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Concentrations of phthalates in bottled water under common storage conditions: Do they pose a health risk to children?
... Although the treatment of water reduces the concentrations of phthalates and BPA, a substantial quantity of these chemicals is still detected in drinking water. Some authors have reported that the EDI of phthalates from bottled water was up to 1.1 × 10 −1 μg kg bw −1 d −1 and 1.7 × 10 −2 μg kg bw −1 d −1 in children and adults, respectively, while BPA was up to 4 × 10 −3 μg kg bw −1 d −1 in adults (Christensen et al., 2012;Jeddi et al., 2015;Li et al., 2019). In many cases, the EDIs of phthalates and BPA from bottled water can exceed those from tap water. ...
... Moreover, some factors, such as storage duration, temperature change, and sunlight, increase the concentrations of these chemicals in bottled water and food packaged. Hence, some of them that were not immediately found after production can be detected in PET-bottled water after storage (Jeddi et al., 2015). ...
... An interesting observation was that a study in Iran reported one of the highest CR values for DEHP and the lowest CR value for BBP. Although it is not possible to establish a definitive conclusion, some studies in Iran have revealed high levels of DEHP in various food products and in some plastics, while BBP has not been detected (Jeddi et al., 2015). Therefore, this suggests that DEHP exposure may be more prevalent in certain regions or industries in this country. ...
... These common plasticizers are di-esters of 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid (phthalic acid), and are widely used in plastic industry to improve flexibility, durability and softness of plastic materials [12][13][14][15][16]. However, due to their nature, phthalates can easily migrate from plastic materials into drinking water, or beverages during production and storage [17][18][19]. The migration of PAEs' depends on their concentrations in the packaging polymer, the acidity of content in contact with packages, and the lipid content [20][21][22][23]. ...
... For both beverages and milk samples, the order of the concentration of the two detected phthalates was DEP>DBP. The increase in phthalate concentration after 45 days of storage, compared to the phthalate content measured before storage served as evidence of phthalate leaching as observed in bottle water storage under conditions by Jeddi et al. [18] and Rastkari et al. [2]. When measuring phthalate esters leaching in different types of consumable plastic products Ahmed et al. [50] also found DMP and DBP to have the highest leaching in juices and soft drinks comparable to five different phthalates. ...
... In a study of phthalate leaching in juices during storage, Arfaeinie et al. [49] found a positive correlation between the storage temperature, time and sunlight exposure of juice containers, and the extraction of phthalate esters (DnBP and DEHP) from highly acidic juices. Jeddi et al. [18] also deduced that freezing temperature (4ºC) does not support phthalate leaching in acidic beverages, hydrolysis controls the production and leaching of phthalates whose rate increases with increase temperature imply that high temperature allows more leaching than the lower ones. ...
... Concentrations of phthalates in control samples showed the presence of mostly DBP, BBP and MEHP. The result of this study corresponds with the concentrations reported in other studies that analysed phthalates in water immediately after purchasing [19,20]. The presence of phthalate esters in the few control samples could be from the packaging process, plastic hoses for water supply and distribution, storage tanks and water treatment facilities. ...
... The observed increase in phthalate concentrations in this study after storage is in good agreement with reports that analysed phthalates under the same conditions. Jeddi et al. [20] reported an increased phthalate level in PET bottled water in Iran after being stored at different temperature conditions with the highest migration rate observed for samples stored at 40°C for 45 days. Khaniki et al. [22] reported an increase in DEP and DEHP in water from plastic tumblers after storage at 80 o C in 60 mins. ...
... From the results, the brands did not exceed the USEPA (HQ) standard of 1.0, indicating that there is no carcinogenic health risk. The report of this study is in accordance with that reported by Ghada [29] and Jeddi et al. [20]. Data on the assessment of phthalate exposure through water intake are scarce. ...
The determination of phthalate ester concentrations in stored packaged water brands produced in Enugu State was carried out and the health risks evaluated. Packaged water samples were obtained in four batches from six sachet water and six bottled water factories, and stored outdoor for 1 month before analysis, while control samples were obtained and analysed immediately after purchase. Solvent extraction was carried out using dichloromethane, and phthalates concentrations were determined using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. The range of limit of detection, recovery analysis and limit of quantitation were 0.001-0.002 mg/L, 81.26–91.47% and 0.003-0.006 mg/L respectively. The concentrations (µg/L) of DMP, BBP, MEHP, DBP and PADHE were<0.002–0.13, 0.41–1.84, <0.002–19.66, 0.76–4.22 and <0.002–0.81 in the bottled water and 0.11–0.36, <0.002–0.43, 0.21–5.75, 0.87–3.28 and <0.002–0.57 in the sachet water. Dimethyl phthalate (DMP) concentrations in the exposed and stored sachet water were significantly higher (P˂0.05) than that obtained from bottled water. There were also significantly higher (P<0.05) concentrations of Diethyl phthalate (DEP), Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), Di-butyl phthalate (DBP) and phthalic acid decyl hept-2-yl ester (PADHE), and pH in exposed sachet water than the control. Non-carcinogenic hazard quotient for phthalate esters in the packaged water samples was ˂1, which indicates no carcinogenic health risk. The contribution of individual phthalates to drinking water for Mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate in both adults and toddlers exceeded the 0.5% TDI in some of the packaged water brands. Results suggest that increased concentrations of phthalate esters in the exposed packaged water samples were as a result of storage temperature, while the presence of phthalate esters in few of the control samples was probably from the packaging process. Although the levels of phthalates were low, regular consumption of packaged water could be detrimental to health of the general populace.
... The highest nitrate was found in the Railneer brand followed by Divyajal, Bisleri, Catch, Kinley and Aqua na. Jeddi et al. (2015) analyzed PET bottled water samples immediately after purchase and stated that there was no signi cant correlation between the DEHP concentration and the physicochemical properties of the water samples. While Dumitrascu (2012) reported that the migration of DEHP from PET bottled to water depends on the pH. ...
... As per the USEPA and WHO a maximum permissible limit of DEHP in drinking water is 6-8 μg/l (WHO 2008; USEPA 2009). Wormuth et al. (2006) and Jeddi et al. (2015) stated that phthalate exposure through water is reduced with increasing age because water intake is higher in children as compared to adults. As per the IARC (The International Agency for Research on Cancer), only DEHP is carcinogenic to humans in all the phthalate esters (USEPA 2012c). ...
... As per the IARC (The International Agency for Research on Cancer), only DEHP is carcinogenic to humans in all the phthalate esters (USEPA 2012c). The cancer risk due to DEHP exposure via water intake stored at 40 o C was greater than for the other storage conditions while the least carcinogenic risk from DEHP was observed in the bottled water stored under freezing conditions (-18 o C) (Jeddi et al. 2015). Due to the DEHP concentration, the carcinogenic risk was tremendously below the accepted risk level because the DEHP in water corresponding to cancer risk in 1,000,000 was 3 μg/l (USEPA 2012c). ...
Phthalates are one of the ubiquitous contaminants in the environment due to the extensive use in the last few years. They are easily released because they are not chemically bonded to polymers. They migrate into the food during food packing while in water, they migrate during water filling or storage and bottle manufacturing. They are toxic to human health and known as carcinogen/ endocrine disruptors. A total of sixty PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottled mineral water samples of different six brands were purchased from the local market of Noida, India. These bottles were of two different batch numbers of each brand. Two bottles of each brand with a different batch number were analyzed immediately after purchase while the other eight bottles were analyzed after two and six months when they were stored in sunlight (~ 45 o C) and - 20 o C. The aim of the present study was to determine the migration of DEHP and its impact on storage conditions of PET bottled mineral water in retail stores or homes. We used a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) for the estimation of DEHP in these samples. We observed that the migration of DEHP was dependent on high temperature and storage time. DEHP was present only in those samples, which were stored in sunlight for two & six months and at - 20 o C for six months. While found below the detection limit in those samples which were analyzed immediately after purchase and stored at - 20 o C for two months.
... DEP and DMP concentration levels were always within the limits permitted by current laws [44]. Considering that the analysis of the feed water of all ice dispensers revealed no appreciable contamination with the four PAEs of interest (concentration levels always lower than their respective LOQs) and taking into account that the water used for ice production is drawn directly by the distribution system and, therefore, from the plumbing system of the buildings where the ice machines are placed, the possibility that the contamination in terms of PAEs observed could be due to migration from the pipes of the water-distribution system could be excluded [45,46]. ...
... Considering that the analysis of the feed water of all ice dispensers revealed no appreciable contamination with the four PAEs of interest (concentration levels always lower than their respective LOQs) and taking into account that the water used for ice production is drawn directly by the distribution system and, therefore, from the plumbing system of the buildings where the ice machines are placed, the possibility that the contamination in terms of PAEs observed could be due to migration from the pipes of the water-distribution system could be excluded [45,46]. ...
Edible ice is often produced by special machines that can represent a source of significant chemical and microbiological contamination. In this work, the presence of phthalic acid esters (phthalates, PAEs) and heavy metals in ice cubes distributed by 77 vending machines installed in two different zones in southern Italy and fed by water from the public water supply was investigated. Solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS) was used to evaluate contamination with four PAEs, which were selected because they are commonly used in the production of food-contact plastics, while inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP/MS) was used to quantify the heavy metals. It was found that ice samples, especially those from one of the two considered zones (zone 2), exceeded the dibutyl phthalate (DBP) threshold limit value; some ice cubes from the other zone (zone 1) instead showed levels of both lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni) up to one order of magnitude higher than those observed in samples collected in zone 2 and higher than the maximum permitted values (European Directive n. 2184/2020). Since the water source connected to the ice vending machines was found to be free from significant levels of all considered target compounds and metals, the high levels of DBP, Ni, and Pb in ice cubes could be attributed to the components and/or to the state of repair of the ice vending machines themselves.
... In a study, approximately 25,000 micron-sized and 10.2 billion submicron-sized microplastic migrations were detected in the hot water put into the cup within 15 min (Sewwandi et al. 2023). Our findings showed changes in the amount of PAEs depending on the storage time, which is consistent with the previous studies (Jeddi et al. 2015). It has been reported that increased storage time leads to the formation of higher levels of transported compounds (e.g., DEHP) in foods (Cheshmazar et al. 2021). ...
... Consistent with the outcomes of previous studies (Jeddi et al. 2015;Alak et al. 2024), the current research findings showed a positive correlation between the release of PAEs and storage duration. Cheshmazar et al. (2021) showed that increased storage time is effective in forming higher levels of transported compounds (e.g., DEHP) in food and reported that factors such as storage time, temperature, and sunlight play a role in the release of PAEs from packaging. ...
Phthalates or phthalate esters (PAEs) have become a serious concern due to their toxicity and risks of migration from contact materials to food matrices and the environment. The aim of this study is to monitor the possible migration potential of PAEs in pelagic fish stored in vacuum packaging depending on the storage time and to determine the polyethylene polymers. In order to achieve this goal, sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and anchovy fish (Engraulis encrasicolus) were randomly packaged in vacuum bags and then stored for 90 days. Phthalate content was determined by GC/MS technique in the muscle tissue of each fish species at certain periods (0, 30, and 90 days) of storage, and on the first day in the packaging material and fish meat. As a result of the analysis performed in µ-Raman spectroscopy, no microplastics were detected in both fish species’ meats. FTIR spectroscopy results of the packaging material determined nylon in the chemical content of the packaging material before processing. It has been determined that the chemical composition of the packaging used in the vacuum packaging process is affected by the temperature, depending on the storage period, and different polymer types are formed in the processed package material. It was determined that the dominant PAE homologues were Di-n-pentyl phthalate (DPENP) in both fish meat and Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP) in the package. However, during storage, Dibutylphthalate (DBP) became dominant in anchovies and DPENP became dominant in sea bass, differing according to fish species and storage time.
... The possible migration of PAEs to foods during storage in food processing and plastic packaging materials represents an important concern. Many studies have shown that PAEs are present in bottled water (Jeddi et al., 2015;Xu et al., 2020), olive oils and olive pomace oils (Kıralan et al., 2020a), cold-pressed oils (Kıralan et al., 2020b), cooking oil (Kumar et al., 2019), milk (Fierens et al., 2013;Kim et al., 2009;Mondal et al., 2022), meat (Yang et al., 2018), vegetables (Cheshmazar et al., 2021;Ma et al., 2018), black tea and coffee capsules (De Toni et al., 2017;Di Bella et al., 2014;Sakaki et al., 2020), and coffee powder (Guo et al., 2012;Mohamed and Ammar, 2008). ...
