physical and chemical processing. Although additives play important roles in processed food production, updated strategies and technologies may be required to establish their safety in the pet food industry.
... Synthetic food colors are prepared from hydrocarbons mixture and have been certified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to retain food texture and appearance. Artificial food colorants can attain shades as compared to natural (Vojdani & Vojdani, 2015). Whereas natural coloring produced from plants are costly, non-stable and easily fades, in addition, many researchers examined the adverse effect on metabolism and toxicity induced by the consumption of specific food colors to laboratory animals (Tanaka, 2005;Amin et al., 2010). ...
Incorporation of the coloring agent, tartrazine and curcumin affects healthy physiological system leading to changes in hematology, biochemistry and enzymatic activity. Consequences of oral administration of tartrazine and curcumin were explored for 15, 30 and 45 days in female adult rat. Two doses were based on the admissible daily intake (ADI) of 9.6 and 96 (high) mg/kg/body weight for tartrazine, 3.85 and 38.5 mg/kg/body weight for curcumin. Phytochemicals such as saponins, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannin, carbohydrates and phenolics were present in coloring agents. The renal function tests and lipid profile showed alterations in the values of uric acid, urea, total protein, albumin and cholesterol in all treatment groups. Additionally, the levels of liver enzymes fluctuated after 45 days of treatment with curcumin and tartrazine. Histopathological changes were also recorded in liver and kidney. In contrast, blood biochemistry depicted the significant reduction of RBCs, Hb, MCH, glucose, WBCs, MCHC and LDH at 15, 30 and 45 days. Besides, IgG, IgM and overall antibody GMT at 45 days were significantly increased. Study indicated that ADI and doses up to 10 times of the ADI of food colors intake exerted adverse effects on immune response and altered the biochemical parameters.
... Some colourings, e.g. allura red (E129), may cause angioedema or rhinitis [86]. In turn, in their study Zsila et al. describe the impact of colourings on human LL-37 peptide. ...
Various types of food additives are widely used in the food industry. Due to their properties extending the usefulness for consuming food products, they give them different colours, consistency, or taste. The products are marked ‘E’ and the code is assigned to the subscription used. Many of the supplements affect human health negatively. Emulsifiers or stabilizers can lead to epithelial loads and the development of inflammation. Sucrose and other sweeteners may change the composition of the intestinal microflora and thus lead to intestinal blockage. Some additives classified as preservatives are available and may predispose to intestinal dysbiosis. Available substances belonging to food dyes may predispose to genotoxic and cytotoxic effects and cause inflammation in the intestines. Substances added to food can also cause disorders of intestinal homeostasis.
... Furthermore, in-vitro studies of Azorbin colors show chromosomal changes in the somatic cells of the rye [13]. Lastly, there is a major concern about the use of these colors with little attention and increased disease in children [14]. Previous studies in the production of drinks detected several colors or colors, jelly powders. ...
... Most of these additives are now considered harmless though accused of being sources of allergies, food intolerance and more serious diseases mainly related to immune disorders. 2,3 As a result, consumer aversion to synthetic colourants has increased. For this, the use of natural dyes with limited or no side effects is an alternative to meet consumer demand for healthier food products. ...
Introduction
Synthetic colourants are subject to various allergies. As a result, the use of plant‐based additives has proved promising.
Objective
It is in this perspective that our objective was undertaken to investigate natural colourants from edible cactus. Opuntia species populations were single‐sequence repeat (SSR) fingerprinted, the analysis of betalains and phenolic compounds and the evaluation of their biological potentials were also characterised.
