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Concentrations of phthalates in bottled water under common storage conditions: Do they pose a health risk to children?
... Concentrations of phthalates in control samples showed the presence of mostly DBP, BBP and MEHP. The result of this study corresponds with the concentrations reported in other studies that analysed phthalates in water immediately after purchasing [19,20]. The presence of phthalate esters in the few control samples could be from the packaging process, plastic hoses for water supply and distribution, storage tanks and water treatment facilities. ...
... The observed increase in phthalate concentrations in this study after storage is in good agreement with reports that analysed phthalates under the same conditions. Jeddi et al. [20] reported an increased phthalate level in PET bottled water in Iran after being stored at different temperature conditions with the highest migration rate observed for samples stored at 40°C for 45 days. Khaniki et al. [22] reported an increase in DEP and DEHP in water from plastic tumblers after storage at 80 o C in 60 mins. ...
... From the results, the brands did not exceed the USEPA (HQ) standard of 1.0, indicating that there is no carcinogenic health risk. The report of this study is in accordance with that reported by Ghada [29] and Jeddi et al. [20]. Data on the assessment of phthalate exposure through water intake are scarce. ...
The determination of phthalate ester concentrations in stored packaged water brands produced in Enugu State was carried out and the health risks evaluated. Packaged water samples were obtained in four batches from six sachet water and six bottled water factories, and stored outdoor for 1 month before analysis, while control samples were obtained and analysed immediately after purchase. Solvent extraction was carried out using dichloromethane, and phthalates concentrations were determined using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. The range of limit of detection, recovery analysis and limit of quantitation were 0.001-0.002 mg/L, 81.26–91.47% and 0.003-0.006 mg/L respectively. The concentrations (µg/L) of DMP, BBP, MEHP, DBP and PADHE were<0.002–0.13, 0.41–1.84, <0.002–19.66, 0.76–4.22 and <0.002–0.81 in the bottled water and 0.11–0.36, <0.002–0.43, 0.21–5.75, 0.87–3.28 and <0.002–0.57 in the sachet water. Dimethyl phthalate (DMP) concentrations in the exposed and stored sachet water were significantly higher (P˂0.05) than that obtained from bottled water. There were also significantly higher (P<0.05) concentrations of Diethyl phthalate (DEP), Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), Di-butyl phthalate (DBP) and phthalic acid decyl hept-2-yl ester (PADHE), and pH in exposed sachet water than the control. Non-carcinogenic hazard quotient for phthalate esters in the packaged water samples was ˂1, which indicates no carcinogenic health risk. The contribution of individual phthalates to drinking water for Mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate in both adults and toddlers exceeded the 0.5% TDI in some of the packaged water brands. Results suggest that increased concentrations of phthalate esters in the exposed packaged water samples were as a result of storage temperature, while the presence of phthalate esters in few of the control samples was probably from the packaging process. Although the levels of phthalates were low, regular consumption of packaged water could be detrimental to health of the general populace.
... The highest nitrate was found in the Railneer brand followed by Divyajal, Bisleri, Catch, Kinley and Aqua na. Jeddi et al. (2015) analyzed PET bottled water samples immediately after purchase and stated that there was no signi cant correlation between the DEHP concentration and the physicochemical properties of the water samples. While Dumitrascu (2012) reported that the migration of DEHP from PET bottled to water depends on the pH. ...
... As per the USEPA and WHO a maximum permissible limit of DEHP in drinking water is 6-8 μg/l (WHO 2008; USEPA 2009). Wormuth et al. (2006) and Jeddi et al. (2015) stated that phthalate exposure through water is reduced with increasing age because water intake is higher in children as compared to adults. As per the IARC (The International Agency for Research on Cancer), only DEHP is carcinogenic to humans in all the phthalate esters (USEPA 2012c). ...
... As per the IARC (The International Agency for Research on Cancer), only DEHP is carcinogenic to humans in all the phthalate esters (USEPA 2012c). The cancer risk due to DEHP exposure via water intake stored at 40 o C was greater than for the other storage conditions while the least carcinogenic risk from DEHP was observed in the bottled water stored under freezing conditions (-18 o C) (Jeddi et al. 2015). Due to the DEHP concentration, the carcinogenic risk was tremendously below the accepted risk level because the DEHP in water corresponding to cancer risk in 1,000,000 was 3 μg/l (USEPA 2012c). ...
Phthalates are one of the ubiquitous contaminants in the environment due to the extensive use in the last few years. They are easily released because they are not chemically bonded to polymers. They migrate into the food during food packing while in water, they migrate during water filling or storage and bottle manufacturing. They are toxic to human health and known as carcinogen/ endocrine disruptors. A total of sixty PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottled mineral water samples of different six brands were purchased from the local market of Noida, India. These bottles were of two different batch numbers of each brand. Two bottles of each brand with a different batch number were analyzed immediately after purchase while the other eight bottles were analyzed after two and six months when they were stored in sunlight (~ 45 o C) and - 20 o C. The aim of the present study was to determine the migration of DEHP and its impact on storage conditions of PET bottled mineral water in retail stores or homes. We used a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) for the estimation of DEHP in these samples. We observed that the migration of DEHP was dependent on high temperature and storage time. DEHP was present only in those samples, which were stored in sunlight for two & six months and at - 20 o C for six months. While found below the detection limit in those samples which were analyzed immediately after purchase and stored at - 20 o C for two months.
... Recently, the importance of determining the presence of PAE in food, beverages, and in their packaging has become increasingly evident. Thus, different analytical methods have been developed to determine PAEs in different matrices [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] and many studies have been carried out in order to determine the risk correlated to phthalate contamination in foodstuffs, even though their association with the onset of several diseases is still controversial [17][18][19]. ...
... In another study, the effect of storage time and condition on PAE migration has been investigated [17]. A pronounced increase in the concentration of DEHP, DBP, and BBP was observed at +40 °C after different exposure periods from 24 h to 45 days. ...
... In summary, different conditions such as pH [203,212], storage time [17,207], storage temperature (30-60 °C) [16,213,214], and exposure to sunlight [214] may influence the PAE concentration of PET bottled mineral water. Luo et al., analyzing the frequency of the five targeted phthalates in bottled water of twenty-one countries and more than three hundred different brands, found that the highest concentration of DEHP are detected in bottled water from Thailand, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Saudi Arabia, and China. ...
Phthalates are a huge class of chemicals with a wide spectrum of industrial uses, from the manufacture of plastics to food contact applications, children’s toys, and medical devices. People and animals can be exposed through different routes (i.e., ingestion, inhalation, dermal, or iatrogenic exposure), as these compounds can be easily released from plastics to water, food, soil, air, making them ubiquitous environmental contaminants. In the last decades, phthalates and their metabolites have proven to be of concern, particularly in products for pregnant women or children. Moreover, many authors reported high concentrations of phthalates in soft drinks, mineral waters, wine, oil, ready-to-eat meals, and other products, as a possible consequence of their accumulation along the food production chain and their accidental release from packaging materials. However, due to their different physical and chemical properties, phthalates do not have the same human and environmental impacts and their association to several human diseases is still under debate. In this review we provide an overview of phthalate toxicity, pointing out the health and legal issues related to their occurrence in several types of food and beverage.
... The possible migration of PAEs to foods during storage in food processing and plastic packaging materials represents an important concern. Many studies have shown that PAEs are present in bottled water (Jeddi et al., 2015;Xu et al., 2020), olive oils and olive pomace oils (Kıralan et al., 2020a), cold-pressed oils (Kıralan et al., 2020b), cooking oil (Kumar et al., 2019), milk (Fierens et al., 2013;Kim et al., 2009;Mondal et al., 2022), meat (Yang et al., 2018), vegetables (Cheshmazar et al., 2021;Ma et al., 2018), black tea and coffee capsules (De Toni et al., 2017;Di Bella et al., 2014;Sakaki et al., 2020), and coffee powder (Guo et al., 2012;Mohamed and Ammar, 2008). ...