... The literature review found no study on the estimated cancer risk factor in coffee samples. The negligible carcinogenic risk factor associated with DEHP exposure in tap water (Okpara et al., 2022) and bottled water (Jeddi et al., 2015) was reported to be less than 10 − 6 and 6.5 × 10 − 7 , respectively. Contrary to these studies, high carcinogenic risk factors of 0.04, 0.08, and 0.02 were determined for children in plastic-packaged drinking water and plastic and tetra-packaged fruit drinks, respectively (Adegunwa et al., 2022). ...
Although phthalate esters (PAEs) are plasticizers widely utilized nowadays to enhance the flexibility and processability of polymeric materials, their presence and detection in the food environment have become an important concern. In this study, phthalate esters (butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and diisononyl phthalate (DINP)) were detected in 40 coffee samples in single-use or large plastic-based packages of different brands collected from the Turkish market. PAEs exposure and non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks were calculated for females and males aged 15-64, depending on their coffee consumption within 24 hours. DBP and DINP exhibited the highest level of migration to coffee samples (<LOD - 15.2 ng mL⁻¹ and <LOD - 64.1 ng mL⁻¹, respectively), while BBP was found below the limit of quantification (LOQ). In non-carcinogenic risk evaluations of PAEs, the data showed that coffee was consumed at levels not considered harmful for all ages and genders (HI<1). The carcinogenic risk factor for BBP was determined at grade C, meaning it was negligible (<10⁻⁶) for all age groups. However, carcinogenic risk factors determined for DEHP in males and females aged 15-30 years (in the range of 1.50×10⁻⁴ and 4.87×10⁻⁴) and females aged 51-64 years (1.45×10⁻⁴) were detected at grade A, which exceeded the high-level cancer risk (>10⁻⁴) reported by the US EPA. Our research findings showed that almost all age groups over 15 were exposed to PAEs orally from the coffee they frequently consumed, which might lead to an excessive risk of cancer in individuals. Therefore, it was concluded that more comprehensive studies should be conducted based on this study, especially regarding cancer risk.
... sharing weak bonds resulting in the probable release of PAEs in the stored matrices thereby making food and beverages the predominant source of PAEs for human exposure. In addition, 50% of compounds migrating from food contact materials are non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) and PAEs are among the most dominant NIAS reported to migrate from the packaged material to drinking water (Jeddi et al. 2015). Although manufacturing food-contact materials with PAEs is not authorized by the European Commission regulation no. ...
... DEP concentration after 7 days in all three studied temperatures was lower than other studies (Bošnir et al. 2007). DnBP levels in the present study even after 7 days of storage at all three temperatures were comparable to Iranian bottled water (Jeddi et al. 2015). Average DnBP concentrations at all three temperatures were higher than another report with 10 weeks storage time (Casajuana and Lacorte, 2003). ...
Mineral bottled water packed in three polymers viz., virgin polyethylene terephthalate (PET), recycled PET, and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) were investigated for the occurrence, migration, and health risk of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) at 25 °C, 35 °C, and 45 °C. The average concentration of six USEPA priority PAEs in refrigerated water samples was highest in recycled PET> LDPE > virgin PET. The highest leaching was seen at 45 °C after 2 days for LDPE water packets with ∑6PAEs amounting to 64,300 ng/L. Similarly, for recycled PET, the highest migration was seen at 45 °C after seven days (3,800 µg/L). Bis 2-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) were the predominant plasticizers from PET bottles and LDPE water packets, respectively. Predicted concentration after three weeks based on best fit obtained through the polynomial model for PET bottles was seen higher than the recommended limit suggested by USEPA (6 µg/L) and WHO (8 µg/L).
... Some researchers suggest that PAEs are non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) that can be incorporated into plastic material and potentially migrate into food (Salazar-Beltrán et al., 2017;Jeddi, et al. 2015;Luo, et al. 2018;Jayaweera, et al. 2020). In this context, PAEs sources have been associated with the origin of the PET container, source of waters, cap-sealing resins, quality of the raw material and chemicals used in the production and contamination in production lines (Jeddi, et al. 2015;Luo, et al. 2018;Giuliani, et al. 2020). ...
... Some researchers suggest that PAEs are non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) that can be incorporated into plastic material and potentially migrate into food (Salazar-Beltrán et al., 2017;Jeddi, et al. 2015;Luo, et al. 2018;Jayaweera, et al. 2020). In this context, PAEs sources have been associated with the origin of the PET container, source of waters, cap-sealing resins, quality of the raw material and chemicals used in the production and contamination in production lines (Jeddi, et al. 2015;Luo, et al. 2018;Giuliani, et al. 2020). Many studies indicate that the initial levels of PAEs are often lower than those found after storage processes or when the bottle is exposed to high temperature (Montuori et al. 2008;Mousa et al. 2013;Zaki & Shoeib, 2018;Jeddi et al. 2016;Keresztes et al. 2013;Szendi et al. 2018;Xu, et al. 2020). ...
Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) concentration in bottled water and different factors (water pH, storage time, sunlight exposure, and temperature) that affect/control them have become hot topics during recent years. Nevertheless, quite contradictory results and disagreements on the effects of these factors have been published. In an attempt to find some consensus on this topic, a comprehensive study considering the combined effect of long storage times (longer than a year) and the water hydrochemical signature (including water pH, elemental composition and the presence/absence of dissolved CO2) was performed using the four most commonly consumed bottled water brands on the Chilean market. Each water brand was analyzed between 10 or 14 different times, depending on the brand (in total 97 samples were studied).
Following the concept of the hydrochemical signature typically used in hydrogeology to classify types of waters, the notion of a water phthalate fingerprint was proposed. Finally, concerning the effect of long storage times, this study demonstrates that all the trends (increase, decrease or steady) of the Total PAEs concentration are possible; and these trends are controlled by the specific hydrochemical signature and phthalate fingerprint of the bottled water.
... Nowadays, PET is the most widespread material for the production of water bottles, as the world witnessed a surge in the usage of PET bottled water due to the low production cost, ease of transport, as well as its size, and strength. As a result, the migration of phthalate from PET water bottles formed a global concern [22]. The variation in the phthalate forms could be attributed to the addition of alkyl groups [27]. ...
... The common phthalates reported in several bottled water samples were DBP and DEHP. However, the results for the BBP were consistent with the results obtained by Jeddi et al. [22], who found that it was not detected in the tested samples stored at low temperatures (25-30°C). Moreover, Domínguez-Morueco et al. [12] examined DEP and DBP levels in bottled water and found that their concentrations were 0.011 and 0.91 μg/ mL, respectively, in which DEP results are consistent with our results to some extent. ...
Background
This paper aims to investigate the occurrence and removal characteristics of phthalate esters from bottled drinking water using silver modified roasted date pits. Three adsorbents, namely roasted date pits (RODP), silver-modified roasted date pits (S-RODP), and activated carbon (AC) were used to investigate their adsorption characterizations in removing dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP) from the collected bottle water samples.
Methods
The occurrences of the phthalate esters in the collected bottled water samples were carried out at different temperatures (30, 50, and 60 °C), and analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis - selected ion monitoring. Batch adsorption isotherms were used to study and establish the efficiency of such adsorbents in removing phthalate esters, in which they describe the adsorbent-adsorbate interaction systems. Adsorption efficiency of the various adsorbents was investigated by using different adsorbent masses (0.05 g, 0.10 g, and 0.15 g) and temperature (30 °C, 50 °C, and 60 °C). Different physical and chemical characterizations were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area, pore radius, and pore volume.
Results
The results indicated that the most abundant phthalate esters were DMP followed by DEP under 30 °C; however, DNOP was not detected in any of the tested water samples, except for one sample under 30 °C with a concentration of 0.031 μg/mL. The obtained results showed that phthalate esters leaching to the bottled drinking water were affected by storage temperature. The phthalate esters levels were increased with increasing the temperature to 60 °C. It was concluded that the ability of S-RODP for the adsorption of phthalate esters was better than the removal percentage obtained by AC and RODP. The removal percentage was increased from 90 to 99% by increasing the temperature from 30 to 50 °C and then decreased to 92.3% at 60 °C.
Conclusion
RODP was successfully used as an effective adsorbent for phthalate esters removal from drinking water. However, S-RODP has the highest removal abilities than other adsorbents due to the newly formed functional groups on its surface.
... The change of PAEs concentration in bottled water of the six brands when stored at 40 • C, 50 • C and 60 • C for 7 days are shown in Fig. 4. The results obviously presented that the concentrations of the three PAEs in bottled water were all positively correlated with both storage duration and temperature, and the migration of PAEs from bottles to water occurred significantly in a short term under high temperature, which were consistent with previous studies (Zaki and Shoeib, 2018;Keresztes et al., 2013;Jeddi et al., 2015). Compared with the original DEHP level before heating, the average growth rate of DEHP concentration was up to 80.0% at 40 • C, 101.7% at 50 • C and 135.0% at 60 • C respectively after heating for 7 days, which was higher than that of BBP (78.6% at 40 • C, 88.3% at 50 • C and 102.9% at 60 • C) and DBP (50.7% at 40 • C, 58.6% at 50 • C and 71.2% at 60 • C). ...
... By comparison, the carcinogenic risk increased significantly after bottled water stored at a high temperature for 7 days, especially when the storage temperature was 60 • C, the carcinogenic risk was greater than 10 − 6 . It can be reasonably inferred that the cancer risk of bottled water will increase with storage time and temperature due to the migration of DEHP (Keresztes et al., 2013;Jeddi et al., 2015). When the can be reached when bottled water is stored for 8.8 days at 40 • C, 7.7 days at 50 • C, or 6.1 days at 60 • C at an average level for the six brands according to their kinetic exponential models in Table 2. Therefore, drinking bottled water stored in high temperature for a long time such as stored in cars exposed in hot weather could be very harmful to human health, which should be paid more attention. ...
This study was to investigate the occurrence, migration and health risk of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in tap water, barreled water and bottled water in Tianjin, China. Six priority controlled PAEs were measured, among which the detection frequency of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was 100%, while the others were not detected. The concentration of DEHP was higher than BBP and DBP in all the samples. The initial ∑3PAEs concentrations in tap water, barreled water and bottled water were 2.409 ± 0.391 μg/L, 1.495 ± 0.213 μg/L and 1.963 ± 0.160 μg/L, respectively. Boiling tap water could reduce the PAEs content to an extent, but they increased significantly in hot tap water contacting with disposable plastic cups. The migration of PAEs in barreled water and bottled water were positively correlated with storage time and temperature, which could be described by exponential models. The hazard indexes of PAEs in different types of drinking water were very low. However, the human carcinogenic risks of DEHP will reach the maximum acceptable risk level of 10⁻⁶ when bottled water is stored for 8.8 days at 40 ℃, 7.7 days at 50 ℃, or 6.1 days at 60 ℃.
... the results, as the storage time prolonged, regardless of the type of extemporaneous preparation, the concentration of the phthalates increased (Figs.3,4,5,6). The migration of the phthalates clearly is affected by the duration of the exposure between the PET bottle and the contents of the bottle(Jeddi et al., 2015). This observation was similar to the ndings from other studies(Rastkari et al., 2017;Luo et al., 2020). ...
The safety and quality of pharmaceutical products can be affected by chemical contaminants that migrate into them, depending on the type and composition of the packaging material. The migration of phthalates during manufacturing of plastics poses potential significant health concerns. This research aims to provide insight into factors driving phthalate migration and propose strategies for reducing its occurrence in extemporaneous preparations in Ashanti region, Ghana. Factors such as storage time and migration kinetics over two years were investigated to understand their impact on phthalate levels in Mist Senna Co (MSC), Mist Potassium Citrate (MPC), Mist Magnesium Trisilicate (MMT) and Mist Expectorant Sedative (MES). The samples were analysed using reverse phase – High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC) with Photodiode array (PDA) detection. A gradient elution using acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid at a detection wavelength of 235 nm and a flow rate of 1 mL/min was employed. As the storage time increased, the levels of the phthalates increased. The migration of phthalates was influenced by the duration the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle was in contact with the content of the bottle. The highest migration rate per week for all the phthalates was observed in diethylhexyl phthalate with the highest level being 19 µg/L in MMT, 16 µg/L in MSC, 12 µg/L in MES and 8.3 µg/L in MPC. The finding emphasizes the significance of implementing optimized storage time in reducing phthalate exposure in extemporaneous preparations in Ghana. This study could contribute to enhancing the safety and quality of pharmaceutical products in Ghana.