Results
Photometric quantification of betalains and phenols showed an interspecific variation across Opuntia species. Opuntia ficus indica fruits showed the highest betalain [betaxanthins; 843.67 and betacyanins; 1400 mg/100 g dry weight (DW)] and polyphenol contents. Reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography (RP‐HPLC) analysis showed that the variation of individual phenols profile was influenced by interspecific and genetic factors. Isorhamnetin‐O ‐(di‐deoxyhexosyl‐hexoside) was the major compound and its content varied according to Opuntia species, while catechol was the predominant phenolic compound in O. humifusa with 1.88 μg/g DW. Concerning cactus species, Opuntia colourants exhibited a potent antiradical activity [half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) up to 1 μg/mL]. Opuntia species were effective against Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacterial strains [inhibition zone (IZ) up to 27 mm]. A high genetic diversity within Opuntia genotypes based on SSR markers was revealed. UPGMA (unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean) dendrogram and PCoA (principal coordinate analysis) based on natural pigments and antimicrobial profiles indicated significant variation. The correlation approach proved the presence of a probably metabolic relationship between genetic markers, pigments and their biological activities.
Conclusion
A possible association between molecular approach and metabolic profile analysis of Opuntia allows tracing the relationship among species for its genetic conservation.
... Em 2015, estudo randomizado desenvolvido nos Estados Unidos, analisou dados apresentados pelo Centers for Disease Control (CDC) e 250 artigos a respeito das reações imunológicas devido aos corantes alimentares. Este concluiu que a alimentação oferece a maior carga antigênica exógena para o sistema imunológico 13 . As moléculas de corantes são capazes de produzir uma ação nociva ao interagir com um determinado ponto dentro ou na superfície de um organismo vivo, causando a toxidade. ...
RESUMO
Introdução: Aditivo alimentar é todo ingrediente adicionado sem o propósito de nutrir, empregado durante qualquer etapa da produção de um alimento, com o objetivo de modificar características físicas, químicas, biológicas ou sensoriais do alimento. Os primeiros registros de seu uso são relatados por antigos papiros egípcios cerca de 1.500 anos a.C., que utilizavam especiarias para dar maior atração às refeições. O consumo desses elementos vem se intensificando consideravelmente — nos últimos 50 anos aumentou 500% — e, com isso, dúvidas quanto à sua segurança têm surgido. Há contradições entre estudos quanto a seus efeitos patológicos, mas aqueles que os demonstram, ressaltam os transtornos de comportamento como os mais relevantes. Objetivo: Identificar se há riscos no consumo de aditivos alimentares no que diz respeito aos transtornos de comportamento. Metodologia: Revisão sistemática de literatura entre os anos de 2000 e 2015, utilizando as bases de dados eletrônicas Scielo, PubMed, Lilacs, MedLine. A avaliação metodológica dos artigos foi realizada através do Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP). Um total de 13 artigos foi incluído na revisão. Resultados: Transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade foi o transtorno comportamental prevalente. As crianças aparecem como grupo vulnerável em razão do consumo potencial de alimentos com aditivos, principalmente os corantes, e também pela imaturidade de seus aparelhos digestório e imunológico. Discussão: Os estudos não apenas correlacionam os aditivos alimentares aos transtornos de comportamento, como também consideram a dieta de remoção desses como tratamento profilático e terapêutico para o comportamento hiperativo. Conclusão: No Brasil, a relação entre aditivos alimentares e transtornos comportamentais ainda não foi investigada. Parece existir influência negativa dos resultados de pesquisas existentes, muitas vezes falseados pelas indústrias ao mascarar a quantidade de aditivos usada. Entretanto, os efeitos sobre o consumo desses não podem mais ser ignorados e o presente estudo pode servir de base para a elaboração de estratégias de vigilância alimentar e nutricional, com a finalidade de proteção e promoção à saúde.
... Another mixture of food colorants was observed to affect glutamatergic signaling in the brain of prenatally exposed rats (Ceyhan et al., 2013). Food preserving agents are also known to be associated with the occurrence of allergies and asthma (Vojdani and Vojdani, 2015). A small dose of azodyes absorbed from tattoos is also known to trigger immune responses of the body (Baumler, 2015). ...