... The literature review found no study on the estimated cancer risk factor in coffee samples. The negligible carcinogenic risk factor associated with DEHP exposure in tap water (Okpara et al., 2022) and bottled water (Jeddi et al., 2015) was reported to be less than 10 − 6 and 6.5 × 10 − 7 , respectively. Contrary to these studies, high carcinogenic risk factors of 0.04, 0.08, and 0.02 were determined for children in plastic-packaged drinking water and plastic and tetra-packaged fruit drinks, respectively (Adegunwa et al., 2022). ...
Although phthalate esters (PAEs) are plasticizers widely utilized nowadays to enhance the flexibility and processability of polymeric materials, their presence and detection in the food environment have become an important concern. In this study, phthalate esters (butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and diisononyl phthalate (DINP)) were detected in 40 coffee samples in single-use or large plastic-based packages of different brands collected from the Turkish market. PAEs exposure and non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks were calculated for females and males aged 15-64, depending on their coffee consumption within 24 hours. DBP and DINP exhibited the highest level of migration to coffee samples (<LOD - 15.2 ng mL⁻¹ and <LOD - 64.1 ng mL⁻¹, respectively), while BBP was found below the limit of quantification (LOQ). In non-carcinogenic risk evaluations of PAEs, the data showed that coffee was consumed at levels not considered harmful for all ages and genders (HI<1). The carcinogenic risk factor for BBP was determined at grade C, meaning it was negligible (<10⁻⁶) for all age groups. However, carcinogenic risk factors determined for DEHP in males and females aged 15-30 years (in the range of 1.50×10⁻⁴ and 4.87×10⁻⁴) and females aged 51-64 years (1.45×10⁻⁴) were detected at grade A, which exceeded the high-level cancer risk (>10⁻⁴) reported by the US EPA. Our research findings showed that almost all age groups over 15 were exposed to PAEs orally from the coffee they frequently consumed, which might lead to an excessive risk of cancer in individuals. Therefore, it was concluded that more comprehensive studies should be conducted based on this study, especially regarding cancer risk.
... sharing weak bonds resulting in the probable release of PAEs in the stored matrices thereby making food and beverages the predominant source of PAEs for human exposure. In addition, 50% of compounds migrating from food contact materials are non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) and PAEs are among the most dominant NIAS reported to migrate from the packaged material to drinking water (Jeddi et al. 2015). Although manufacturing food-contact materials with PAEs is not authorized by the European Commission regulation no. ...
... DEP concentration after 7 days in all three studied temperatures was lower than other studies (Bošnir et al. 2007). DnBP levels in the present study even after 7 days of storage at all three temperatures were comparable to Iranian bottled water (Jeddi et al. 2015). Average DnBP concentrations at all three temperatures were higher than another report with 10 weeks storage time (Casajuana and Lacorte, 2003). ...
Mineral bottled water packed in three polymers viz., virgin polyethylene terephthalate (PET), recycled PET, and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) were investigated for the occurrence, migration, and health risk of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) at 25 °C, 35 °C, and 45 °C. The average concentration of six USEPA priority PAEs in refrigerated water samples was highest in recycled PET> LDPE > virgin PET. The highest leaching was seen at 45 °C after 2 days for LDPE water packets with ∑6PAEs amounting to 64,300 ng/L. Similarly, for recycled PET, the highest migration was seen at 45 °C after seven days (3,800 µg/L). Bis 2-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) were the predominant plasticizers from PET bottles and LDPE water packets, respectively. Predicted concentration after three weeks based on best fit obtained through the polynomial model for PET bottles was seen higher than the recommended limit suggested by USEPA (6 µg/L) and WHO (8 µg/L).
... Some researchers suggest that PAEs are non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) that can be incorporated into plastic material and potentially migrate into food (Salazar-Beltrán et al., 2017;Jeddi, et al. 2015;Luo, et al. 2018;Jayaweera, et al. 2020). In this context, PAEs sources have been associated with the origin of the PET container, source of waters, cap-sealing resins, quality of the raw material and chemicals used in the production and contamination in production lines (Jeddi, et al. 2015;Luo, et al. 2018;Giuliani, et al. 2020). ...
... Some researchers suggest that PAEs are non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) that can be incorporated into plastic material and potentially migrate into food (Salazar-Beltrán et al., 2017;Jeddi, et al. 2015;Luo, et al. 2018;Jayaweera, et al. 2020). In this context, PAEs sources have been associated with the origin of the PET container, source of waters, cap-sealing resins, quality of the raw material and chemicals used in the production and contamination in production lines (Jeddi, et al. 2015;Luo, et al. 2018;Giuliani, et al. 2020). Many studies indicate that the initial levels of PAEs are often lower than those found after storage processes or when the bottle is exposed to high temperature (Montuori et al. 2008;Mousa et al. 2013;Zaki & Shoeib, 2018;Jeddi et al. 2016;Keresztes et al. 2013;Szendi et al. 2018;Xu, et al. 2020). ...
Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) concentration in bottled water and different factors (water pH, storage time, sunlight exposure, and temperature) that affect/control them have become hot topics during recent years. Nevertheless, quite contradictory results and disagreements on the effects of these factors have been published. In an attempt to find some consensus on this topic, a comprehensive study considering the combined effect of long storage times (longer than a year) and the water hydrochemical signature (including water pH, elemental composition and the presence/absence of dissolved CO2) was performed using the four most commonly consumed bottled water brands on the Chilean market. Each water brand was analyzed between 10 or 14 different times, depending on the brand (in total 97 samples were studied).
Following the concept of the hydrochemical signature typically used in hydrogeology to classify types of waters, the notion of a water phthalate fingerprint was proposed. Finally, concerning the effect of long storage times, this study demonstrates that all the trends (increase, decrease or steady) of the Total PAEs concentration are possible; and these trends are controlled by the specific hydrochemical signature and phthalate fingerprint of the bottled water.
... Nowadays, PET is the most widespread material for the production of water bottles, as the world witnessed a surge in the usage of PET bottled water due to the low production cost, ease of transport, as well as its size, and strength. As a result, the migration of phthalate from PET water bottles formed a global concern [22]. The variation in the phthalate forms could be attributed to the addition of alkyl groups [27]. ...
... The common phthalates reported in several bottled water samples were DBP and DEHP. However, the results for the BBP were consistent with the results obtained by Jeddi et al. [22], who found that it was not detected in the tested samples stored at low temperatures (25-30°C). Moreover, Domínguez-Morueco et al. [12] examined DEP and DBP levels in bottled water and found that their concentrations were 0.011 and 0.91 μg/ mL, respectively, in which DEP results are consistent with our results to some extent. ...
Background
This paper aims to investigate the occurrence and removal characteristics of phthalate esters from bottled drinking water using silver modified roasted date pits. Three adsorbents, namely roasted date pits (RODP), silver-modified roasted date pits (S-RODP), and activated carbon (AC) were used to investigate their adsorption characterizations in removing dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP) from the collected bottle water samples.
Methods
The occurrences of the phthalate esters in the collected bottled water samples were carried out at different temperatures (30, 50, and 60 °C), and analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis - selected ion monitoring. Batch adsorption isotherms were used to study and establish the efficiency of such adsorbents in removing phthalate esters, in which they describe the adsorbent-adsorbate interaction systems. Adsorption efficiency of the various adsorbents was investigated by using different adsorbent masses (0.05 g, 0.10 g, and 0.15 g) and temperature (30 °C, 50 °C, and 60 °C). Different physical and chemical characterizations were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area, pore radius, and pore volume.
Results
The results indicated that the most abundant phthalate esters were DMP followed by DEP under 30 °C; however, DNOP was not detected in any of the tested water samples, except for one sample under 30 °C with a concentration of 0.031 μg/mL. The obtained results showed that phthalate esters leaching to the bottled drinking water were affected by storage temperature. The phthalate esters levels were increased with increasing the temperature to 60 °C. It was concluded that the ability of S-RODP for the adsorption of phthalate esters was better than the removal percentage obtained by AC and RODP. The removal percentage was increased from 90 to 99% by increasing the temperature from 30 to 50 °C and then decreased to 92.3% at 60 °C.