... This situation for DPENP migration was reported by Velotto 47 in a study with hot drinks. Our findings showed variations in the amount of PAEs depending on the storage period, which is consistent with the previous studies 48 . It has been reported that increased storage time leads to the formation of higher levels of transported compounds (eg DEHP) in foods 49 . ...
In recent years, the presence and migration of PAEs in packaging materials and consumer products has become a serious concern. Based on this concern, the aim of our study is to determine the possible migration potential and speed of PAEs in benthic fish stored in vacuum packaging, as well as to monitor the storage time and type as well as polyethylene (PE) polymer detection.As a result of the analysis performed by µ-Raman spectroscopy, 1 microplastic (MP) of 6 µm in size was determined on the 30th day of storage in whiting fish muscle and the polymer type was found to be Polyethylene (PE) (low density polyethylene: LDPE). Depending on the storage time of the packaging used in the vacuum packaging process, it has been determined that its chemical composition is affected by temperature and different types of polymers are formed. 10 types of PAEs were identified in the packaging material and stored flesh fish: DIBP, DBP, DPENP, DHEXP, BBP, DEHP, DCHP, DNOP, DINP and DDP. While the most dominant PAEs in the packaging material were determined as DEHP, the most dominant PAEs in fish meat were recorded as BBP and the lowest as DMP. The findings provide a motivating model for monitoring the presence and migration of PAEs in foods, while filling an important gap in maintaining a safe food chain.
... Furthermore, raising the room temperature to 40 degrees Celsius and lengthening the storage time to 90 days led to a significant increase in average levels of DEHP to 3.44 µg/L, respectively. This research showed that increasing temperatures raised plastic bottle phthalate release into for drinking [17,18]. A new study analyzed phthalate levels in packaged water at 25-42 • C over a period of time. ...
PAE and PC polymers, such as BPA, are utilized to make water bottles. Due to the lack of polymer-chemical interaction, PAE can enter drinking bottles during production, wrapping, and keeping. Phthalates can transfer from the bottle to the water depending on keeping conditions (temperature, time, sunlight intensity), pH, and bottle capacity. Since there haven't been previous studies published on the subject, the aim of this meta-analysis and systematic review research is to determine the level of phthalates in drinking water consumed in Iranian cities. Web of Science, Science of Direct, Scopus, and PubMed, databases have been used in this study. Eight studies were selected from 556 initial publications after screening for duplication and irrelevant information. Articles from January 1, 2000, to February 10, 2024, were found in the mentioned databases. Among the types of phthalates, the concentration of DEHP was reported higher than the others Because its concentration has been reported in seven out of eight studies. The highest concentration of DEHP was reported by Mehraie(2.22 µg/l), Zare Jeddi (0.8 µg/l), Yousefi (0.77 µg/l), Abtahi (0.76 µg/l), Zare Jeddi (0.42 µg/l), Abdolahnejad(0.15 µg/l), and Pourzamani (0.08 µg/l). The highest concentration of DEP, DBP, BBP, and PA was reported by Abtahi (0.77 µg/l) and Esteki (2.25 µg/l), Mehraie(0.93 µg/l), and Pourzamani (0.83 µg/l). The results of this study showed that the most important phthalates measured in drinking water include DEP, DEHP, DBP, BBP, and PA. According to the results of the present studies, the most important factor in the increase of phthalates is the storage conditions of drinking water (temperature, sunlight, and the type of pipe or bottle)
... Due to their potential toxicity, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the European Union (EU) had listed dibutyl phthalate (DBP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) as priority pollutants. To protect human health, China, the USA, and EU have restricted the use of some PAEs in food packaging material including DEHP, DMP, DEP, DBP, and DOP (Huang and Wang 2016;Jeddi et al. 2015;Wei et al. 2022). Meanwhile, DEHP, a widely used PAE, has been listed in the drinking-water quality standard of several countries including China, Canada, Australia, Israel, Japan, the USA, while DBP and DEP have also been included in the Chinese drinking-water quality standard (Liu et al. 2021). ...
Phthalic acid ester (PAE) contamination in popular drink bubble tea has been hardly studied in the world. In this work, a liquid–liquid extraction following solid phase extraction (LLE-SPE)-UPLC-MS/MS method was first established for trace determination of ten PAEs in bubble tea. The developed method was validated with respect to linearity (R² > 0.992), low limit of detections (LODs, 0.49–3.16 µg/L), and satisfactory recoveries (61.8–127.6%) with a low relative standard derivations (RSDs, 1.1–16.4%), which was also validated for commercial milk. Six out of ten PAEs, i.e., diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dihexyl phthalate (DHP), and diphenyl phthalate (DPP) were detected in Chinese bubble tea with concentrations ranging from not detection (ND) to 53.43 µg/L, while DEHP, DBP, DIBP, DEP, and dimethyl phthalate (DMP) were detected in commercial milk with concentrations ranging from ND to 110.58 µg/L. The respective average concentrations of DEHP in Chinese bubble tea and commercial milk were 19.40 and 23.46 µg/L, which were over two times that in drinking water quality standards of several countries including Israel, Korea, Oman, and Singapore (i.e., 8 µg/L). Calculated with human estimated daily intake (EDI), the average EDIs of five out of seven PAEs in bubble tea were higher than those in commercial milk. For example, the calculated EDI of DIBP in bubble tea was 5 times that in commercial milk, while their respective corresponding EDIs of DBP and DEHP were over 2.4 and 1.6 times. Based on estrogen equivalence (EEQ) with the unit of ng E2/L, the average EEQs of the ten PAEs in Chinese bubble tea and commercial milk were 14.26 and 17.06 ng E2/L, which were 52.8 and 62.3 times the observed effect concentration that could cause egg mortality of zebrafish. It is evident that the potential estrogenic effect of PAEs in bubble tea and commercial milk cannot be negligible. Given the fact that PAE contamination in bubble tea has been hardly investigated, such study is urgently to be performed in a global view.
Graphical Abstract
... DEP and DMP levels however, were below detection limit in all the PET-bottled water analyzed under this condition. The trend observed in this study for the detection patterns of the phthalates analyzed were in good agreement with those reported in several studies [23][24][25]. ...
Consequent upon their widespread use as plasticizers and high volume of production, phthalates constantly diffuse and release into the various environmental components (air, water, soil) has become noticeable. In this study, levels and presence of phthalate esters were analyzed in newly purchased plastic toys and in polyethylene terphthalate (PET) bottled drinking water samples. Phthalate esters (PEs) in the samples were liquid-liquid extracted, pre-concentrated and analyzed for detection and quantification using HPLC. From the data obtained, the levels of DMP, DEP and DBP in the PET drinking water samples did not exceed the stipulated threshold levels while the level of DEHP was dominant and exceeded the safe limit. PEs were detected in all the 10 plastic toys samples analyzed including mouthable ones (teethers) used by children, imported into the country from China, Taiwan, etc. The values obtained revealed that the concentrations of PEs in the plastic toys ranged between 0.96-532 (µg/l). Also the percentage (w / w) values obtained were significantly higher and ranged between1.96-79.88% than the European Union (EU) recommended limits for all phthalate esters in toys, this portends risk to children who innocently put these toys in their mouth or chew them, as the toxic chemicals could leach into their blood stream. These results can be used as reference levels for future monitoring programs for pollution studies.
... Statistically significant changes in DEHP, DEP, and DBP concentrations were found after 90 days of storage at 40°C relative to their initial levels observed in control samples. These observations confirmed that high temperatures accelerated the phthalate leakage from the PET bottles into water [59,61]. A recent study investigated the contents of phthalates in bottled drinking water samples at 25 and 42°C for different periods. ...
... The estimated exposure to phthalates via consumption of bottled water was previously reported to be extremely low and polyethylene terephthalate bottled water was found safe (Jeddiab et al. 2015). We determined an inverse association between consuming bottled water and the highest tertile of MEHP concentrations in the CP group. ...
The case-control study aimed to evaluate potential sources of exposure and the plasma concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates in prepubertal children having cerebral palsy (CP) and healthy control. Blood samples of 68 CP and 70 controls were analyzed for BPA, di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP), mono-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (MEHP), and dibutyl phthalate (DBP). BPA and DBP levels were similar in groups. The median DEHP and MEHP levels of the children with CP were significantly lower than those of the controls (p = 0.035, p < 0.001, respectively). Exposure to plastic food containers/bags, personal care hygiene products, household cleaners, wood/coal stove heating, and city water supplies were associated with increased odds of higher BPA and phthalate levels in children with CP. In conclusion, potential exposure sources for BPA and phthalates differ in children with CP and healthy controls, and children with CP are not exposed to higher levels of BPA and phthalates.
... However, the reports for monitoring PAEs were mainly focused on the relatively simple samples, such as the contaminated water from plastic packaging. [18][19][20] The diffusion of PAEs from plastic packaging into complex samples such as food was rarely determined due to the complicated sample matrix and low level of PAEs. Therefore, it is imperative to have a sensitive, reliable and fast method for analysing PAEs in complex samples. ...
Several phthalate acid esters (PAEs), often called phthalate esters or phthalates, are substances classified as harmful due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties, and moreover, as dangerous for humans because they interfere with the endocrine system. In general, phthalic esters are used as plasticizers for different polymers and more other consumer products. In the present study, we describe a simple method to quantify PAEs in coffee brew using a liquid‐liquid extraction without purification processes through analysing the obtained organic phase by GCMS in the single ion monitoring mode. The totals of single PAEs, in coffee brew samples analysed by us, are in the range of 159–5305 μg L−1. Considering that, on average, a person drinks three cups (total 90 mL) of the aforementioned drink per day, this will lead to the uptake of a total 14 to 477 μg of phthalates. Several phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are classified as harmful due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties and are dangerous for humans because they interfere with the endocrine system. The present study describes a simple method to quantify PAEs in coffee brew using a liquid‐liquid extraction without purification processes through analysing the obtained organic phase by GCMS in the single ion monitoring mode.
... In contrast, the bottle caps usually are made of HDPE, lowdensity polyethylene (LDPE), and polystyrene (PS) (Salazar-Beltrán et al., 2018). About 80% of the bottles used for packaging water are made of PET owing to their appropriate properties such as strength, transparency, lightweight, and easy recycling (Amiridou & Voutsa, 2011;Jeddi et al., 2015). ...
Bottled water is becoming more popular worldwide and possible contamination’s need to be analyzed. Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants and have recently been regarded as an important contaminant in bottled water due to oral intake and possible threats to human health. In the present study, MP amounts in 23 popular Iranian brands of bottled water were determined by filtration and counting under scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The effects of mechanical stress, environmental factors, and freezing on MP release also were investigated. The average amounts of MPs in water samples were 1496.7 ± 1452.2 particles/L (199.8 to 6626.7 particles/L). The amounts of MPs in different brands was significantly different (p < 0.05). As much as 91.3% of detected particles had the size between 1 and 10 μm. The most likely polymers determined by FTIR spectroscopy was polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The freezing of water in the bottles did not show any significant effect on the MPs release, but mechanical stress to the bottles increased MP amounts in the water significantly. Environmental factors including sunlight exposure and the age of bottles showed the most degradative effects on the structure of polymers in the body of PET bottles and release of MPs. Regardless of their type, source and commercial brands, bottled water is contaminated with hundreds to thousands MPs/L. The main portion (above 90%) of these MPs are < 5 μm particles with considerable effects on human health.
... If the HI is lower than 1, the risk for human health due to the co-exposure to the evaluated compounds is considered negligible (WHO, 2010). The deterministic HI approach was applied in several studies over the last years: for example Riva et al. (2018) assessed the cumulative health risk due to the co-exposure to several CECs in tap water, including alkylphenols, as well as different studies evaluated the health risk due to single phthalates (Jeddi et al., 2015), or to mixtures of them (Liu et al., 2015), in both bottled and tap water. Furthermore, risks resulting from different compounds are summed independently from the specific endpoint they affect, assuming the principle of dose addition. ...