Xenobiotics are chemicals that are highly persistent in the environment, bio accumulate through the food web, and stance a risk of causing adverse effects not only to human health but also to the environment. These compounds are both organic and inorganic and are noted for their high persistence and bio accumulative characteristics. These compounds are characterized by their low and high water solubility thus having the property to accumulate in animal and plant tissues causing malformations in teratogenic, immunogenic and other abnormalities. Various biological and physico-chemical methods have been deployed in the removal or treatment of xenobiotics. Chemical treatment of xenobiotics is often costly resulting in the production of toxic undesirable compounds which cannot be degraded easily making environment worse. To overcome these issues, microbial population constitutes major component of phyllosphere forming mutualistic association showing their involvement in the biodegradation of xenobiotics. The microbial diversity is not only able to degrade xenobiotics but also their metabolites into less toxic compounds by the presence of specific genes. Here in this chapter, endophyte remediated strategies are introduced in detail and covers all the biological processes involving degradation of xenobiotics via endophytic bacterial population
... Furthermore, in-vitro studies of Azorbin colors show chromosomal changes in the somatic cells of the rye [13]. Lastly, there is a major concern about the use of these colors with little attention and increased disease in children [14]. Previous studies in the production of drinks detected several colors or colors, jelly powders. ...
... Authors like Siegrist and Sütterlin [155] reported that symbolic information such as the E-numbers on the foodstuff's label influences a consumer's perception of different foodstuff and its origin, with consumers being hesitant to accept the addition of synthetic food additives. Additionally, there have been several reports pertaining to synthetic colorants side effects, including hypersensitive and allergic reactions as well as potential toxicity and carcinogenicity claims [144,156,157]. Natural additives have been associated with health promoting benefits, as they are a part of the bioactive compounds present in fruit and vegetable byproducts. ...
Nowadays, the agro-food industry generates high amounts of byproducts that may possess added value compounds with high functionality and/or bioactivity. Additionally, consumers’ demand for healthier foodstuffs has increased over the last years, and thus the food industry has strived to answer this challenge. Byproducts are generally secondary products derived from primary agro-food production processes and represent an interesting and cheaper source of potentially functional ingredients, such as peptides, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds, thus promoting a circular economy concept. The existing body of work has shown that byproducts and their extracts may be successfully incorporated into foodstuffs, for instance, phenolic compounds from eggplant can be potentially used as a mulfitunctional food additive with antimicrobial, antioxidant, and food colorant properties. As such, the aim of this review is to provide insights into byproducts and their potential as new sources of foodstuffs additives.
... However even with low consumption of colourings, hypersensitive reactions may occur in susceptible individuals. Many allergic and other immune reactive disorders have been reported [8][9][10]. Moreover, behavioural changes depending on diet are observed in sensitive children [9]. ...
Food analysis demands fast methods for routine control and high throughput of samples. Chromatographic separation enables simultaneous determination of numerous compounds in complex matrices, several approaches increasing separation efficiency and speed of analysis were involved. In this work, modern types of column with monolithic rod or superficially porous particles were employed and compared for determination of eight synthetic food dyes, their chromatographic performance was evaluated. During method optimization, cyano stationary phase Chromolith Performance CN 100 × 4.6 mm and Ascentis Express ES-CN 100 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm were selected for the separation of polar colorants. The separation was performed by gradient elution of acetonitrile/methanol and 2% water solution of ammonium acetate at flow rate 2.0 mL min−1. Mobile phase composition and the gradients were optimized in order to enable efficient separation on both columns. The method using fused-core particle column provided higher separation efficiency, narrow peaks of analytes resulted in increased peak capacity and shortening of analysis time. After the validation, the method was applied for analysis of coloured beers, soft drinks and candies.
... Concern has recently been raised that food colorants may contribute to the development of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children (Vojdani and Vojdani, 2015). In many studies, food additives, especially synthetic additives, have negative opinions about child health. ...
... Concern has recently been raised that food colorants may contribute to the development of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children (Vojdani and Vojdani, 2015). In many studies, food additives, especially synthetic additives, have negative opinions about child health. ...