Conclusion
RODP was successfully used as an effective adsorbent for phthalate esters removal from drinking water. However, S-RODP has the highest removal abilities than other adsorbents due to the newly formed functional groups on its surface.
... The change of PAEs concentration in bottled water of the six brands when stored at 40 • C, 50 • C and 60 • C for 7 days are shown in Fig. 4. The results obviously presented that the concentrations of the three PAEs in bottled water were all positively correlated with both storage duration and temperature, and the migration of PAEs from bottles to water occurred significantly in a short term under high temperature, which were consistent with previous studies (Zaki and Shoeib, 2018;Keresztes et al., 2013;Jeddi et al., 2015). Compared with the original DEHP level before heating, the average growth rate of DEHP concentration was up to 80.0% at 40 • C, 101.7% at 50 • C and 135.0% at 60 • C respectively after heating for 7 days, which was higher than that of BBP (78.6% at 40 • C, 88.3% at 50 • C and 102.9% at 60 • C) and DBP (50.7% at 40 • C, 58.6% at 50 • C and 71.2% at 60 • C). ...
... By comparison, the carcinogenic risk increased significantly after bottled water stored at a high temperature for 7 days, especially when the storage temperature was 60 • C, the carcinogenic risk was greater than 10 − 6 . It can be reasonably inferred that the cancer risk of bottled water will increase with storage time and temperature due to the migration of DEHP (Keresztes et al., 2013;Jeddi et al., 2015). When the can be reached when bottled water is stored for 8.8 days at 40 • C, 7.7 days at 50 • C, or 6.1 days at 60 • C at an average level for the six brands according to their kinetic exponential models in Table 2. Therefore, drinking bottled water stored in high temperature for a long time such as stored in cars exposed in hot weather could be very harmful to human health, which should be paid more attention. ...
This study was to investigate the occurrence, migration and health risk of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in tap water, barreled water and bottled water in Tianjin, China. Six priority controlled PAEs were measured, among which the detection frequency of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was 100%, while the others were not detected. The concentration of DEHP was higher than BBP and DBP in all the samples. The initial ∑3PAEs concentrations in tap water, barreled water and bottled water were 2.409 ± 0.391 μg/L, 1.495 ± 0.213 μg/L and 1.963 ± 0.160 μg/L, respectively. Boiling tap water could reduce the PAEs content to an extent, but they increased significantly in hot tap water contacting with disposable plastic cups. The migration of PAEs in barreled water and bottled water were positively correlated with storage time and temperature, which could be described by exponential models. The hazard indexes of PAEs in different types of drinking water were very low. However, the human carcinogenic risks of DEHP will reach the maximum acceptable risk level of 10⁻⁶ when bottled water is stored for 8.8 days at 40 ℃, 7.7 days at 50 ℃, or 6.1 days at 60 ℃.
... For example, a case study reported that storage of water in PET bottles for 10 weeks at an outdoor temperature up to 30 • C results in increased concentrations of n-butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), DBP and DEHP in drinking water [7]. A recent study demonstrated that there was no significant leaching of DBP, BBP or DEHP from PET bottles to drinking water when stored at low temperatures [8]. In addition, the concentrations of PAEs in soft beverages stored in PET bottles (pH = 3) were measured as between 5-and 40-fold higher compared with mineral water (pH = 5) [9], suggesting that pH might affect the leaching of PAEs from PET bottles. ...
... Furthermore, we evaluated the risks associated with only four PAEs individually. The results showed that no matter the source of PAEs in PET bottled water, the health risk associated with the levels of selected PAEs was acceptable for adults, which was consistent with a previous report [8]. However, caution should be exercised in interpreting this assessment, as humans are exposed to PAEs through multiple routes in addition to bottled drinking water. ...
A great deal of attention has been paid lately to release of phthalate esters (PAEs) from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into PET bottled drinking water due to their potential endocrine-disrupting effects. Three kinds of PAEs, including diethyl phthalate (DEP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP), were detected in 10 popular brands of PET bottles in Beijing, ranging from 101.97 μg/kg to 709.87 μg/kg. Meanwhile, six kinds of PAEs, including DEP, DMP, DBP, n-butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), were detected in PET bottled water, ranging from 0.19 μg/L to 0.98 μg/L, under an outdoor storage condition, while their concentrations ranged from 0.18 μg/L to 0.71 μg/L under an indoor storage condition. Furthermore, the concentrations of PAEs in brand D and E bottles were slightly increased when the storage time was prolonged. In addition, the concentrations of PAEs in commercial water contained in brand B and H bottles and pure water contained in brand E and G bottles were also slightly increased with the increase of storage temperature. Interestingly, DBP mainly contributed to the increased PAEs levels in simulation water. These results suggest that a part of the PAEs in PET bottled water originated from plastic bottles, which was related to the storage time and temperature. However, the PAEs in PET bottled water only pose a negligible risk to consumers if they follow the recommendations, such as storage at a common place (24 °C), away from sun and in a short period of time.
... Due to their potential toxicity, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the European Union (EU) had listed dibutyl phthalate (DBP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) as priority pollutants. To protect human health, China, the USA, and EU have restricted the use of some PAEs in food packaging material including DEHP, DMP, DEP, DBP, and DOP (Huang and Wang 2016;Jeddi et al. 2015;Wei et al. 2022). Meanwhile, DEHP, a widely used PAE, has been listed in the drinking-water quality standard of several countries including China, Canada, Australia, Israel, Japan, the USA, while DBP and DEP have also been included in the Chinese drinking-water quality standard (Liu et al. 2021). ...
Phthalic acid ester (PAE) contamination in popular drink bubble tea has been hardly studied in the world. In this work, a liquid–liquid extraction following solid phase extraction (LLE-SPE)-UPLC-MS/MS method was first established for trace determination of ten PAEs in bubble tea. The developed method was validated with respect to linearity (R² > 0.992), low limit of detections (LODs, 0.49–3.16 µg/L), and satisfactory recoveries (61.8–127.6%) with a low relative standard derivations (RSDs, 1.1–16.4%), which was also validated for commercial milk. Six out of ten PAEs, i.e., diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dihexyl phthalate (DHP), and diphenyl phthalate (DPP) were detected in Chinese bubble tea with concentrations ranging from not detection (ND) to 53.43 µg/L, while DEHP, DBP, DIBP, DEP, and dimethyl phthalate (DMP) were detected in commercial milk with concentrations ranging from ND to 110.58 µg/L. The respective average concentrations of DEHP in Chinese bubble tea and commercial milk were 19.40 and 23.46 µg/L, which were over two times that in drinking water quality standards of several countries including Israel, Korea, Oman, and Singapore (i.e., 8 µg/L). Calculated with human estimated daily intake (EDI), the average EDIs of five out of seven PAEs in bubble tea were higher than those in commercial milk. For example, the calculated EDI of DIBP in bubble tea was 5 times that in commercial milk, while their respective corresponding EDIs of DBP and DEHP were over 2.4 and 1.6 times. Based on estrogen equivalence (EEQ) with the unit of ng E2/L, the average EEQs of the ten PAEs in Chinese bubble tea and commercial milk were 14.26 and 17.06 ng E2/L, which were 52.8 and 62.3 times the observed effect concentration that could cause egg mortality of zebrafish. It is evident that the potential estrogenic effect of PAEs in bubble tea and commercial milk cannot be negligible. Given the fact that PAE contamination in bubble tea has been hardly investigated, such study is urgently to be performed in a global view.
Graphical Abstract
... DEP and DMP levels however, were below detection limit in all the PET-bottled water analyzed under this condition. The trend observed in this study for the detection patterns of the phthalates analyzed were in good agreement with those reported in several studies [23][24][25]. ...