The occurrence and hazard risks of mixtures of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) in drinking water (DW) lead to serious consideration regarding the possible impacts on public health. Consequently, there is ongoing research, development and empowerment of risk assessment procedures to get more toxicological insight. For instance, alkylphenols and phthalates have been frequently reported to be present both in bottled and tap water, affecting different human endpoints. Currently, deterministic chemical risk assessment (CRA) is used to evaluate the compounds’ mixture health risk. However, CRA deals just qualitatively with sources of uncertainty, which may lead to erroneous assessment of risks. Here, a new procedure for quantitative chemical risk assessment of CEC mixtures (QCRAMIX) is proposed. Its potential is illustrated by a case study where the risks related to the presence of mixtures of alkylphenols or phthalates in tap versus bottled DW are compared. Uncertainties in both exposure and hazard assessment steps of the procedure are included to calculate a probabilistic mixture Benchmark Quotient (BQMIX). The QCRAMIX procedure highlighted the non-negligible health risks posed by those compounds in both DW sources based on overall water consumption. In fact, DW consumers’ behaviour in 13 different countries, in terms of total DW consumption and fraction of bottled and tap water consumed, were considered to evaluate the influence on health risk. For alkylphenols, the total water consumption was found to be the most relevant factor in increasing the health risk, while for phthalates the risk was found to be mainly influenced by the percentage of bottled water consumed. Hence, the proposed QCRAMIX procedure can be a valuable tool for prioritization of CECs to be included in DW regulations which aim to minimize the overall risk, accounting for actual DW consumption.
... Concerning phthalates contamination in food products, those packed in plastic containers are more susceptible to be affected by migration processes since it is favoured both by continuous contact between the food matrix and the plastic package and by heating [22] , although migration could occur in any other production stage involving plastic materials. In this sense, jellies, that are mostly packed in plastic containers along with aluminium packages, are susceptible of this kind of contamination. ...
Magnetic nanoparticles of Fe3O4 coated with polyaniline have been synthesised through chemical co-precipitation, and successfully characterised using different techniques such as FT-IR and X-ray diffraction. Such nanocomposite was applied as sorbent for a new magnetic micro-dispersive solid phase extraction procedure for the extraction of seven plastic migrants in jelly samples, followed by determination using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Optimisation of several parameters that could affect extraction efficiency has been performed both by a conventional one-step-at-a-time approach and the use of a Box Behnken experimental design. The developed method was successfully validated obtaining recovery values in the range 70-124% with relative standard deviations lower than 20%, limits of quantification in the range 0.0106-0.0171 µg/L, and R² values higher than 0.9915 for all the analytes. The greenness of the procedure was also evaluated using the AGREE calculator. Finally, the developed method was applied for the determination of plastic migrants in a group of 11 commercial jellies acquired in local stores. Results showed the presence of BBP in almost all the samples and DCHP in three of them, as well as DEHA, which was detected in another three commercial samples and quantified at a concentration of 2.17 µg/L in another one.
... Particularly, bottled water, due to its high and regular consumption, has drawn considerable attention. Besides the polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the most common polymer used in bottled water packaging is reported to be free from phthalates, as few studies have shown the presence of phthalates in bottled water packed in PET containers [10][11][12]. Dairy products, infant formula, meat, baked goods, fats and oils, and fast foods are major contributors to dietary phthalates exposure. Therefore, the monitoring exposure of chemicals from packaging materials into foods has become a fundamental part of ensuring food safety and protecting human health. ...
Phthalates are a group of chemicals used in a multitude of important industrial products
(e.g., medical devices, children’s toys, and food packages), mainly as plasticizers to improve mechanical
properties such as flexibility, transparency, durability, and longevity of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC). The wide occurrence of phthalates in many consumer products, including foods (e.g., bottled
water, soft drinks, wine, milk, and meat) brings that most people are exposed to phthalates every
day, which raises some concerns. Adverse health outcomes from phthalates exposure have been
associated with endocrine disruption, deformities in the human reproductive system, increased risk
of preterm birth, carcinogen exposure, among others. Apprehension related to the health risks and
ubiquitous incidence of phthalates in foods inspires the development of reliable analytical approaches
that allow their detection and quantification at trace levels. The purpose of the current review is to
provide information related to the presence of phthalates in the food chain, highlighting the health
risks associated with their exposure. Moreover, an overview of emerging extraction procedures and
high-resolution analytical approaches for a comprehensive quantification of phthalates is presented.
The consumption of harmful substances, including environmental pollutants, endocrine disruptors, and certain food additives, has the potential to compromise food safety and the consumption of safe food, which are fundamental dynamics for society. Furthermore, it can pose a risk to health. This book, entitled Food Safety, aims to assist consumers in developing an awareness of healthy and safe food consumption, beginning with an understanding of the fundamental concepts of food safety, providing e_ective information for the prevention of foodborne diseases, and elucidating the possible e_ects on health. Furthermore, the book addresses contemporary concerns such as food terrorism, packaging safety, and the use of preservatives. Emphasizing food safety from a health perspective, this book is a vital reference for industry professionals, academics, and health professionals. By integrating current research _ndings and real-world examples, the book furnishes readers with a robust foundation of knowledge while raising awareness of food safety. Covering a wide range of food safety issues, this book is a comprehensive resource for anyone working in food toxicology.
While plastic water bottles are known to potentially release various volatile organic compounds (VOCs) when exposed to light, existing knowledge in this field remains limited. In this study, we systematically examined the composition, yield, and toxicity of VOCs released from six plastic containers obtained from different continents under UV-A and solar irradiation. After light exposure, all containers released VOCs, including alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, aromatics, etc. The 1#, 3#, 4#, 5#, and 6# containers exhibited 35, 32, 19, 24 and 37 species of VOCs, respectively. Specifically, the 2# container released 28 and 32 series of VOCs after 1-day (short-term) and 7-day (long-term) UV-A irradiation, respectively, compared to 30 and 32 species under solar irradiation. Over half of the VOCs identified were oxidized compounds alongside various short-chain hydrocarbons. Significant differences in VOC compositions among the containers were observed, potentially originating from light-induced aging and degradation of the polyethylene terephthalate structure in the containers. Toxicological predictions unveiled distinctive toxic characteristics of VOCs from each container. For example, among the various VOCs produced by the 2# container, straight-chain alkanes like n-hexadecane (544-76-3) were identified as the most toxic compounds. After long-term irradiation, the yield of these toxic VOCs from the 2# container ranged from 0.11 ng/g to 0.79 ng/g. Considering the small mass of a single bottle, the volatilization of VOCs from an individual container would be insignificant. Even after prolonged exposure to light, the potential health risks associated with inhaling VOCs when opening and drinking bottled water appear manageable.
Phthalate esters (PAEs), a group of chemical compounds, are extensively used as additives in plastics. The objective of this study was to determine how much of a few target PAEs have leached into various samples of drinking water packaged in PET bottles in Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria as well as how ambient temperature, sunshine exposure, and cold storage conditions have affected the concentration of PAE. The concentrations of Di-ethyl-phthalate (DEP), di-butyl-phthalates (DBP), benzyl-butyl-phthalate (BBP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP), and Bis-(2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were determined in bottled water samples. The concentrations of PAEs were determined using a gas chromatography coupled with a mass sepctroscopy analyzer (GC-MS). Phthalate compound was observed to be in all bottled water placed under different storage conditions; cold storage (CW), ambient storage (AW), and sunlight storage (SLW) for a period of 2, 4, 8, 12 and 16 weeks. However, the greatest leaching effect was observed in PET bottled water placed sunlight conditions for sixteen weeks with concentrations of; DEHP (2.1-11.2) µg/L, DEP (0.98-3.87) µg/L, DBP (2.98-13.8) µg/L. The results from this study indicated that, under various storage conditions, DEP, DBP and DEHP from PET bottles may leach more into the drinking water over a period of time under different storage conditions. The result additionally gave indication that DEHP; a known endocrine disruptor, with anti-androgenic and possible human carcinogen effects, exceeded the 6 µg/L USEPA Maximum Contamination Level (MCL) in drinking water, and also greater than 8 µg/L which is the indicated MCL by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Phthalate esters (PAEs) adversely affect the human endocrine and reproductive systems. These chemical toxic compounds are used as plasticizers, in particular to improve the mechanical properties of different food packing materials. Daily food consumption is the predominant source of exposure for PAEs, especially for infants. In this study, residue profiles and levels for eight PAEs were determined in 30 infant (stage I, II and special A and B) formulas of 12 brands in Turkey and health risk assessments were performed. The average level of PAEs were different for each formula group and packing type except for BBP (p < 0.01). The highest average mean level of PAEs was detected in paperboard type packing, while the lowest average mean level of PAEs was detected in metal can type packing. The highest average level of PAEs detected was DEHP in special formulas (22.1 ng g-1). The average hazard quotient (HQ) value was calculated as 8.43 × 10-5-8.94 × 10-5 for BBP, 1.49 × 10-3-1.58 × 10-3 for DBP, 2.06 × 10-2-2.18 × 10-2 for DEHP, and 7.21 × 10-4-7.65 × 10-4 for DINP. The average HI values were calculated as 2.29 × 10-2 for 0-6 months old infants, 2.39 × 10-2 for 6-12 months old infants, and 2.43 × 10-2 for 12-36 months old infants. These calculated results show that commercial infant formulas were a source of exposure to PAEs but did not present a significant health risk.
In this research, a poly (ionic liquid) functionalised silica-coated magnetic nanoparticles were synthesised for the first time and utilised as a novel adsorbent for the simultaneous extraction of six phthalic acid esters from polyethylene terephthalate bottled drinking water samples. The adsorbent was prepared by grafting poly (1-benzyl-3-vinyl-1 H-imidazol-3-ium chloride) onto silica-coated Fe3O4nanoparticles via Cu(0)-mediated reversible-deactivation radical polymerisation method. Various techniques were used to characterise the synthesised nanomaterials. A qualitative analysis was performed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography triple–quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry. Response surface methodology based on central composite design was used to optimise the extraction procedure and the optimised condition for each factor was; pH of3.9, 22 mg of adsorbent, 3.5 min extraction time, 3 min desorption time, 340 µL of elution solvent (methanol).The results of the validation of the method indicated its acceptable accuracy (88.6-100.1%), good linearity (r > 0.995), satisfactory repeatabilities (RSDs ≤ 6% for intra- and inter–day precisions) and high enrichment factors (535–572). The limits of detection and limits of quantification of the proposed method achieved were 1.1-4.6 ngL–1and 3.6-15.3 ngL–1, respectively. In this study, six common PAEs, including dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, benzyl butyl phthalate, bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and di-n–octyl phthalate, were found in PET bottled water within the range of 0.21-0.94 μgL–1, under different storage conditions. Nevertheless, only a negligible risk is caused by the PAEs in PET bottled water for consumers following the recommendations, such as storing at a common place (25°C), in a short period away from the sun.
Acanthamoeba doğada yaygın olarak bulunan patojenlerdir. Çeşitli su kaynakları, toprak, hava, toz, tıbbi cihazlar ve kullanımı artan kontakt lensler gibi birçok yerde yaşamlarını sürdürebilirler. Bu kaynaklardan herhangi bir yolla insanlara bulaşta oküler enfeksiyon olan Acanthamoeba keratiti, beyinde ölümcül sonuçlanan granülomatöz amibik ensefalit, kutanöz akanthamoebiasis, otitis, kronik sinüzit, kutanöz ülser gibi çeşitli parazitozlara sebep olurlar. Bu çalışmada literatürdeki Acanthamoeba’da tolerans testleri hakkında yapılan çalışmaların genel olarak sunulması amaçlanmıştır. Acanthamoeba spp.’nin termotolerans ve osmotolerans deneylerinin araştırılması için PubMed, Google Akademik arama motorları kullanılarak geniş bir literatür taraması yapılmıştır. Yaptığımız literatür taramaları sonucunda ülkemizde ve dünyada Acanthamoeba’nın termotolerans ve osmotolerans deneyleri hakkında oldukça fazla çalışma bulunmaktadır. Elde ettiğimiz verilere göre farklı genotiplere sahip hem çevresel hem de klinik vakalardan izole edilen suşların bir kısmını yüksek sıcaklık (37°C-42 °C) ve yüksek osmolarite seviyelerini (0,5 M-1 M mannitol) tolere edebilirken, diğer birçok suşun özellikle keratit gibi klinik vakalardan izole edilen suşların bu seviyeleri tolere edemediği rapor edilmiştir. Bu sebeple termotolerans ve osmotolerans deneylerinin sonuçlarında tutarsızlık oldukça fazladır. Bu tutarsızlıkların açıklığa kavuşabilmesi ve patojenitesini kesin olarak belirlemek için in vivo deneyler dahil olmak üzere daha fazla deneylere ihtiyaç vardır.