Colour loss of food may occur during storage, transport or processing. The fact that the physicochemical properties of artificial colorants are superior to those of natural colorants have led to a widespread use in the food industry. Artificial colorants have been reported to cause various health problems. It has been noted that candies and fruit drinks used in artificial colorants cause behavioural disorders in children. Children may consume more artificial food colorants because they consume more colouring-containing confectionery and beverages than adults. In recent years, various colorants have been used especially in big hotel kitchens both for decoration purposes and for gaining children's attraction. As the product range in the kitchen expands, the artificial decor material used increases. The occupancy rate of the hotels preferred by the families with children is also increasing with the opening of the tourism season. In particular, the use of artificial colorants should be controlled and reduced in such kitchens. In addition, natural colorants should be preferred to artificial colorants. These colorants can be readily purchased, as well as can be prepared in the kitchen. Thus, while the criteria for child-friendly tourism management are set, the commitment to use homemade and natural ones instead of ready-made and artificial ones, especially colouring materials used in children's menus should be regarded as a plus point for that business.
The acceptability of oral medication by children is crucial for ensuring compliance and therapeutic effectiveness while decreasing relapse and treatment expenses.
A cross-sectional study using a web-based questionnaire was conducted in Jordan to explore acceptability factors affecting oral pediatric medications based on caregivers’ observations. The questionnaire consisted of four main parts to capture participants’ demographic data, participants’ preferences related to formulation excipients (color, flavor, odor, etc.), packaging components (packing shape, leaflet, dosing device, etc.), and acceptability factors associated with less common dosage forms (chewable, effervescent, and modified release formulations).
According to caregivers’ responses, children prefer oral liquid medication with low viscosity, having strawberry and chocolate flavor, red or pink color, and strawberry and chocolate odor. Caregivers prefer lightweight toy-shaped containers with drawings in the outer pack. The leaflet should contain simplified dosing calculations and illustrations, while the dosing device and water for reconstitution must be part of the pack. Caregivers also prefer toy-shaped chewing tablets with strawberry or chocolate flavor and red or pink color.
The survey results summarize the preferences regarding the formulation and packing requirements in order to achieve acceptable oral liquid medication drugs for children, leading to shorter treatment times while decreasing the cost of treatment. The survey results also shed light on the concerns of caregivers regarding the safety of coloring agents and preservatives. The collaboration between caregivers, academia, and manufacturing companies can accelerate the development of an acceptable oral medication for children, leading to effective, safe, and short pediatric treatment.
Merriam-Webster and Oxford define a xenobiotic as any substance foreign to living systems. Allura Red AC (a.k.a., E129; FD&C Red No. 40), a synthetic food dye extensively used in manufacturing ultra-processed foods and therefore highly prevalent in our food supply, falls under this category. The surge in synthetic food dye consumption during the 70s, and 80s was followed by an epidemic of metabolic diseases and the emergence of early onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) in the 1990s. This temporal association raises significant concerns, particularly given the widespread inclusion of synthetic food dyes in ultra-processed products, notably those marketed towards children. Given its interactions with key contributors to colorectal carcinogenesis such as inflammatory mediators, the microbiome, and DNA damage, there is growing interest in understanding Allura Red AC's potential impact on colon health as a putative carcinogen. This review discusses the history of Allura Red AC, current research on its effects on the colon and rectum, potential mechanisms underlying its impact on colon health, and provides future considerations. Indeed, although no governing agencies classify Allura Red AC as a carcinogen, its’ interaction with key guardians of carcinogenesis makes it suspect and worthy of further molecular investigation. The goal of this review is to inspire research into the impact of synthetic food dyes on colon health.
Given the health risks associated with synthetic colorants, natural pigments have emerged as a promising alternative. These renewable choices not only provide health benefits but also offer valuable technical and sensory properties to food systems. The effective application of natural colorants, however, requires the optimization of processing conditions, exploration of new sources, and development of novel formulations to ensure stability and maintain their inherent qualities. Several natural pigment sources have been explored to achieve the broad color range desired by consumers. The purpose of this review is to explore the current advances in the obtention and utilization of natural pigments derived from by-products, which possess health-enhancing properties and are extracted through environmentally friendly methods. Moreover, this review provides new insights into the extraction processes, applications, and bioactivities of different types of pigments.