Consequent upon their widespread use as plasticizers and high volume of production, phthalates constantly diffuse and release into the various environmental components (air, water, soil) has become noticeable. In this study, levels and presence of phthalate esters were analyzed in newly purchased plastic toys and in polyethylene terphthalate (PET) bottled drinking water samples. Phthalate esters (PEs) in the samples were liquid-liquid extracted, pre-concentrated and analyzed for detection and quantification using HPLC. From the data obtained, the levels of DMP, DEP and DBP in the PET drinking water samples did not exceed the stipulated threshold levels while the level of DEHP was dominant and exceeded the safe limit. PEs were detected in all the 10 plastic toys samples analyzed including mouthable ones (teethers) used by children, imported into the country from China, Taiwan, etc. The values obtained revealed that the concentrations of PEs in the plastic toys ranged between 0.96-532 (µg/l). Also the percentage (w / w) values obtained were significantly higher and ranged between1.96-79.88% than the European Union (EU) recommended limits for all phthalate esters in toys, this portends risk to children who innocently put these toys in their mouth or chew them, as the toxic chemicals could leach into their blood stream. These results can be used as reference levels for future monitoring programs for pollution studies.
... The estimated exposure to phthalates via consumption of bottled water was previously reported to be extremely low and polyethylene terephthalate bottled water was found safe (Jeddiab et al. 2015). We determined an inverse association between consuming bottled water and the highest tertile of MEHP concentrations in the CP group. ...
The case-control study aimed to evaluate potential sources of exposure and the plasma concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates in prepubertal children having cerebral palsy (CP) and healthy control. Blood samples of 68 CP and 70 controls were analyzed for BPA, di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP), mono-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (MEHP), and dibutyl phthalate (DBP). BPA and DBP levels were similar in groups. The median DEHP and MEHP levels of the children with CP were significantly lower than those of the controls (p = 0.035, p < 0.001, respectively). Exposure to plastic food containers/bags, personal care hygiene products, household cleaners, wood/coal stove heating, and city water supplies were associated with increased odds of higher BPA and phthalate levels in children with CP. In conclusion, potential exposure sources for BPA and phthalates differ in children with CP and healthy controls, and children with CP are not exposed to higher levels of BPA and phthalates.
... However, the reports for monitoring PAEs were mainly focused on the relatively simple samples, such as the contaminated water from plastic packaging. [18][19][20] The diffusion of PAEs from plastic packaging into complex samples such as food was rarely determined due to the complicated sample matrix and low level of PAEs. Therefore, it is imperative to have a sensitive, reliable and fast method for analysing PAEs in complex samples. ...
Several phthalate acid esters (PAEs), often called phthalate esters or phthalates, are substances classified as harmful due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties, and moreover, as dangerous for humans because they interfere with the endocrine system. In general, phthalic esters are used as plasticizers for different polymers and more other consumer products. In the present study, we describe a simple method to quantify PAEs in coffee brew using a liquid‐liquid extraction without purification processes through analysing the obtained organic phase by GCMS in the single ion monitoring mode. The totals of single PAEs, in coffee brew samples analysed by us, are in the range of 159–5305 μg L−1. Considering that, on average, a person drinks three cups (total 90 mL) of the aforementioned drink per day, this will lead to the uptake of a total 14 to 477 μg of phthalates. Several phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are classified as harmful due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties and are dangerous for humans because they interfere with the endocrine system. The present study describes a simple method to quantify PAEs in coffee brew using a liquid‐liquid extraction without purification processes through analysing the obtained organic phase by GCMS in the single ion monitoring mode.
... In contrast, the bottle caps usually are made of HDPE, lowdensity polyethylene (LDPE), and polystyrene (PS) (Salazar-Beltrán et al., 2018). About 80% of the bottles used for packaging water are made of PET owing to their appropriate properties such as strength, transparency, lightweight, and easy recycling (Amiridou & Voutsa, 2011;Jeddi et al., 2015). ...
Bottled water is becoming more popular worldwide and possible contamination’s need to be analyzed. Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants and have recently been regarded as an important contaminant in bottled water due to oral intake and possible threats to human health. In the present study, MP amounts in 23 popular Iranian brands of bottled water were determined by filtration and counting under scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The effects of mechanical stress, environmental factors, and freezing on MP release also were investigated. The average amounts of MPs in water samples were 1496.7 ± 1452.2 particles/L (199.8 to 6626.7 particles/L). The amounts of MPs in different brands was significantly different (p < 0.05). As much as 91.3% of detected particles had the size between 1 and 10 μm. The most likely polymers determined by FTIR spectroscopy was polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The freezing of water in the bottles did not show any significant effect on the MPs release, but mechanical stress to the bottles increased MP amounts in the water significantly. Environmental factors including sunlight exposure and the age of bottles showed the most degradative effects on the structure of polymers in the body of PET bottles and release of MPs. Regardless of their type, source and commercial brands, bottled water is contaminated with hundreds to thousands MPs/L. The main portion (above 90%) of these MPs are < 5 μm particles with considerable effects on human health.
... If the HI is lower than 1, the risk for human health due to the co-exposure to the evaluated compounds is considered negligible (WHO, 2010). The deterministic HI approach was applied in several studies over the last years: for example Riva et al. (2018) assessed the cumulative health risk due to the co-exposure to several CECs in tap water, including alkylphenols, as well as different studies evaluated the health risk due to single phthalates (Jeddi et al., 2015), or to mixtures of them (Liu et al., 2015), in both bottled and tap water. Furthermore, risks resulting from different compounds are summed independently from the specific endpoint they affect, assuming the principle of dose addition. ...
The occurrence and hazard risks of mixtures of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) in drinking water (DW) lead to serious consideration regarding the possible impacts on public health. Consequently, there is ongoing research, development and empowerment of risk assessment procedures to get more toxicological insight. For instance, alkylphenols and phthalates have been frequently reported to be present both in bottled and tap water, affecting different human endpoints. Currently, deterministic chemical risk assessment (CRA) is used to evaluate the compounds’ mixture health risk. However, CRA deals just qualitatively with sources of uncertainty, which may lead to erroneous assessment of risks. Here, a new procedure for quantitative chemical risk assessment of CEC mixtures (QCRAMIX) is proposed. Its potential is illustrated by a case study where the risks related to the presence of mixtures of alkylphenols or phthalates in tap versus bottled DW are compared. Uncertainties in both exposure and hazard assessment steps of the procedure are included to calculate a probabilistic mixture Benchmark Quotient (BQMIX). The QCRAMIX procedure highlighted the non-negligible health risks posed by those compounds in both DW sources based on overall water consumption. In fact, DW consumers’ behaviour in 13 different countries, in terms of total DW consumption and fraction of bottled and tap water consumed, were considered to evaluate the influence on health risk. For alkylphenols, the total water consumption was found to be the most relevant factor in increasing the health risk, while for phthalates the risk was found to be mainly influenced by the percentage of bottled water consumed. Hence, the proposed QCRAMIX procedure can be a valuable tool for prioritization of CECs to be included in DW regulations which aim to minimize the overall risk, accounting for actual DW consumption.
... Particularly, bottled water, due to its high and regular consumption, has drawn considerable attention. Besides the polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the most common polymer used in bottled water packaging is reported to be free from phthalates, as few studies have shown the presence of phthalates in bottled water packed in PET containers [10][11][12]. Dairy products, infant formula, meat, baked goods, fats and oils, and fast foods are major contributors to dietary phthalates exposure. Therefore, the monitoring exposure of chemicals from packaging materials into foods has become a fundamental part of ensuring food safety and protecting human health. ...
Phthalates are a group of chemicals used in a multitude of important industrial products
(e.g., medical devices, children’s toys, and food packages), mainly as plasticizers to improve mechanical
properties such as flexibility, transparency, durability, and longevity of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC). The wide occurrence of phthalates in many consumer products, including foods (e.g., bottled
water, soft drinks, wine, milk, and meat) brings that most people are exposed to phthalates every
day, which raises some concerns. Adverse health outcomes from phthalates exposure have been
associated with endocrine disruption, deformities in the human reproductive system, increased risk
of preterm birth, carcinogen exposure, among others. Apprehension related to the health risks and
ubiquitous incidence of phthalates in foods inspires the development of reliable analytical approaches
that allow their detection and quantification at trace levels. The purpose of the current review is to
provide information related to the presence of phthalates in the food chain, highlighting the health
risks associated with their exposure. Moreover, an overview of emerging extraction procedures and
high-resolution analytical approaches for a comprehensive quantification of phthalates is presented.