The OceanWise project aims to propose solutions to reduce pollution of the marine environment by foamed polystyrene (EPS or XPS). Within this framework, EPS/XPS and the most promising alternative materials selected by the consortium were studied. Their mechanical properties and durability, their ageing in the marine and air environment, as well as their biodegradability in the marine environment were evaluated.
Firstly, it was necessary to acquire the missing knowledge on the ageing of EPS/XPS on beaches and in the marine environment. Main results showed that due to their low density, EPS/XPS float on the surface of the sea and therefore combine both atmospheric and marine ageing. The air ageing results in a degradation of the polystyrene under the action of solar radiation. Conversely, the submerged side undergoes less ageing.
In a second step, the work focused on foamed PLA as potential alternative to polystyrene. First, the results obtained in this study showed that PLA was foamable, but much more difficult to foam than PS. Then, its mechanical properties were not similar to those of EPS, and could cause problems for certain uses. Finally, this polymer does not degrade well in the marine environment. From these observations, it can be concluded that the foamed PLA tested, because it has poorer mechanical characteristics than foamed PS, without clear advantage in terms of biodegradation in the marine environment, does not seem to be a good candidate for the Oceanwise project.
Rationale:
Phthalates and bisphenols were reported as endocrine disrupting chemicals and hence a potential threat to human health. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles are being used to store the drinking water and probability of migration of phthalates and bisphenols from the bottles into the water is high. The migration of analytes with respect to different storage conditions need to be studied.
Method:
A sensitive analytical method for simultaneous determination of 7 phthalates and 3 bisphenols from packaged drinking water was developed using liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure photoionization/high resolution mass spectrometry (LC/APPI/HRMS). The analytes were extracted by dispersive solid phase extraction (DSPE) by multiwalled carbon nanotubes.
Results:
The developed method showed the linearity from 0.5 to 5000 μg/L with the limit of detection and limit of quantification ranging from 0.5 to 1 μg/L and 1 to 2 μg/L respectively for phthalates and bisphenols. The inter and intraday variations were below 10%. The recoveries were in the range of 79.5 to 112%. The migration of phthalates and bisphenols increased with storage time and temperature. Maximum migration was observed for DIBP which is 1209.7 ng/L followed by dibutyl phthalate at 777.8 ng/L on 180 days of analysis at room temperature. Migration of DEHP was observed to be higher at elevated temperatures which was increased from 14.9 to 514 ng/L. Similarly, migration of BPA was increased at 45 °C. The results were subjected to ANOVA studies and the results showed significant variations of phthalates and bisphenols with respect to storage temperature and time.
Conclusion:
The use of APPI facilitated simultaneous determination of phthalates and bisphenols. The migration of phthalates and bisphenols increased with increase in temperature and storage time. Maximum migration was observed for diethyl, diisobutyl, dibutyl and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalates. This may be attributed to type of plastic, their processing parameters and recycling.
Phthalates esters (PAEs) are extensively used as additives for polymers in plastic, particularly in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). These compounds are not part of the polymer chains and can be released easily from products and migrate into beverages and foods that come into direct contact, causing environmental and human health impacts. Simple and rapid detection of such substances is of great significance for ensuring environmental food safety and consumer health. At present, optical sensor and electrochemical sensor detection technologies have been applied to PAEs detection due to their advantages, such as simple, rapid, low cost, high sensitivity, simple operation, portability and high specificity. They can make up for the shortcomings of chromatographic detection technology, such as expensive equipment, cumbersome operation, the need for professional and technical personnel, and difficulty in achieving a large number of sample screening objectives. In this paper, research progress on optical sensors and electrochemical sensors for the detection of phthalates in recent ten years is reviewed and discussed. This is helpful to better understand preparation methods for sensors and their detection mechanisms for phthalates. The review will also be used in developing a more effective trace detection sensor for phthalates.
Phthalates are one of the ubiquitous contaminants in the environment due to their extensive use in the last few years. They are easily released because they are not chemically bonded to polymers. They migrate into the food during food packing while in water, they migrate during water filling or storage and bottle manufacturing. They are toxic to human health and known as carcinogen/ endocrine disruptors. A total of sixty PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottled mineral water samples of different six brands were purchased from the local market of Noida, India. These bottles were of two different batch numbers of each brand. Two bottles of each brand with a different batch number were analyzed immediately after purchase while the other eight bottles were analyzed after 2 and 6 months when they were stored in sunlight (~ 45 °C) and—20 °C. The aim of the present study was to determine the migration of DEHP and its impact on storage conditions of PET bottled mineral water in retail stores or homes. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS) was used for the estimation of DEHP in these samples. The author observed that the migration of DEHP was dependent on high temperature and storage time. DEHP was present only in those samples, which were stored in sunlight for 2 & 6 months and at − 20 °C for 6 months. While found below the detection limit in those samples which were analyzed immediately after purchase and stored at − 20 °C for 2 months.
Phthalates (PAEs) are the class of lipophilic chemicals, which are used as additives in the manufacturing of plastics. It results in presence of PAEs in water and beverages because of their migration capacity. Their presence has attracted considerable attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystem functioning and public health. In addition, an enormous number of research articles have been published between 2000 and 2020, which have been identified and their results have been tabulated displaying PAEs analyzed, matrices, sample preparation, analytical method used, the limit of detection (LOD), and recovery percentages. Numerous sample preparation and analytical methods are found which are suitable for the reliable determination of the PAEs. The analysis of the PAEs is difficult due to their ubiquitous presence and their complexity, therefore suitable precautions, should be taken into account. In this review, we provide an overview of various pre-treatment measures and detection methods for PAEs in several types of water and beverages, mainly focusing on the last 20 years published works have been discussed. Pre-treatment methods mainly include liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), solid-phase extraction (SPE), solid-phase microextraction (SPME), liquid-phase microextraction (LPME), and many more rare techniques. Chromatographic and non-chromatographic techniques coupled with or without diodes, spectrophotometers, and detectors, have been described. The concept of “green analytical chemistry” for PAE determination has also been discussed. Hereby, the limitations and challenges in these applications are also included.
Plastic packaged water is the drinking water of choice for urban populations across Africa but its quality remains questionable in most developing countries. Six hundred (600) packages, consisting of sachet and bottled water, were sampled from two high-end companies in Accra (Ghana) and stored through their shelf lives under an average room temperature of 30 °C. The samples were tested for physicochemical quality and the presence of bacteria and phthalate esters at 2ⁿ × 3 periods, where n is the sampled batch number. The data were described and modelled with embedded Bayesian and Machine Learning algorithms in JASP0.16.0.0 and Argo-4.1.3. The results reported lower than regulated levels of electrical conductivity (163.66 μS/cm), alkalinity (39.67 mg/L), and residual chlorine (<0.01 mg/L) while the pH was generally within specification (6.5–7.7). All samples showed progressive biological contamination following the third week (sachet samples) and the sixth week (bottled water) of incubation. Initial samples, including raw water, processed bulk water and packaged water did not present detectable microbial growth. The total microbial load in sachet samples grew at 0.936 cfu/week and 1.006 cfu/week for the bottled samples although the results did not exceed 1000 cfu/L (0-976 cfu/100 ml). Modelled mean probability of infection was 1.196 × 10⁻⁴ in 67% of the samples. Raw and processed water samples did not show detectable levels of phthalate contaminants. The mean hazard index calculated on the individual hazard quotients of phthalates was 7.414 × 10⁻³ ± 8.201 × 10⁻⁴, suggesting lower acute risk potential. Mean integrated lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was determined to be 1.529 × 10⁻³ ± 1.714 × 10⁻⁴ within a range of 2.86 × 10⁻⁴ and 7.18 × 10⁻³. Mean child ILCR was about 70% of adult ILCR and increased from 4.16 × 10⁻⁴ to 2.41 × 10⁻³ for sachet and 4.93 × 10⁻⁴ to 7.18 × 10⁻³ for bottled water. For adult ILCR, sachet water presented 2.86 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.65 × 10⁻³, and 3.38 × 10⁻⁴ to 4.93 × 10⁻³ for bottled water. This study confirmed the presence of phthalates and pathogenic bacteria in the samples, at-risk levels that require mitigation.
For both quantitative and qualitative applications, mass spectrometry (MS) has evolved to become an effective analytical instrument. The first mass spectrometer was designed in 1912 and has since progressed from studying only small inorganic molecules to biological macromolecules, with virtually no mass constraints. Research in drug discovery, in general, depends considerably on MS technologies. The capability of mass spectrometry to analyze proteins and other biological materials is due to the advancements made by establishing soft ionization techniques that can turn biological molecules into ions, such as electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI). Consequently, MALDI has the benefit of generating peptide and protein single-charge ions, reducing spectral complexity. Regardless of the cause of ionization, a mass spectrometer's sensitivity is connected to the mass analyzer where ion separation occurs. Both quadrupole and flight time (ToF) mass probes are widely used and can be designed as QToF tandem mass spectrometric instruments combined. As the title suggests, tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is the outcome of conducting two or more concurrent ion separations, typically integrating two or more mass analyzers. The development of high-resolution mass spectrometers resulted in the combination of a quadrupole and flight time Historically, this paper introduces mass spectrometry and describes the benefits and drawbacks of ESI and MALDI along with quadruple and ToF mass analyzers, including scientific mass analyzers. This paper is of an introductory nature and is intended for graduate and senior biochemistry students as well as chemists and biochemists who are not acquainted with mass spectrometry and want to learn the basics; it is not intended for professionals in mass spectrometry.
Keywords: Mass spectroscopy, electrospray ionization, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization, quadrupole, tandem mass spectrometry, proteomics, foodomics.
Foodomics has recently emerged as a new discipline that studies food and nutritional products with modern analytical tools, including mass spectrometry (MS), to ensure food quality and safety. Foodomics is currently being used as a powerful tool in food authentication. It has been used to authenticate food items such as cereals, wine, honey, chocolates, and other commercial products. MS is the most suitable technique for authentication of food products because of its precise, accurate, and reproducible analytical power. MS-based techniques are nowadays extensively used for authentication of food and nutritional products. MS-based methods can detect various food components, including nutrients, additives, and toxic contaminants. Due to advancement in separation techniques, ionization and detectors in MS such as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, gas chromatography mass spectrometry, electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry, desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, direct analysis in real-time mass spectrometry, extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and tandem-MS approaches have emerged as the method of choice for authentication of food products. This chapter discusses separation techniques and application of MS to analyze food products.
Phthalate easters are known endocrine disrupter and possible carcinogen. Studies have carried out in different countries to investigate possible migration of phthalate easters into packaged drinking water and beverages and resultant toxic effect on human health. This study aimed to determine the level of phthalate migration into bottled drinking water, manufactured commercially in India and to identify a possible relationship between the amount and type of phthalate migration. Eight phthalate easters were investigated. The analysis included 375 samples (75 sets of 5 bottles each from 5 manufacturers, having same batch numbers and manufacturing dates) of drinking water packed in 1-Litre bottles made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The samples were incubated and analyzed at the Centre of Mass Spectrometry (Analytics Department) of the CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad on Agilent 6420 QQQ MS/MS system coupled to Agilent 1290 UPLC pump and 0 Thermo TSQ Altis coupled to Thermo RSLC 3000 system at room temperature (27 C) and two temperatures of extreme conditions representing 0 0 refrigeration temperature (4 C) and summer outdoor temperature (45 C) at the interval of 0, 30, 60, 120 and 180 days, 180 days (6 months) being the projected self-life for bottled drinking water in India. Of eight investigated phthalate esters, Di-butyl Phthalate (DBP) was detected in 94% and Di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP) in 80% of samples analyzed. The highest migration of 0.0027 mg/l was recorded from PET bottles to drinking water for DBP, followed by 0.0024 mg/l for DiBP. DEHP (Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) was detected in 40% of sample sets with maximum concentration of 0.0006 mg/l. DPP (Di-pentyl phthalate) was detected in the least number of samples (21.3%) and its maximum concentration observed was 0.0004 mg/l. Migration of all eight investigated esters were detected in drinking water samples stored for 180 days at the three temperature conditions. In other temperature and storage conditions, frequency of detection varied between 0-66%. This study did not account for the factors like source of raw water, manufacturing process, PET types (virgin or recycled), and composition, etcetera. This is probably reected in widely varied standard deviation. The phthalate levels measured in these samples pose no risk for human health considering reference dose determined by USEPA, EU and FSSAI, for daily oral exposure to the human population. Nevertheless, the accumulation of small individual quantity taken with time may increase the lifelong phthalate exposure and eventually threaten the exposed person's life. Further studies with larger sample size and variants may be desirable. Also, drinking water quality standards needs to be revisited to include all signicant phthalate esters.