In the present study we investigated the capacities of a panel of 25 solid sorbents represented by layered structures, inorganic oxides and hydroxides, and phyllosilicates, to effectively remove in high yield Tartrazine (E102) and Brilliant Blue FCF (E133) from aqueous solutions, and more notable, green colored food matrices. Quantification of the title compounds have been achieved by HPLC-DAD analyses. Contents of E102 and E133 in real samples were in the range 1.3-36.5 μg/mL and 1.0-20.1 μg/mL, respectively. After a treatment of 1 min., in most cases a complete bleaching of solutions and deep coloring of the solid phase was recorded. The most effective solids to this aim were seen to be aluminium based ayered double hydroxides. In the case of magnesium oxide for E102, and magnesium aluminium D. benzensulfonate SDS 01 H8L and Florisil for E133, a selective adsorption (>99.9 %) of only one dye was observed. The adsorption recorded was strictly dependent on the loading of the sorbent. Related values were 300 mg for the separation of E102 by magnesium oxide from all the five food matrices under investigation, and in the range 200 mg-300 mg for magnesium aluminium D. benzensulfonate SDS 01 H8L and Florisil in the case of E133. The application of Langmuir and Freundlich models suggested that the adsorption may take place in the inner layers of the solids with a favourable thermodynamique outcome. Findings described herein offer the concrete possibility of quantifications of individual dyes in matrices containing more than one food colorant.
Liposomes are promising delivery systems for the encapsulation of food additives and ingredients. Liposomal encapsulation is resourceful as it can handle the entrapment and delivery of both hydrophilic and lipophilic food additives, without the need for surfactants. This chapter provides an overview of the liposomal encapsulation of natural colorants, flavors, and food additives. Natural colorants, including anthocyanins, carotenoids, and betanins, have been effectively encapsulated within “proliposomes”—powdered phospholipid particles. The stability and efficacy of colorant-loaded liposomes have been demonstrated in yogurt and gummy candies. Controlled release of flavors from liposomes has been achieved by tuning their lipid bilayer composition to attain the appropriate phase transition temperature. Consequently, release of liposome-encapsulated flavors can either be triggered in-mouth or within the product. Further, liposomal encapsulation enhances the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of food additives and improves control of enzyme activity in reactions, leading to flavor and texture development in foods.
O Kombuchá é uma bebida naturalmente fermentada que vem ganhando grande destaque na indústria de bebidas. Por seu sabor levemente ácido, amargo e com presença de gases, estes chás têm sido colocados por muitos como uma alternativa às bebidas tradicionais carbonatadas, principalmente por aqueles que procuram uma bebida mais natural, saudável, com pouco açúcar, sem aditivos e corantes tradicionalmente utilizados no preparo de refrigerantes. Apesar de ser uma bebida milenar conhecida amplamente na Ásia, no Brasil trata-se de uma bebida ainda pouco conhecida e difundida. O objetivo desse trabalho foi analisar físico-quimicamente estas bebidas de mesmo sabor e de lotes e marcas distintos, para verificar a possível uniformidade e características destes produtos. Metodologia: As amostras foram adquiridas no município de Duque de Caxias- RJ e foram analisados os parâmetros de rotulagem, pH, acidez titulável, teor alcoólico, antioxidantes, cor e presença de corantes. Resultados e discussão: Do ponto de vista físico-quimico todas as amostras estavam dentro do preconizado pela legislação, contudo, no que tange a rotulagem diversas amostras apresentavam alegações e palavras proibidas pelo exposto pela Instrução Normativa. As amostras K apresentaram o maior conteúdo de compostos fenólicos dentre as amostras tendo como valor médio 94,95 mg eq de ácido gálico/100mL. Conclusão: Os parâmetros físico-químicos e a rotulagem nutricional foram analisados e se percebeu a grande necessidade de uma padronização quanto ao aspecto do produto e uma maior fiscalização com relação à rotulagem.
La legislazione appare estremamente permissiva e i limiti EFSA non considerano la sinergia con altre sostanze contenute negli alimenti (ad es. pesticidi, interferenti endocrini). Inoltre manca un adeguato profilo ambientale dei metaboliti che inevitabilmente finiscono nei fiumi e nei corsi d’acqua. Queste sostanze determinano, quando sintetiche, inevitabilmente un peggioramento della salute individuale e della qualità ambientale.