... In addition to direct impacts during ingestion, it should also be noted that plastics interact with additives and micropollutants in the natural environment. Some additives pose significant risks to the environment and health such as DEHP, an endocrine disruptor commonly used as plasticisers in PVC, and which desorbs during the plastic ageing process (Doyle et al., 2013;Jeddi et al., 2015;Kedzierski et al., 2018;Manikkam et al., 2013). Plastics also adsorb micropollutants in water such as metals (Boucher et al., 2016;Brennecke et al., 2016;Holmes et al., 2014Holmes et al., , 2012, endocrine disruptors (Fossi et al., 2014(Fossi et al., , 2012 or persistent organic pollutants (Bakir et al., 2012;Lee et al., 2013;Rios et al., 2007). ...
Plastic waste is now a classic contaminant of the natural environment and the origins of the contamination need to be well understood. The transition from a useful object to a waste product is a fundamental moment that, from the point of view of the scientific literature, remains poorly understood. This review therefore aims to highlight some factors controlling this intentionality, but also those that influence individual waste management behaviours. For this purpose, an original approach involving the study of the amount of knowledge within different disciplinary fields of research has been employed. The results underline that the low direct impact of the consequences on their users of the discarding of plastic packaging seems to be an important reason for individual mismanagement. Furthermore, the modern individual behaviours of the discarding of plastics are often deeply rooted in the past of the populations. Policies to reduce waste disposal come up against strong individual behavioural constraints that limit the proper management of plastic waste. Thus, incivilities, difficulty in enforcing sanctions, or public opposition to changes in waste management are all factors that contribute to the maintenance waste discarding behaviour. The reuse behaviour of objects that have become useless is also historically attested, but has tended to disappear with the rise of the consumer society. This type of behaviour, whose valorisation is a way of reducing plastic waste abandonment behaviour, remains, however, less scientifically studied than other ways such as recycling.
... In some previous studies, the effects of sunlight radiation, temperature, storage time, bottle size, and pH of water, on the possible migration of phthalates into the water of plastic bottles were also investigated. Jeddi et al. (2015) investigated the effects of sunlight exposure and storage duration, and reported that the concentration of DEHP level increased from 0.35 to 0.80 μg/L after 45 days sun exposure (Jeddi et al., 2015b). Similarly, Zaki and Shoeib (2018), reported that the levels of DiBP and DEHP were significantly increased after 1, 2, and 4 months of outdoor storage with direct sunlight exposure. ...
Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) have recently been detected in bottled water and have brought about discussions on possible risks for human health. However, a systematic review of CECs in bottled water is currently lacking due to the relatively new introduction and/or detection of these pollutants. Hence, this paper reviews the existing studies on the presence of six major groups of emerging contaminants including microplastics (MPs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, alkylphenols (APs), and perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in bottled water from different countries. Also, the findings related to CECs’ levels, their possible sources, and their risks are summarized. The gathered data indicate that MPs within the size range of 1-5 µm are the most predominant and potentially toxic classes of MPs in bottled water. In addition, PPCPs, PFASs, APs, and BPA occur in concentration levels of ng/L, while phthalates occur in the µg/L level in bottled water. The bottle type plays an important role in the contamination level. As expected, water in plastic bottles with plastic caps is more polluted than in glass bottles. However, other sources of contamination such as contact materials during cleaning, bottling, and storage are not negligible. Based on the gathered data in this review, the CEC levels except for MPs (no threshold values) in bottled water of most countries do not raise a safety concern for the human. However, the occurrence of individual CECs and their association in bottled water need more accurate data to understand their own/synergistic effects on human health.
... PAEs are integrated with polyolefin materials by non-chemical bonds and are easily released from products into the environment (Heudorf et al., 2007). PAEs have been ubiquitously detected in various environmental media as well as in indoor environment and foodstuff with high levels (Jeddi et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2015). Hence, PAEs are recognized as the second important category of global pollutant following polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Ayanda et al., 2016;Katsikantami et al., 2016;Kashyap and Agarwal, 2018;Luo et al., 2018). ...
Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are one important category of additives in plastics, which are ubiquitous products of e-waste recycling areas, where PAEs are released to the environment intensively and higher exposure level is expected for the employees. This study investigated human exposure levels of PAEs in an e-waste recycling area (Ziya Circular Economy Park (ZCEP) in Tianjin, China) with intending to explore the impacts of residence spatial variation and dismantling manipulation mode. We collected 157 urine samples from three sites around ZCEP with different distances from the core dismantling site and urinary phthalate metabolites (mPAEs) concentrations were measured and were compared among these three sites. The exposure levels of PAEs exhibited spatial variation according to the distance from the core dismantling site, and urinary median ∑mPAEs concentrations (389 ng/mL) of the employees in ZCEP were significantly higher than those of residents in Ziya town (285 ng/mL) and the downtown of Jinghai district (207 ng/mL) (p < 0.05). Moreover, PAEs exposure levels were significantly affected by the manipulation modes in the e-waste recycling area and the urinary median ∑mPAEs concentrations in the employees of family workshops (401 ng/mL) were significantly higher than those in plants with centralized management (298 ng/mL). There were obvious differences on the urinary median mPAEs concentrations between subgroups based on age, BMI, and sex; however, no significant statistical associations were found between PAEs exposure levels and these socio-demographic indices (p > 0.05). Besides, there was no correlation between exposure levels of different PAEs and their physicochemical parameters like the logKow (p > 0.05).
... La asociación entre consumo de agua embotellada y mejores niveles de salud no se corresponde con ninguna evidencia científica. Diversos estudios ponen en cuestión que la calidad del agua embotellada sea equiparable a la del agua corriente (Jeddi et al., 2015;Jaffee y Newman., 2013;Marcussen et al., 2013;Diduch et al., 2013). Se trata, con gran probabilidad, del impacto de las campañas de marketing orientadas a establecer tal (2019) asociación (Etale et al., 2018;Van Der Linden, 2015), generando creencias ilusorias en lugar de experiencias reales (Debbeler et al., 2018;Carlucci et al., 2016) y configurando lo que algunos autores han llegado a considerar un fraude a gran escala (Barlow y Clarke, 2017). ...
RESUMEN Introducción: La demanda de consumo de agua embotellada ha crecido a un ritmo vertiginoso, a pesar de sus costes medioambientales. El objetivo de este estudio es conocer la frecuencia de consumo de agua embotellada en la ciudad de Madrid y su asociación con otros indicadores de salud. Métodos: Estudio descriptivo sobre una muestra aleatorizada y representativa de la ciudad de Madrid mayor de 15 años y estratificada por sexo, edad y nivel de desarrollo de los distritos (n=4.427). Los datos han sido recogidos a través de una encuesta telefónica. Resultados: Un 73,7% consume agua del grifo frente al 12,5% que consume agua embotellada. El consumo de agua embotellada es más frecuente entre los más jóvenes. Quienes siempre o casi siempre beben agua embotellada, un 19% afirma tener dificultades económicas. Se observaron diferencias significativas entre aquellos que han nacido en otra comunidad diferente y llevan menos de 3 años viviendo en Madrid. Discusión: 1 de cada 8 madrileños consume habitualmente agua embotellada. Este consumo se asocia a conductas saludables. Se requieren campañas informativas que hagan consciente a la población de lo innecesario de este consumo cuando, como en el caso de Madrid, la calidad del agua está sólidamente garantizada. Palabras clave: Agua, impacto económico, impacto ambiental, encuestas de salud, inmigración, determinantes sociales de salud.