This study investigated the health risk assessment of total chromium (CrT) in qanats of South Khorasan, Eastern Iran. For this, concentration of CrT in a total of 83 qanats were measured in summer 2020. Samples were initially tested in the field for temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS). In the lab, collected samples were filtered and fixed with nitric acid (HNO3) for the detection of CrT using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Hazard quotient (HQ) and carcinogenic risk assessments were considered to evaluate the risks of CrT to inhabitants. Results showed that concentration of CrT ranged from 1.79 to 1017.05 μg L⁻¹, and a total of 25 stations illuminated CrT concentrations above the WHO standards (50 μg L⁻¹). HQ demonstrated HQ < 1 for 90.37% of studied samples with negligible hazard, whereas 9.63% of stations illuminated HQ ≥ 1 meaning the presence of non-carcinogenic risk for water consumers. Carcinogenic risk (CR) exhibited CR > 1.00E-04 in 81.93% of qanats while 18.07% of stations had 1.00E-06 < CR < 1.00E-04 meaning no acceptable and acceptable CR for the studied qanats, respectively. Zoning map displayed that qanats in the south of South Khorasan possessed the highest HQ, but north regions showed the lowest ones. Together, CrT in qanats of South Khorasan is above the WHO limit, which results in a high risk of carcinogenicity for residents, and in turn, more efforts should be made to provide hygienic groundwater for consumers.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a usually used material in the industry of bottled water. Now days the consumption of bottled water has been steadily growing in the world from the last 30 years. A total of 24 PET bottled water, 4 of each brand with 2 different batch numbers were collected randomly from the local market of Noida city, India. Numerous water quality parameters such as physico-chemical, phthalate, trace metals, and total coliform were analyzed in these samples. These parameters may affect the safety of PET bottled water. The purpose of this study was to estimate the quality of PET bottled water of different brands available in Noida. The samples were analyzed as per the Indian Standard (IS)-14543 (2016). The results were compared with the standard of drinking water set by WHO, IS, USEPA and met the standard value of these agencies. pH was found in the range of 6.72–6.97 while turbidity and TSS were found < 1.0. Total hardness was found in the range of 5.0–131.0 mg/l and total alkalinity was found in the range of 3.33–115.0 mg/l. Sodium was present from 2.10–39.10 mg/l while potassium was present from 0.20–7.20 mg/l. The presence of fluoride was in the range of 0.18–0.67 mg/l. Heavy metals such as Pb, Hg, Cd and As were found in the range of 0.18–4.52 µg/l. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was found below the detection limit while no growth was observed for total coliform in these samples. All six brands of PET bottled water were found to be safe and healthy for drinking.
The global water bottling market grows annually. Today, to ensure consumer safety, it is important to verify the possible migration of compounds from bottles into the water contained in them. Potential health risks due to the prevalence of bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates (PAEs) exposure through water bottle consumption have become an important issue. BPA, benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) can cause adverse effects on human health. Papers of literature published in English, with BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP detections during 2017, by 2019 by liquid chromatography and gas chromatography analysis methods were searched. The highest concentrations of BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP in all the bottled waters studied were found to be 5.7, 12.11, 82.8 and 64.0 μg/L, respectively. DBP was the most compound detected and the main contributor by bottled water consumption with 23.7% of the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI). Based on the risk assessment, BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP in commercial water bottles do not pose a serious concern for humans. The average estrogen equivalent level revealed that BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP in bottled waters may induce adverse estrogenic effects on human health. HIGHLIGHTS
DBP was the most compound detected.;
An estimated intake of BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP was far below their TDIs.;
The risk assessment of BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP does not raise serious concern for humans.;
The average estrogen equivalent level for BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP may induce adverse estrogenic effects on human health.;
BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP in bottled water need more accurate data to avoid their effects on human health.;
A method was developed for the extraction of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) from bottled water. Surface-functionalized magnetic
particles (MPs) were used as adsorbent of magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE). The MPs were prepared by using both polydimethylsiloxane
and multiwalled carbon nanotubes. By coupling the developed MSPE with GC–MS instrument, a reliable, sensitive and cost-effective
method for the simultaneous determination of six main PAEs including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl
phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate, di-n-octyl phthalate and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was developed. Under optimized conditions, the LODs and limits of
quantification were in the range of 0.01–0.025 and 0.025–0.05 µg/L, respectively. The calibration curves were linear (r2 ≥ 0.992) over the concentration ranges from 0.05 to 20 µg/L. Based on the intra- and interday precision values with overall RSD
≤ 12.40%, the method reproducibility was adequate. The recovery values of the six PAEs ranged from 91.5 to 97.8% with the
RSDs <10.64%. Finally, the developed method was successfully applied to determine PAEs in bottled water samples. DMP, DEP,
DBP and DEHP were detected in most of the samples. Taken together, the developed MSPE–GC–MS method provides a new option for
the determination of PAEs in aqueous samples.
Phthalates are associated with a variety of health outcomes, but sources that may be targeted for exposure reduction messaging remain elusive. Diet is considered a significant exposure pathway for these compounds. Therefore, we sought to identify primary foods associated with increased exposure through a review of the food monitoring survey and epidemiological data. A search in PubMed and Google Scholar for keywords "phthalates" and "diet" "food" "food stuffs" "dietary intake" "food intake" and "food concentration" resulted in 17 studies measuring phthalate concentrations in United States (US) and international foods, three epidemiological association studies and three interventions. We report on food groups with high (>=300 mug/kg) and low (<50 mug/kg) concentrations and compare these to foods associated with phthalate body burden. Based on these data, we estimated daily intakes of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) of US women of reproductive age, adolescents and infants for typical consumption patterns as well as healthy and poor diets. We consistently observed high DEHP concentrations in poultry, cooking oils and cream-based dairy products (>=300 mug/kg) across food monitoring studies. Diethyl phthalate (DEP) levels were found at low concentrations across all food groups. In line with these data, epidemiological studies showed positive associations between consumption of meats, discretionary fat and dairy products and DEHP. In contrast to food monitoring data, DEP was found to be associated with intake of vegetables in two studies. DEHP exposure estimates based on typical diets were 5.7, 8.1, and 42.1 mug/kg-day for women of reproductive age, adolescents and infants, respectively, with dairy as the largest contributor to exposure. Diets high in meat and dairy consumption resulted in two-fold increases in exposure. Estimates for infants based on a typical diet exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency's reference dose of 20 mug/kg-day while diets high in dairy and meat consumed by adolescents also exceeded this threshold. The review of the literature demonstrated that DEHP in some meats, fats and dairy products is consistently found in high concentrations and can contribute to exposure. Guidance on future research in this area is provided that may help to identify methods to reduce dietary phthalate exposures.
Background: Phthalates have been found in many personal care and industrial products, but have not previously been reported in food purchased in the United States. Phthalates are ubiquitous synthetic compounds and therefore difficult to measure in foods containing trace levels. Phthalates have been associated with endocrine disruption and developmental alteration.
Objectives: Our goals were to report concentrations of phthalates in U.S. food for the first time, specifically, nine phthalates in 72 individual food samples purchased in Albany, New York, and to compare these findings with other countries and estimate dietary phthalate intake.
Methods: A convenience sample of commonly consumed foods was purchased from New York supermarkets. Methods were developed to analyze these foods using gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy. Dietary intakes of phthalates were estimated as the product of the food consumption rate and concentration of phthalates in that food.
Results: The range of detection frequency of individual phthalates varied from 6% for dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) to 74% for di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). DEHP concentrations were the highest of the phthalates measured in all foods except beef [where di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP) was the highest phthalate found], with pork having the highest estimated mean concentration of any food group (mean 300 ng/g; maximum, 1,158 ng/g). Estimated mean adult intakes ranged from 0.004 μg/kg/day for dimethyl phthalate (DMP) to 0.673 μg/kg/day for DEHP.
Conclusions: Phthalates are widely present in U.S. foods. While estimated intakes for individual phthalates in this study were more than an order of magnitude lower than U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reference doses, cumulative exposure to phthalates is of concern and a more representative survey of U.S. foods is indicated.
An analytical method was developed to analyze 5 phthalate esters (dimethylphthalate, diethylphthalate, di-n-butylphthalate,
butylbenzylphthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate), nonylphenol, bisphenol A and BADGE (Bisphenol A diglycyleter) in distribution
and bottled water. They are all industrial chemicals used in the manufacture of epoxy resins or paints, polycarbonate and
polyethylene plastics (global production of phthalates over 4 Mton/year) or surfactants and have been classified as persistent,
with high migration potential from plastic containers and with endocrine disrupting properties. The present paper reports
a specific extraction protocol using solid phase extraction with Oasis 60 mg or C18 cartridges, followed by gas chromalography coupled to mass spectrometric detection using an appropriate surrogate and internal
standard for process control. Quality parameters are reported, making special emphasis to limits of detection, reproducibility
and blank analysis, which permitted to detect ng L−1 concentrations. In an application step, the method was used to determine target compounds in 7 distribution water and 9 mineral
water bottled in polyethylene, polyethyleneter phthalate and glass containers which were analysed upon purchase and after
10 week storage at temperatures up to 30 °C. Distribution water coming from different aquifers which at some point are in
contact with plastic or painted concrete reservoirs and pipes, contained dimethylphthalate, diethylphtalate, nonylphenol,
buthylbenzylphthtalate and DEHP at concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.331 μgL−1, depending on the sampled crea whereas bottled water showed levels up to 1.7 μg L−1 of some of the studied compounds, attributed to 10 week storage conditions.
This study assessed the health risks for children exposed to phthalate through several pathways including house dust, surface wipes and hand wipes in child facilities and indoor playgrounds.
The indoor samples were collected from various children's facilities (40 playrooms, 42 daycare centers, 44 kindergartens, and 42 indoor-playgrounds) in both summer (Jul-Sep, 2007) and winter (Jan-Feb, 2008). Hazard index (HI) was estimated for the non-carcinogens and the examined phthalates were diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and butylbenzyl phthalate (BBzP). The present study examined these four kinds of samples, i.e., indoor dust, surface wipes of product and hand wipes.
Among the phthalates, the detection rates of DEHP were 98% in dust samples, 100% in surface wipe samples, and 95% in hand wipe samples. In this study, phthalate levels obtained from floor dust, product surface and children's hand wipe samples were similar to or slightly less compared to previous studies. The 50(th) and 95(th) percentile value of child-sensitive materials did not exceed 1 (HI) for all subjects in all facilities.
For DEHP, DnBP and BBzP their detection rates through multi-routes were high and their risk based on health risk assessment was also observed to be acceptable. This study suggested that ingestion and dermal exposure could be the most important pathway of phthalates besides digestion through food.
Several phthalate esters have been linked to the Phthalate Syndrome, affecting male reproductive development when administered to pregnant rats during in utero sexual differentiation. The goal of the current study was to enhance understanding of this class of compounds in the Sprague Dawley (SD) fetal rat following exposure on gestational days (GDs) 14-18 by determining the relative potency factors for several phthalates on fetal testes endpoints, the effects of a nine phthalate mixture on fetal testosterone (T) production, and differences in SD and Wistar (W) strain responses of fetal T production and testicular gene expression to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). We determined that diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) and diisoheptyl phthalate (DIHP) reduced fetal testicular T production with similar potency to DEHP, whereas diisononyl phthalate (DINP) was 2.3-fold less potent. DINP was also less potent at reducing StAR and Cyp11a gene expression levels, whereas DIBP was slightly more potent than DEHP. We observed that administration of dilutions of a mixture of nine phthalates (DEHP, DIHP, DIBP, dibutyl-, benzyl butyl-, dicyclohexyl-, diheptyl-, dihexyl-, and dipentyl phthalate) reduced fetal T production in a dose-dependent manner best predicted by dose addition. Finally, we found that the differential effects of in utero DEHP treatment on epididymal and gubernacular differentiation in male SD and W rats (0, 100, 300, 500, 625, 750, or 875 mg DEHP/kg/day) are likely due to tissue-specific strain differences in the androgen and insl3 signaling pathways rather than differential effects of DEHP on fetal testis T and insl3 production.