Non viene generalmente applicato il Principio di Precauzione, che prevede di adottare i limiti massimi di sicurezza relativi all’assunzione. Molti prodotti proibiti su base scientifica in alcuni paesi sono, infatti, permessi in altri. European Consumers ritiene che tendenzialmente nessun addittivo tossico dovrebbe essere presente nel cibo e critica la politica dei Livelli massimi di assunzione giornaliera condotta dall’EFSA.
This research was conducted to know the effect of food additives Carmoisine, Monosodium Glutamate, and Sodium Benzoate on hypothalamic-pituitary-testis axis by measuring the level of some hormones (Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle Stimulating Hormone, Testosterone Hormone and Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone) and biochemical parameters (Malondialdehyde, Superoxide dismutase, Catalase and glutathione). The current study included 32 male albino rats distributed in four groups, each group contains 8 animals, and the dose lasted for two months. The first group administered the dose of normal drinking water, the second group carmoisine at a concentration of 250 mg/kg of body weight, the third group-administered Monosodium Glutamate at a concentration of 15 mg/kg of body weight and the fourth group dosed the Sodium Benzoate at a concentration of 15 mg/kg of body weight. The results of the current study showed a significant decrease in the level of concentration of Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Testosterone Hormone (T) and Gonadotropin. Releasing Hormone (GnRH) in animal serum for groups treated with food additives (T 1 , T 2 , T 3 ) compared to the control group(C 1 ). Results as well as was shown a significant increase in the level of Malondialdehyde and a significant decrease in the level of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants (Superoxide dismutase, Catalase and glutathione)in serum blood for group animals (T 1 , T 2 , T 3 ) compared to control group (C1).
This chapter seeks to explore possible explanations for the rise in allergies and immune reactivities and the epidemic proportions of autoimmune disease. A major hypothesis is that this modern sort of plague derives from the modern civilization in which most of the world now lives. The technological advances of progress inevitably bring with them changes in lifestyle and diet, which can affect our immune system in various ways. Individuals today are surrounded and bombarded by genetically modified foods completely different from what their ancestors used to eat and an unending torrent of chemicals that not only pervade the environment around them but are in the very food and drink that they consume daily without a second thought. Thus, the necessary homeostatic balance between type 1 and type 2 T helper cells (Th1 and Th2) can be swayed toward pathogenesis by, ironically, too hygienic a lifestyle. Likewise, the balance of the commensal bacteria in the gut microbiome can be disturbed by environmental triggers, which may lead to intestinal permeability, immune reactivity, and autoimmunity. Xenobiotics (haptens) in food can form neo-antigens or adducts, leading to autoimmunity and cancer. The increased use of food additives to make our food look better, taste better, last longer, and be cheaper and easier to grow has come with an accompanying rise in reports of food reactivities and autoimmune disorders. It has been proven that many of the common foods that are universally eaten without a second thought are actually cross-reactive with different tissues of the human body, and this includes the brain. It seems all too easy, then, for the healthy relationship and mechanisms between the brain and the immune system to succumb to the overwhelming assault mounted by the environmental triggers of today’s modern world. What is required is a way to detect the beginnings of these environmental attacks, which leave traces or biomarkers, so that years of suffering from immune reactivity or autoimmune disease may be avoided or prevented by early diagnosis and proper therapeutic action.
An exploratory study was conducted to identify processed foods that contain allura red and are sold near primary schools in the City of Puebla, Mexico. There are studies that confirm the toxicity of allura red and its probable relation with the generation of cancer metabolites. For the study, a measuring instrument was designed to determine the frequency of consumption in children from 10 to 13 years of age. For this, the instrument was designed following a descriptive analysis by means of a field study identifying common commercial products. Later the Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to validate the statistical reliability of the instrument. It was determined that the infant population oftenly consumes foods processed with red allura, having as daily consumption snacks (fried foods), followed by cereals and yogurt. This study was able to design and validate a reliable instrument, which allows to measure the frequency of consumption of foods processed with red allura in infants.