ABSTRACT Background: The demand for bottled water consumption has grown at a dizzying pace. This consumption has important economic and environmental repercussions. The objective of this study is to know the frequency of consumption of bottled water in the city of Madrid and its association with other health indicators. Methods: Descriptive study on a randomized and representative sample of the city of Madrid over 15 years old and stratified by sex, age and level of development of the districts (n = 4,427). The data has been collected through a telephone survey. Results: 73.7% of respondents consume tap water compared to 12.5% who consume bottled water. The consumption of bottled water is more frequent among younger. Of those who always or almost always drink bottled water, 19% say they have economic difficulties. Significant differences were observed between those who were born in another community and have been living for less than 3 years. Discussion: One in 8 people from Madrid habitually consume bottled water. This consumption is associated with healthy behaviors. Informative campaigns are required to make the population aware of the unnecessaryness of this consumption when, as in the case of Madrid, water quality is solidly guaranteed.
... For example, dioctyl phthalate (DEHP)-a phthalate plasticizer-is easily released, because it has weak bonding with the polymer mainly through molecular interactions [10]. These compounds, once ingested, can interfere with the endocrine system and show pro-estrogen or anti-androgen properties [11]. In addition, it is a growing practice in the food industry to add antioxidants such as Irganox to PET packaging materials [1], especially for the storage of fatty foods [12]. ...
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is widely used in food packaging, but the processing aids that include materials such as plasticizers and antioxidants may migrate to food, thereby harming the food quality and human health. To develop packaging materials with lesser plasticizer migration and to understand the anti-migration mechanism, a SiOx layer was deposited by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) on a PET substrate to prepare a composite film. The effects of SiOx layers with different thicknesses on blocking the migration of dioctyl phthalate (DEHP, a plasticizer) and Irganox 1010 (an antioxidant) from the PET substrate into the food simulant were investigated at three temperatures. The migration of additives from both pristine and SiOx-coated films increased with an increase in the contact time and temperature. However, compared with the pristine film, the specific migration rates of DEHP can be reduced by up to 88.57% in the 320-nm SiOx/PET composite film, while that of Irganox 1010 can reach 82.61%. For a fixed SiOx layer thickness, the DEHP migration is not greatly affected by temperature, while that of Irganox 1010 migration decreased at higher temperatures. In addition, a 320-nm SiOx layer effectively retarded the transmission of water vapor and oxygen through the composite film to 77.3% and 79.3% lesser than those of the pristine PET film, respectively. The SEM image showed that the surface of the composite film was denser and more uniform than a pristine PET film, which also confirmed that the SiOx layer can block the migration of additives.
... For example, photodegradation of BPA in riboflavin photosensitization can be an efficient way to decrease concentration of BPA in beverages (Ha et al. 2009). A study also reported migration of DEHP from plastic packaging in bottled water was increased with high temperature and long duration of storage time (Jeddi et al. 2015). In addition to migration from packaging materials, several target analytes were reported as added to beverages as additives, e.g., parabens. ...
Environmental endocrine disruptors (EEDs) in beverages may enter the human body by ingestion and thus may represent a potential health risk. In this study, phthalates, bisphenol A, and its analogues, parabens, benzophenone-type UV filters, and triclosan (TCS) were analyzed in beverage samples (n = 116) collected from local markets in Guangzhou, South China. Twelve of 30 target compounds were found in > 50% samples, and for the first time, TCS was found in a majority of beverages from China (~ 80%). Among all analytes, concentrations of total phthalates (median = 14.4 ng/mL) were generally two orders of magnitude higher than other target EEDs, and concentrations of total benzophenone-type UV filters (0.02 ng/mL) and TCS (0.01 ng/mL) were the lowest. Among all targets, phthalates were predominant, accounting for > 99% of the total EEDs, and dimethyl phthalate was frequently detected in beverages (> 60%). In addition, we estimated the daily intake (EDI) of EEDs for Chinese populations of different age groups based on the daily consumption of beverages. The EDIs of total EEDs were the highest for toddlers (mean = 14,200 ng/kg-bw/day) followed by children and teenagers (3420 ng/kg-bw/day), adults (1950 ng/kg-bw/day), the elderly (1740 ng/kg-bw/day), and infants (70 ng/kg-bw/day). Compared to all food categories, EEDs from beverage consumption accounted for ~ 0.1% (parabens) to 20% (phthalates) of total exposure from diet. However, intakes of phthalates, bisphenols, and TCS from beverages were comparable to those from other potential sources (food, dust, personal care products, cloth, and medicines). Furthermore, the cumulative risks of EEDs by beverage consumption were not high, which indicated that EEDs in beverages might not represent a potential human health risk for Chinese populations.
... Two widely used organophosphates, tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris(1,3,-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), have been designated as carcinogens by the state of California (State of California, 2016). Adverse health effects, such as decreased fetal growth, autism spectrum disorders, disruption of hormones, altered behavior in early stages of life, decreased quality of semen, and alteration of thyroid function have also been associated with exposure to phthalates and organophosphates (Dishaw et al., 2011(Dishaw et al., , 2014Ferguson et al., 2016;Hoffman et al., 2017;Jeddi et al., 2015;Meeker et al., 2013;Meeker and Stapleton, 2010;Miodovnik et al., 2014;Oliveri et al., 2015;Patisaul et al., 2013;Preston et al., 2017;Schang et al., 2018;van der Veen and de Boer, 2012;Zhao et al., 2017). In contrast to these health effects, the association between exposure to phthalates and organophosphates and allergic diseases has not received substantial attention. ...
Phthalates and organophosphates are ubiquitous indoor semi-volatile organic contaminants (SVOCs) that have been widely used as plasticizers and flame retardants in consumer products. Although many studies have assessed their levels in house dust, only a few used dust samples captured by filters of building heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. HVAC filters collect particles from large volumes of air over a long period of time (potentially known) and thus provide a spatially and temporally integrated concentration. This study measured concentrations of phthalates and organophosphates in HVAC filter dust and settled floor dust collected from low-income homes in Texas, United States, in both the summer and winter seasons. The most frequently detected compounds were benzyl butyl phthalate (BBzP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), din -octyl phthalate (DnOP), tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), and tris (1,3-di-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP). The median level of TCIPP in settled dust was 3-to 180-times higher than levels reported in other studies of residential homes. Significantly higher concentrations were observed in HVAC filter dust as compared to settled dust for most of the frequently detected compounds in both seasons, except for several phthalates in the winter. SVOC concentrations in settled dust in winter were generally higher than in summer, while different seasonality patterns were found for HVAC filter dust. Settled dust samples from homes with vinyl flooring contained significantly higher levels of BBzP and DEHP as compared to homes with other types of floor material. The concentration of DEHP and TDCIPP in settled dust also significantly associated with the presence of carpet in homes. Cleaning activities to remove dust from furniture actually increased the levels of certain compounds in HVAC filter dust, while frequent vacuuming of carpet helped to decrease the concentrations of some compounds in settled dust. Additionally, the size and age of a given house also correlated with the levels of some pollutants in dust. A statistically significant association between DEHP concentration in HVAC filter dust in summer and the severity of asthma in children was observed. These results suggest that HVAC filter dust represents a useful sampling medium to monitor indoor SVOC concentrations with high sensitivity; in contrast, when using settled dust, in addition to consideration of seasonal influences, it is critical to know the sampling location because the type and level of SVOCs may be related to local materials used there.