Concern exists over whether additives in plastics to which most people are exposed, such as phthalates, bisphenol A or polybrominated diphenyl ethers, may cause harm to human health by altering endocrine function or through other biological mechanisms. Human data are limited compared with the large body of experimental evidence documenting reproductive or developmental toxicity in relation to these compounds. Here, we discuss the current state of human evidence, as well as future research trends and needs.
Because exposure assessment is often a major weakness in epidemiological studies, and in utero exposures to reproductive or developmental toxicants are important, we also provide original data on maternal exposure to phthalates during and after pregnancy ( n = 242). Phthalate metabolite concentrations in urine showed weak correlations between pre- and post-natal samples, though the strength of the relationship increased when duration between the two samples decreased. Phthalate metabolite levels also tended to be higher in post-natal samples.
In conclusion, there is a great need for more human studies of adverse health effects associated with plastic additives. Recent advances in the measurement of exposure biomarkers hold much promise in improving the epidemiological data, but their utility must be understood to facilitate appropriate study design.
In the last decades, the availability of sophisticated analytical chemistry techniques has facilitated measuring trace levels of multiple environmental chemicals in human biological matrices (i.e. biomonitoring) with a high degree of accuracy and precision. As biomonitoring data have become readily available, interest in their interpretation has increased. We present an overview on the use of biomonitoring in exposure and risk assessment using phthalates and bisphenol A as examples of chemicals used in the manufacture of plastic goods. We present and review the most relevant research on biomarkers of exposure for phthalates and bisphenol A, including novel and most comprehensive biomonitoring data from Germany and the United States. We discuss several factors relevant for interpreting and understanding biomonitoring data, including selection of both biomarkers of exposure and human matrices, and toxicokinetic information.
As a result of concerns about the toxicity of phthalates to humans, several expert panels were convened toward the end of the 1990s to evaluate the implications of the scientific evidence for the risks of phthalates to humans of all ages. These panels concluded that the risks were low although they had concerns about specific applications of some phthalates, e.g., in medical devices. These groups identified data gaps and recommended additional studies on exposure and toxicity be conducted. In light of the additional data, reevaluations of the risks of phthalates were conducted. While these assessments were being undertaken, U.S. state governments and European authorities proposed and promulgated regulations to limit the use of certain phthalates, i.e., di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP), di-isodecyl phthalate (DIDP), di-isononyl phthalate (DINP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), especially in consumer products to which children are exposed. Very recently, similar regulations were promulgated in the United States under the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008. This article summarizes recent evaluations of the risks of these phthalates, and addresses the public health implications of the regulations that were enacted. The analysis considers biomonitoring studies and epidemiological research in addition to laboratory animal evidence. Analysis of all of the available data leads to the conclusion that the risks are low, even lower than originally thought, and that there is no convincing evidence of adverse effects on humans. Since the scientific evidence strongly suggests that risks to humans are low, phthalate regulations that have been enacted are unlikely to lead to any marked improvement in public health.
In mammals, exposure to antiandrogenic chemicals during sexual differentiation can produce malformations of the reproductive tract. Perinatal administration of AR antagonists like vinclozolin and procymidone or chemicals like di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) that inhibit fetal testicular testosterone production demasculinize the males such that they display reduced anogenital distance (AGD), retained nipples, cleft phallus with hypospadias, undescended testes, a vaginal pouch, epididymal agenesis, and small to absent sex accessory glands as adults. In addition to DEHP, di-n-butyl (DBP) also has been shown to display antiandrogenic activity and induce malformations in male rats. In the current investigation, we examined several phthalate esters to determine if they altered sexual differentiation in an antiandrogenic manner. We hypothesized that the phthalate esters that altered testis function in the pubertal male rat would also alter testis function in the fetal male and produce malformations of androgen-dependent tissues. In this regard, we expected that benzyl butyl (BBP) and diethylhexyl (DEHP) phthalate would alter sexual differentiation, while dioctyl tere- (DOTP or DEHT), diethyl (DEP), and dimethyl (DMP) phthalate would not. We expected that the phthalate mixture diisononyl phthalate (DINP) would be weakly active due to the presence of some phthalates with a 6-7 ester group. DEHP, BBP, DINP, DEP, DMP, or DOTP were administered orally to the dam at 0.75 g/kg from gestational day (GD) 14 to postnatal day (PND) 3. None of the treatments induced overt maternal toxicity or reduced litter sizes. While only DEHP treatment reduced maternal weight gain during the entire dosing period by about 15 g, both DEHP and DINP reduced pregnancy weight gain to GD 21 by 24 g and 14 g, respectively. DEHP and BBP treatments reduced pup weight at birth (15%). Male (but not female) pups from the DEHP and BBP groups displayed shortened AGDs (about 30%) and reduced testis weights (about 35%). As infants, males in the DEHP, BBP, and DINP groups displayed femalelike areolas/nipples (87, 70, and 22% (p < 0.01), respectively, versus 0% in other groups). All three of the phthalate treatments that induced areolas also induced a significant incidence of reproductive malformations. The percentages of males with malformations were 82% (p < 0.0001) for DEHP, 84% (p < 0.0001) for BBP, and 7.7% (p < 0.04) in the DINP group. In summary, DEHP, BBP, and DINP all altered sexual differentiation, whereas DOTP, DEP, and DMP were ineffective at this dose. Whereas DEHP and BBP were of equivalent potency, DINP was about an order of magnitude less active.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) due to its physicochemical properties, especially regidity and glass-like transparency is widely used as food packaging material. The relevant legislation states that substances may not migrate from food contacting materials in quantities that may cause undesirable changes in organoleptic properties of food coming into contact with such material. The lists of substances authorized for food contact plastic materials and requirements for the final product were established. The requirements concern global migration limits (60 mg/kg or 10 mg/dm2) and specific migration limits (SML) set for substances which, when migrate into food in grater quantities may cause risk for human health. For the products manufactured from PET the specific migration limits were set for terephthalic acid (7.5 mg/kg), for isophthalic acid (5 mg/kg), for isophthalic acid dimethyl ester (0.05 mg/kg) and for ethylene and diethylene glycol (30 mg/kg). PET may undergo thermal degradation resulting in formation of acetaldehyde, which may influence organoleptic characteristics of packaged foods changing taste and smell.
Surveys show that the public suspects that synthetic (manmade) chemicals released into the environment, especially pesticides, have adverse effects on human health and cause disease, including cancer. In reality, few scientifically documented examples support this view, especially for effects on the general population.1 However, the observation that many synthetic chemicals have intrinsic hormonal activity—they are “endocrine disruptors”—has reopened this debate.1 Pressure groups have called for all synthetic environmental chemicals with the potential to cause harm to be phased out or banned, whereas the chemical industry argues that such action must be based on proof of harm. Vociferous cases have been made on both sides, each lacking definitive data. Yet it is clear that environmental and lifestyle factors are key determinants of human disease—accounting for perhaps 75% of most cancers.2 New understanding and emerging results are reshaping our thinking, as is the recognition that establishing cause and effect for environmental chemical exposures is a daunting task.
Though this article is primarily an overview of the current evidence for reproductive effects resulting from exposure to environmental synthetic chemicals, it is relevant to the debate on wider potential health effects of such exposures. The review was compiled after detailed literature searches and cross referencing and scrutiny of relevant websites on environmental chemicals (see educational resources box). After revising the article in light of reviewers' comments, we sought the opinion of an expert toxicologist in industry to ensure balance in the review.
In this hugely contentious area, polarised opinions predominate (because of the lack of definitive data). There are enormous difficulties in establishing whether exposure to individual chemicals or to chemical mixtures causes harm, as adverse effects may not manifest until many years after exposure (for example, in adulthood after fetal exposure). This difficulty must be factored into any discussion of …
The comparison of the various sources of food contamination with organic chemicals suggests that in the public, but also among experts, the perception of risk is often distorted. Firstly, neither pesticides nor environmental pollutants contribute the most; the amount of material migrating from food packaging into food may well be 100 times higher. Secondly, control of these large migrants is often lagging behind the standards set up for other sources, since many of the components (particularly those not being "starting materials") have not been identified and, thus, not toxicologically evaluated. Finally, attitudes towards different types of food contaminants are divergent, also reflected by the legal measures: for most sources of food contamination there are strict rules calling for minimization, whereas the European packaging industry has even requested a further increase in the tolerance to as close as possible to the limit set by the toxicologists. This paper calls for a more realistic perception and more coherent legal measures-and improvements in the control of migration from packaging material.
Exposure to plasticizers di(n-butyl) phthalate (DBP) and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) during sexual differentiation causes male reproductive tract malformations in rats and rabbits. In the fetal male rat, these two phthalate esters decrease testosterone (T) production and insulin-like peptide 3 (insl3) gene expression, a hormone critical for gubernacular ligament development. We hypothesized that coadministered DBP and DEHP would act in a cumulative dose-additive fashion to induce reproductive malformations, inhibit fetal steroid hormone production, and suppress the expression of insl3 and genes responsible for steroid production. Pregnant Sprague Dawley rats were gavaged on gestation days (GD) 14-18 with vehicle control, 500 mg/kg DBP, 500 mg/kg DEHP, or a combination of DBP and DEHP (500 mg/kg each chemical; DBP+DEHP); the dose of each individual phthalate was one-half of the effective dose predicted to cause a 50% incidence of epididymal agenesis. In experiment one, adult male offspring were necropsied, and reproductive malformations and androgen-dependent organ weights were recorded. In experiment two, GD18 testes were incubated for T production and processed for gene expression by quantitative real-time PCR. The DBP+DEHP dose increased the incidence of many reproductive malformations by >or=50%, including epididymal agenesis, and reduced androgen-dependent organ weights in cumulative, dose-additive manner. Fetal T and expression of insl3 and cyp11a were cumulatively decreased by the DBP+DEHP dose. These data indicate that individual phthalates with a similar mechanism of action, but with different active metabolites (monobutyl phthalate versus monoethylhexyl phthalate), can elicit dose-additive effects when administered as a mixture.
The daily intakes (DI) were estimated in a Belgian general population for 5 phthalates, namely diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBzP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), based on the urinary measurements of their corresponding metabolites. DI values ranged between <LOD and 59.65μg/kg bw/day depending on the congener, and were globally higher for children than adults. They were compared to acceptable levels of exposure (tolerable daily intakes) to evaluate the hazard quotients (HQ), which highlight an intake above the dose considered as safe for values greater than 1. If very few of our Belgian participants exceeded this threshold for phthalates considered individually, 6.2% of the adults and 25% of the children showed an excessive hazard index (HI) which took into account the cumulative risk of adverse anti-androgenic effects. These results are of concern since these HI were based on only 3 phthalates (DEHP, DiBP and DnBP), and showed a median of 0.55 and 0.29 for children and adults respectively. The comparison with previously determined dietary intakes demonstrated that for DEHP, food intake was nearly the only route of exposure while other pathways occurred mainly for the other studied phthalates.
Because of wide exposure to phthalates we investigated whether simultaneous exposure to several phthalates reached levels that might cause adverse anti-androgenic effects. 33 healthy young Danish men each delivered three 24-hour urine samples during a three months period. The daily intakes of the sum of di-n-butyl and di-iso-butyl phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, di-iso-nonyl phthalate, and butylbenzyl phthalate were estimated based on urinary excretion of the metabolites. Based on a hazard quotient (HQ) of the individual phthalate (i.e. the ratio between the daily intake and an acceptable level of exposure), a hazard index (HI) for each man was calculated as the sum of HQs for the individual phthalates. All men were exposed to all phthalates during the urine collection periods. Median HIs were all below 1 (i.e. below an acceptable cumulative threshold) ranging from 0.11-0.17 over the three different sample collections. Of the 33 men two men had HIs above 1 in one of their three samples, indicating that occasionally the combined exposure to the investigated phthalates reached a level which may not be considered safe. Besides the phthalates investigated here humans are exposed to numerous other chemicals which also may contribute to a cumulative anti-androgenic exposure.