Background and Objectives: Synthetic dyes are an important group of additivesused in food products, and because of health concerns about consuming population, the application of these compounds is needed to be enough controlled. The aim of this study was to investigate the types and frequencies of the dyes used in making pastries in the confectionery of Tuyserkan city.
Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional study investigated the types of consumed dyes in confectionery’s pastries of Tuyserkan city. A total of 80 samples including wet and dry pastries are randomly sampled from 17 confectioneries. The steps of the experiment consisted of degreasing the sample, purification, and determining the type of dye were down by using Tin Layer Chromatography (TLC) method. All charts used in the study were drowned by Excel Software (2013).
Results: The results indicate, among the total 80 samples, 17 samples contained no dye, 15 samples with natural dye, 44 samples with permitted synthetic dyes, and 4 samples have non-permitted synthetic dyes. Moreover, of all the synthetic dyes, 8 samples contained Quioline yellow dye, 10 samples with Sanset yellow dye, 8 samples with Azorubine dye, 5 samples with Brilliant blue dye, 5 samples with ponceau 4R, and 4 (5%) samples have Allura Red.
Conclusions: This study showed a remarkable part of used dyes in the confectionery of Tuyserkan city is non-permitted. Therefore, it is proposed to reduce the amount of synthetic dyes by restriction in distribution, more controlling by health departments, and increasing the awareness in consumers and manufactures.
A 10-week study was conducted in which all food was provided for the families of 24 hyperactive preschool-aged boys whose parents reported the existence of sleep problems or physical signs and symptoms. A within-subject crossover design was used, and the study was divided into three periods: a baseline period of 3 weeks, a placebo-control period of 3 weeks, and an experimental diet period of 4 weeks. The experimental diet was broader than those studied previously in that it eliminated not only artificial colors and flavors but also chocolate, monosodium glutamate, preservatives, caffeine, and any substance that families reported might affect their specific child. The diet was also low in simple sugars, and it was dairy free if the family reported a history of possible problems with cow's milk. According to the parental report, more than half of the subjects exhibited a reliable improvement in behavior and negligible placebo effects. In addition, several nonbehavioral variables tended to improve while the children received the experimental diet, particularly halitosis, night awakenings, and latency to sleep onset.
Allura Red-40 is a safe colour additive (permissible by the FDA and Health Canada) that is used in a variety of foods to make them more attractive and appealing for consumers. However, limited information is available about its binding to macronutrients that are responsible for its uniform distribution in food products. In the present study, the binding capacity of Allura with food proteins is compared with Coomassie Brillant Blue R 250, which is an established staining agent for visualizing electrophoretically resolved proteins. The data illustrate that Allura is a fast reacting dye and binds with a variety of food proteins including peanut, rice bran, garlic and mixture of proteins [(Takadiastase, nisin, a microbial protein and bovine serum albumin (BSA)]. The Allura bound proteins retained their colour at high and low temperatures and in a wide range of pH. The experiments on the resolution of proteins and staining with Allura have shown that the dye is highly sensitive, rapid, lasting and is easily linked with a variety of proteins. The binding of Allura to various proteins had almost no adverse effect on protein digestibility, as predicted by in vitro digestibility determinations.
To the Editor.
—Allergies to drugs are usually caused by the active ingredient. However, inert excipients (coloring agents, preservatives, and sweeteners) may also sometimes cause allergic reactions.1-4 The incidence of these may be increasing, because excipients are now usually chemically produced synthetics, not naturally derived substances. We report a patient with epilepsy who developed sensitivity to FD&C Red 40 in the Tegretol brand of carbamazepine.Report of a Case.
—A 56-year-old woman had had frequent complex partial and rare secondarily generalized seizures for 5 years. Control was poor with therapeutic plasma levels of phenytoin, primidone, and phenobarbital. Treatment with the Tegretol brand of carbamazepine (Ciba-Geigy) was started, and other drugs were withdrawn. Four weeks later, she complained of rhinorrhea, tearing, and nasal stuffiness that consistently occurred within 20 minutes after ingesting a Tegretol tablet. Generic carbamazepine (a white tablet made by Bioline MAF) was substituted at the same dose