Phthalate esters (PAEs) adversely affect the human endocrine and reproductive systems. These chemical toxic compounds are used as plasticizers, in particular to improve the mechanical properties of different food packing materials. Daily food consumption is the predominant source of exposure for PAEs, especially for infants. In this study, residue profiles and levels for eight PAEs were determined in 30 infant (stage I, II and special A and B) formulas of 12 brands in Turkey and health risk assessments were performed. The average level of PAEs were different for each formula group and packing type except for BBP (p < 0.01). The highest average mean level of PAEs was detected in paperboard type packing, while the lowest average mean level of PAEs was detected in metal can type packing. The highest average level of PAEs detected was DEHP in special formulas (22.1 ng g-1). The average hazard quotient (HQ) value was calculated as 8.43 × 10-5-8.94 × 10-5 for BBP, 1.49 × 10-3-1.58 × 10-3 for DBP, 2.06 × 10-2-2.18 × 10-2 for DEHP, and 7.21 × 10-4-7.65 × 10-4 for DINP. The average HI values were calculated as 2.29 × 10-2 for 0-6 months old infants, 2.39 × 10-2 for 6-12 months old infants, and 2.43 × 10-2 for 12-36 months old infants. These calculated results show that commercial infant formulas were a source of exposure to PAEs but did not present a significant health risk.
In this research, a poly (ionic liquid) functionalised silica-coated magnetic nanoparticles were synthesised for the first time and utilised as a novel adsorbent for the simultaneous extraction of six phthalic acid esters from polyethylene terephthalate bottled drinking water samples. The adsorbent was prepared by grafting poly (1-benzyl-3-vinyl-1 H-imidazol-3-ium chloride) onto silica-coated Fe3O4nanoparticles via Cu(0)-mediated reversible-deactivation radical polymerisation method. Various techniques were used to characterise the synthesised nanomaterials. A qualitative analysis was performed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography triple–quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry. Response surface methodology based on central composite design was used to optimise the extraction procedure and the optimised condition for each factor was; pH of3.9, 22 mg of adsorbent, 3.5 min extraction time, 3 min desorption time, 340 µL of elution solvent (methanol).The results of the validation of the method indicated its acceptable accuracy (88.6-100.1%), good linearity (r > 0.995), satisfactory repeatabilities (RSDs ≤ 6% for intra- and inter–day precisions) and high enrichment factors (535–572). The limits of detection and limits of quantification of the proposed method achieved were 1.1-4.6 ngL–1and 3.6-15.3 ngL–1, respectively. In this study, six common PAEs, including dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, benzyl butyl phthalate, bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and di-n–octyl phthalate, were found in PET bottled water within the range of 0.21-0.94 μgL–1, under different storage conditions. Nevertheless, only a negligible risk is caused by the PAEs in PET bottled water for consumers following the recommendations, such as storing at a common place (25°C), in a short period away from the sun.
Acanthamoeba doğada yaygın olarak bulunan patojenlerdir. Çeşitli su kaynakları, toprak, hava, toz, tıbbi cihazlar ve kullanımı artan kontakt lensler gibi birçok yerde yaşamlarını sürdürebilirler. Bu kaynaklardan herhangi bir yolla insanlara bulaşta oküler enfeksiyon olan Acanthamoeba keratiti, beyinde ölümcül sonuçlanan granülomatöz amibik ensefalit, kutanöz akanthamoebiasis, otitis, kronik sinüzit, kutanöz ülser gibi çeşitli parazitozlara sebep olurlar. Bu çalışmada literatürdeki Acanthamoeba’da tolerans testleri hakkında yapılan çalışmaların genel olarak sunulması amaçlanmıştır. Acanthamoeba spp.’nin termotolerans ve osmotolerans deneylerinin araştırılması için PubMed, Google Akademik arama motorları kullanılarak geniş bir literatür taraması yapılmıştır. Yaptığımız literatür taramaları sonucunda ülkemizde ve dünyada Acanthamoeba’nın termotolerans ve osmotolerans deneyleri hakkında oldukça fazla çalışma bulunmaktadır. Elde ettiğimiz verilere göre farklı genotiplere sahip hem çevresel hem de klinik vakalardan izole edilen suşların bir kısmını yüksek sıcaklık (37°C-42 °C) ve yüksek osmolarite seviyelerini (0,5 M-1 M mannitol) tolere edebilirken, diğer birçok suşun özellikle keratit gibi klinik vakalardan izole edilen suşların bu seviyeleri tolere edemediği rapor edilmiştir. Bu sebeple termotolerans ve osmotolerans deneylerinin sonuçlarında tutarsızlık oldukça fazladır. Bu tutarsızlıkların açıklığa kavuşabilmesi ve patojenitesini kesin olarak belirlemek için in vivo deneyler dahil olmak üzere daha fazla deneylere ihtiyaç vardır.
The OceanWise project aims to propose solutions to reduce pollution of the marine environment by foamed polystyrene (EPS or XPS). Within this framework, EPS/XPS and the most promising alternative materials selected by the consortium were studied. Their mechanical properties and durability, their ageing in the marine and air environment, as well as their biodegradability in the marine environment were evaluated.
Firstly, it was necessary to acquire the missing knowledge on the ageing of EPS/XPS on beaches and in the marine environment. Main results showed that due to their low density, EPS/XPS float on the surface of the sea and therefore combine both atmospheric and marine ageing. The air ageing results in a degradation of the polystyrene under the action of solar radiation. Conversely, the submerged side undergoes less ageing.
In a second step, the work focused on foamed PLA as potential alternative to polystyrene. First, the results obtained in this study showed that PLA was foamable, but much more difficult to foam than PS. Then, its mechanical properties were not similar to those of EPS, and could cause problems for certain uses. Finally, this polymer does not degrade well in the marine environment. From these observations, it can be concluded that the foamed PLA tested, because it has poorer mechanical characteristics than foamed PS, without clear advantage in terms of biodegradation in the marine environment, does not seem to be a good candidate for the Oceanwise project.
Rationale:
Phthalates and bisphenols were reported as endocrine disrupting chemicals and hence a potential threat to human health. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles are being used to store the drinking water and probability of migration of phthalates and bisphenols from the bottles into the water is high. The migration of analytes with respect to different storage conditions need to be studied.
Method:
A sensitive analytical method for simultaneous determination of 7 phthalates and 3 bisphenols from packaged drinking water was developed using liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure photoionization/high resolution mass spectrometry (LC/APPI/HRMS). The analytes were extracted by dispersive solid phase extraction (DSPE) by multiwalled carbon nanotubes.
Results:
The developed method showed the linearity from 0.5 to 5000 μg/L with the limit of detection and limit of quantification ranging from 0.5 to 1 μg/L and 1 to 2 μg/L respectively for phthalates and bisphenols. The inter and intraday variations were below 10%. The recoveries were in the range of 79.5 to 112%. The migration of phthalates and bisphenols increased with storage time and temperature. Maximum migration was observed for DIBP which is 1209.7 ng/L followed by dibutyl phthalate at 777.8 ng/L on 180 days of analysis at room temperature. Migration of DEHP was observed to be higher at elevated temperatures which was increased from 14.9 to 514 ng/L. Similarly, migration of BPA was increased at 45 °C. The results were subjected to ANOVA studies and the results showed significant variations of phthalates and bisphenols with respect to storage temperature and time.
Conclusion:
The use of APPI facilitated simultaneous determination of phthalates and bisphenols. The migration of phthalates and bisphenols increased with increase in temperature and storage time. Maximum migration was observed for diethyl, diisobutyl, dibutyl and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalates. This may be attributed to type of plastic, their processing parameters and recycling.
Phthalates esters (PAEs) are extensively used as additives for polymers in plastic, particularly in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). These compounds are not part of the polymer chains and can be released easily from products and migrate into beverages and foods that come into direct contact, causing environmental and human health impacts. Simple and rapid detection of such substances is of great significance for ensuring environmental food safety and consumer health. At present, optical sensor and electrochemical sensor detection technologies have been applied to PAEs detection due to their advantages, such as simple, rapid, low cost, high sensitivity, simple operation, portability and high specificity. They can make up for the shortcomings of chromatographic detection technology, such as expensive equipment, cumbersome operation, the need for professional and technical personnel, and difficulty in achieving a large number of sample screening objectives. In this paper, research progress on optical sensors and electrochemical sensors for the detection of phthalates in recent ten years is reviewed and discussed. This is helpful to better understand preparation methods for sensors and their detection mechanisms for phthalates. The review will also be used in developing a more effective trace detection sensor for phthalates.