We have surface-functionalized magnetic particles (MPs) with polydimethylsiloxane and multi-walled carbon nanotubes in a two-step reaction. The MPs were applied to solid-phase extraction of the fluoroquinolones ofloxacin, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin prior to their determination by capillary liquid chromatography. The effects of sample pH, adsorption time, type of eluent, desorption time and desorption temperature were investigated. Under the optimum conditions, the extraction efficiencies are in the range from 81.5 % to 94.1 %, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of <7.6 %. The detection limits vary from 0.24 to 0.48 ng mL−1. The method was applied to the analysis of spiked mineral water and honey. The recoveries for the fluoroquinolones in the real samples range from 84.0 % to 112 %, with RSDs ranging from 2.9 % to 7.8 %.
Figure
A variety of chemicals may enter our food supply, by means of intentional or unintentional addition, at different stages of the food chain. These chemicals include food additives, pesticide residues, environmental contaminants, mycotox-ins, flavoring substances, and micronutrients. Packaging systems and other food-contact materials are also a source of chemicals contaminating food products and beverages. Monitoring exposure to these chemicals has become an integral part of ensuring the safety of the food supply. Within the context of the risk analysis approach and more specifically as an integral part of risk assessment procedures, the exercise known as exposure assessment is crucial in providing data to allow sound judgments concerning risks to human health. The exercise of obtaining this data is part of the process of revealing sources of contamination and assessing the effectiveness of strategies for minimizing the risk from chemical contamination in the food supply (Lambe, 2002) .
The impact of temperature and storage time on military packaged water (MPW) quality was examined at four temperatures (23.0°C to 60.0°C) for 120days. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles were filled in California and Afghanistan with unbuffered water treated by reverse osmosis. The US military's water pH long-term potability standard was exceeded, and US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) drinking water pH and odor intensity limits were also exceeded. During a 70day exposure period, Port Hueneme MPW total organic carbon and total trihalomethane levels increased from <0.25mg/L to 2.0±0.0mg/L and <0.05μg/L to 51.5±2.1μg/L, respectively. PET released organic contaminants into MPW and residual disinfectant generated trihalomethane contaminants. After 14days at 37.7°C and 60.0°C, Afghanistan MPW threshold odor number values were 8.0 and 8.6, respectively. Total organic carbon concentration only increased with exposure duration at 60.0°C. Acetaldehyde and formaldehyde contaminants were not detected likely due to the high method detection limits applied in this study. Phthalate contaminants detected and their maximum levels were butylbenzylphthalate (BBP) 0.43μg/L, di-n-butylphthalate (DnBP) 0.38μg/L, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) 0.6μg/L, and diethylphthalate (DEP) 0.32μg/L. Antimony was only detected in 60.0°C Afghanistan MPW on Day 28 and beyond, and its maximum concentration was 3.6±0.3μg/L. No antimony was found in bottles exposed to lesser temperatures. Environmental health, PET synthesis and bottle manufacturers, and bottle users can integrate results of this work to improve health protective decisions and doctrine.
In this study, magnetic carbon nanotubes (MCNTs) were prepared by assembling magnetic nanoparticles onto the acid-treated multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Due to their excellent adsorption capability, the MCNTs were used as adsorbent of magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) to extract phthalate monoesters (PMEs), the main biomarkers of phthalate exposure, from human urine. By coupling MSPE with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), a reliable, sensitive and cost-effective method for the simultaneous determination of five main PMEs including monomethyl phthalate (MMP), monoethyl phthalate (MEP), mono n-butyl phthalate (MBP), mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) was developed. The factors that could influence the extraction, including the amount of magnetic nanoparticles, pH of sample solution, extraction and desorption time, the amount of salt addition, the type and volume of desorption solvent were investigated in detail. Under optimized conditions, the LODs and LOQs achieved were in the range of 0.025-0.050 and 0.125-0.250ngmL(-1) respectively. And calibration curves were linear (r(2)≥0.992) over the concentration ranges from 0.250 to 250ngmL(-1). In addition, a satisfying reproducibility was achieved by evaluating the intra- and inter-day precisions with relative standard deviations (RSDs) less than 11.2% and 11.4%, respectively. The recoveries of the five PMEs ranged from 92.6% to 98.8% with the RSDs less than 10.7%. Finally, the established MSPE-GC-MS method was successfully applied to determine PMEs in human urine samples. MMP, MEP, MBP and MEHP were detected in most of the samples with the median concentration of 8.46, 9.26, 13.60, and 5.95ngmL(-1) respectively. MBzP was detected in 58.3% of the samples with the median concentration of 3.05ngmL(-1). Taken together, the MSPE-GC-MS method developed in current study provides a new option for the determination of PMEs in human urine.
This volume evaluates possible carcinogenic hazards from exposures to static and extremely low frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields. It is the first of two "IARC Monographs" volumes on various kinds of non-ionizing radiation.
A test protocol has been developed that contains a suite of complementary analytical methods to identify and estimate the concentrations of potential chemical migrants in polymeric coatings applied to metal substrates. The capabilities of these techniques (FT-IR, overall migration, headspace GC-MS, GC-MS, and LC-TOF-MS) have been tested for a variety of polymeric coatings, and the results for one particular coating, an epoxy phenolic, are described as an example. The example provided shows both the power and the limitations of current analytical techniques in the evaluation of the total migrate from food contact materials.
Human exposure to phthalate esters for five different age classes is evaluated for the following routes of exposure: inhalation of air (indoors and outdoors), ingestion of drinking water,
incidental ingestion of soil, ingestion of dust (indoors), and ingestion of food. Exposure is
estimated for: dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP).
For the five phthalate esters evaluated, the median estimated daily intake is highest for
toddlers and lowest for infants. For all five phthalates evaluated (except BBP exposure for formula-fed infants), food represents the most important source of exposure. The food categories contributing most to exposure depend upon the phthalate ester and the age group evaluated. Ingestion of dust and inhalation of indoor air represent the most important non-food sources of exposure to phthalate esters. Detection limits have a large influence on the estimated intakes.
A comparison of the results of the present study with studies that back-calculate phthalate ester intake from urinary metabolite data suggests that exposure in the present study may be overestimated for DEHP, BBP, and DBP due to changes in food processing over time (many of the measured concentrations of phthalates in food are not recent), loss of phthalates due to cooking has not been accounted for in the present study, and some measured concentrations in food may be elevated due to background contamination. Conversely, exposure to DEP is underestimated in the present study because direct exposure to personal care products is not included. The overestimate of exposure to BBP and DBP from food, referred to above, may be partially cancelled by the lack of inclusion of personal care products.
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a simple, effective and inexpensive water treatment procedure suitable for application in developing countries. Microbially contaminated water is filled into transparent polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottles and exposed to full sunlight for at least 6 h. Solar radiation and elevated temperature destroy pathogenic germs efficiently. Recently, concerns have been raised insinuating a health risk by chemicals released from the bottle material polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Whereas the safety of PET for food packaging has been assessed in detail, similar investigations for PET bottles used under conditions of the SODIS treatment were lacking until now. In the present study, the transfer of organic substances from PET to water was investigated under SODIS conditions using used colourless transparent beverage bottles of different origin. The bottles were exposed to sunlight for 17 h at a geographical latitude of 47° N. In a general screening of SODIS treated water, only food flavour constituents of previous bottle contents could be identified above a detection limit of 1 μg/L. Quantitative determination of plasticisers di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) and di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) revealed maximum concentrations of 0.046 and 0.71 μg/L, respectively, being in the same range as levels of these plasticisers reported in studies on commercial bottled water. Generally, only minor differences in plasticiser concentrations could be observed in different experimental setups. The most decisive factor was the country of origin of bottles, while the impact of storage conditions (sunlight exposure and temperature) was less distinct. Toxicological risk assessment of maximum concentrations revealed a minimum safety factor of 8.5 and a negligible carcinogenic risk of 2.8 × 10−7 for the more critical DEHP. This data demonstrate that the SODIS procedure is safe with respect to human exposure to DEHA and DEHP.
It is recognised that chemicals from packaging and other food-contact materials can migrate into the food itself and thus be ingested by the consumer. The monitoring of this migration has become an integral part of ensuring food safety. This article reviews the current knowledge on the food safety hazards associated with packaging materials together with the methodologies used in the assessment of consumer exposure to these hazards. Special attention is given to the most promising approaches for exposure assessment and to the technical and other barriers which need addressing.
Human risk assessment of chemicals is traditionally presented as the ratio between the actual level of exposure and an acceptable level of exposure, with the acceptable level of exposure most often being estimated by appropriate authorities. This approach is generally sound when assessing the risk of individual chemicals. However, several chemicals may concurrently target the same receptor, work through the same mechanism or in other ways induce the same effect(s) in the body. In these cases, cumulative risk assessment should be applied. The present study uses biomonitoring data from 129 Danish children and adolescents and resulting estimated daily intakes of four different phthalates. These daily intake estimates are used for a cumulative risk assessment with anti-androgenic effects as the endpoint using Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) values determined by the European Food Safety Authorities (EFSA) or Reference Doses for Anti-Androgenicity (RfD AA) determined by Kortenkamp and Faust [Int J Androl 33 (2010) 463] as acceptable levels of exposure. United States Environmental Protection Agency Reference Doses (US EPA RfD) could not be used as none of them identifies anti-androgenic effects as the most sensitive endpoint for the phthalates included in this article. Using the EFSA TDI values, 12 children exceeded the hazard quotient for the sum of di-n-butyl phthalate and di-iso-butyl phthalate (∑DBP((i+n))) and one child exceeded the hazard quotient for di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). Nineteen children exceeded the cumulated hazard index for three phthalates. Using the RfD AA values, one child exceeded the hazard quotient for DEHP and the same child exceeded the cumulated hazard index for four phthalates. The EFSA TDI approach thus is more restrictive and identifies ∑DBP((i+n)) as the compound(s) associated with the greatest risk, while DEHP is the compound associated with the greatest risk when using the RfD AA approach.
A declaration of conformity according to European regulation No. 10/2011 is required to ensure the safety of plastic materials in contact with foodstuffs. This regulation established a positive list of substances that are authorized for use in plastic materials. Some compounds are subject to restrictions and/or specifications according to their toxicological data. Despite this, the analysis of PET reveals some non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) produced by authorized initial reactants and additives. Genotoxic and estrogenic activities in PET-bottled water have been reported. Chemical mixtures in bottled water have been suggested as the source of these toxicological effects. Furthermore, sample preparation techniques, such as solid-phase extraction (SPE), to extract estrogen-like compounds in bottled water are controversial. It has been suggested that inappropriate extraction methods and sample treatment may result in false-negative or positive responses when testing water extracts in bioassays. There is therefore a need to combine chemical analysis with bioassays to carry out hazard assessments. Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and antimony are clearly related to migration from PET into water. However, several studies have shown other theoretically unexpected substances in bottled water. The origin of these compounds has not been clearly established (PET container, cap-sealing resins, background contamination, water processing steps, NIAS, recycled PET, etc.). Here, we surveyed toxicological studies on PET-bottled water and chemical compounds that may be present therein. Our literature review shows that contradictory results for PET-bottled water have been reported, and differences can be explained by the wide variety of analytical methods, bioassays and exposure conditions employed.
This study was conducted to determine the presence of phthalates in 10 different brands of bottled water available in Saudi markets and stored under different conditions. Dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethylphthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) and diethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) were measured by headspace solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography- mass spectrometer detector. Most of these phthalates were detected in the selected bottled water sample that might be either leached from the plastic packaging materials or contamination during bottling processes. Bottled waters stored at 4°C contained higher levels of DMP, DEP, BBP and DEHP than those stored at room temperature and outdoors. On the other hand, the levels of DMP, DEP and BBP were significantly lower in bottled waters stored at room temperature than those outdoor. It seems that temperature and sunlight play a role in the degradation of phthalates within time. The levels of BBP were the highest at 4°C storage (4.592 ± 3.081 µg/l; range: 1.194-21.128 µg/l) and approximately 76% of the bottled waters had BBP above the limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.994 µg/l. Apart from DEHP (< 6 µg/l), there are not current legislations for other phthalates. Regardless of storage conditions, all our samples did not exceed the maximum established limit of DEHP. Although, the levels of phthalates in