Phthalates are one of the ubiquitous contaminants in the environment due to their extensive use in the last few years. They are easily released because they are not chemically bonded to polymers. They migrate into the food during food packing while in water, they migrate during water filling or storage and bottle manufacturing. They are toxic to human health and known as carcinogen/ endocrine disruptors. A total of sixty PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottled mineral water samples of different six brands were purchased from the local market of Noida, India. These bottles were of two different batch numbers of each brand. Two bottles of each brand with a different batch number were analyzed immediately after purchase while the other eight bottles were analyzed after 2 and 6 months when they were stored in sunlight (~ 45 °C) and—20 °C. The aim of the present study was to determine the migration of DEHP and its impact on storage conditions of PET bottled mineral water in retail stores or homes. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS) was used for the estimation of DEHP in these samples. The author observed that the migration of DEHP was dependent on high temperature and storage time. DEHP was present only in those samples, which were stored in sunlight for 2 & 6 months and at − 20 °C for 6 months. While found below the detection limit in those samples which were analyzed immediately after purchase and stored at − 20 °C for 2 months.
Phthalates (PAEs) are the class of lipophilic chemicals, which are used as additives in the manufacturing of plastics. It results in presence of PAEs in water and beverages because of their migration capacity. Their presence has attracted considerable attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystem functioning and public health. In addition, an enormous number of research articles have been published between 2000 and 2020, which have been identified and their results have been tabulated displaying PAEs analyzed, matrices, sample preparation, analytical method used, the limit of detection (LOD), and recovery percentages. Numerous sample preparation and analytical methods are found which are suitable for the reliable determination of the PAEs. The analysis of the PAEs is difficult due to their ubiquitous presence and their complexity, therefore suitable precautions, should be taken into account. In this review, we provide an overview of various pre-treatment measures and detection methods for PAEs in several types of water and beverages, mainly focusing on the last 20 years published works have been discussed. Pre-treatment methods mainly include liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), solid-phase extraction (SPE), solid-phase microextraction (SPME), liquid-phase microextraction (LPME), and many more rare techniques. Chromatographic and non-chromatographic techniques coupled with or without diodes, spectrophotometers, and detectors, have been described. The concept of “green analytical chemistry” for PAE determination has also been discussed. Hereby, the limitations and challenges in these applications are also included.
Plastic packaged water is the drinking water of choice for urban populations across Africa but its quality remains questionable in most developing countries. Six hundred (600) packages, consisting of sachet and bottled water, were sampled from two high-end companies in Accra (Ghana) and stored through their shelf lives under an average room temperature of 30 °C. The samples were tested for physicochemical quality and the presence of bacteria and phthalate esters at 2ⁿ × 3 periods, where n is the sampled batch number. The data were described and modelled with embedded Bayesian and Machine Learning algorithms in JASP0.16.0.0 and Argo-4.1.3. The results reported lower than regulated levels of electrical conductivity (163.66 μS/cm), alkalinity (39.67 mg/L), and residual chlorine (<0.01 mg/L) while the pH was generally within specification (6.5–7.7). All samples showed progressive biological contamination following the third week (sachet samples) and the sixth week (bottled water) of incubation. Initial samples, including raw water, processed bulk water and packaged water did not present detectable microbial growth. The total microbial load in sachet samples grew at 0.936 cfu/week and 1.006 cfu/week for the bottled samples although the results did not exceed 1000 cfu/L (0-976 cfu/100 ml). Modelled mean probability of infection was 1.196 × 10⁻⁴ in 67% of the samples. Raw and processed water samples did not show detectable levels of phthalate contaminants. The mean hazard index calculated on the individual hazard quotients of phthalates was 7.414 × 10⁻³ ± 8.201 × 10⁻⁴, suggesting lower acute risk potential. Mean integrated lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was determined to be 1.529 × 10⁻³ ± 1.714 × 10⁻⁴ within a range of 2.86 × 10⁻⁴ and 7.18 × 10⁻³. Mean child ILCR was about 70% of adult ILCR and increased from 4.16 × 10⁻⁴ to 2.41 × 10⁻³ for sachet and 4.93 × 10⁻⁴ to 7.18 × 10⁻³ for bottled water. For adult ILCR, sachet water presented 2.86 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.65 × 10⁻³, and 3.38 × 10⁻⁴ to 4.93 × 10⁻³ for bottled water. This study confirmed the presence of phthalates and pathogenic bacteria in the samples, at-risk levels that require mitigation.
Magnetic nanoparticles of Fe3O4 coated with polyaniline have been synthesised through chemical co-precipitation, and successfully characterised using different techniques such as FT-IR and X-ray diffraction. Such nanocomposite was applied as sorbent for a new magnetic micro-dispersive solid phase extraction procedure for the extraction of seven plastic migrants in jelly samples, followed by determination using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Optimisation of several parameters that could affect extraction efficiency has been performed both by a conventional one-step-at-a-time approach and the use of a Box Behnken experimental design. The developed method was successfully validated obtaining recovery values in the range 70-124% with relative standard deviations lower than 20%, limits of quantification in the range 0.0106-0.0171 µg/L, and R² values higher than 0.9915 for all the analytes. The greenness of the procedure was also evaluated using the AGREE calculator. Finally, the developed method was applied for the determination of plastic migrants in a group of 11 commercial jellies acquired in local stores. Results showed the presence of BBP in almost all the samples and DCHP in three of them, as well as DEHA, which was detected in another three commercial samples and quantified at a concentration of 2.17 µg/L in another one.
For both quantitative and qualitative applications, mass spectrometry (MS) has evolved to become an effective analytical instrument. The first mass spectrometer was designed in 1912 and has since progressed from studying only small inorganic molecules to biological macromolecules, with virtually no mass constraints. Research in drug discovery, in general, depends considerably on MS technologies. The capability of mass spectrometry to analyze proteins and other biological materials is due to the advancements made by establishing soft ionization techniques that can turn biological molecules into ions, such as electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI). Consequently, MALDI has the benefit of generating peptide and protein single-charge ions, reducing spectral complexity. Regardless of the cause of ionization, a mass spectrometer's sensitivity is connected to the mass analyzer where ion separation occurs. Both quadrupole and flight time (ToF) mass probes are widely used and can be designed as QToF tandem mass spectrometric instruments combined. As the title suggests, tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is the outcome of conducting two or more concurrent ion separations, typically integrating two or more mass analyzers. The development of high-resolution mass spectrometers resulted in the combination of a quadrupole and flight time Historically, this paper introduces mass spectrometry and describes the benefits and drawbacks of ESI and MALDI along with quadruple and ToF mass analyzers, including scientific mass analyzers. This paper is of an introductory nature and is intended for graduate and senior biochemistry students as well as chemists and biochemists who are not acquainted with mass spectrometry and want to learn the basics; it is not intended for professionals in mass spectrometry.
Keywords: Mass spectroscopy, electrospray ionization, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization, quadrupole, tandem mass spectrometry, proteomics, foodomics.
Foodomics has recently emerged as a new discipline that studies food and nutritional products with modern analytical tools, including mass spectrometry (MS), to ensure food quality and safety. Foodomics is currently being used as a powerful tool in food authentication. It has been used to authenticate food items such as cereals, wine, honey, chocolates, and other commercial products. MS is the most suitable technique for authentication of food products because of its precise, accurate, and reproducible analytical power. MS-based techniques are nowadays extensively used for authentication of food and nutritional products. MS-based methods can detect various food components, including nutrients, additives, and toxic contaminants. Due to advancement in separation techniques, ionization and detectors in MS such as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, gas chromatography mass spectrometry, electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry, desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, direct analysis in real-time mass spectrometry, extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and tandem-MS approaches have emerged as the method of choice for authentication of food products. This chapter discusses separation techniques and application of MS to analyze food products.
Phthalate easters are known endocrine disrupter and possible carcinogen. Studies have carried out in different countries to investigate possible migration of phthalate easters into packaged drinking water and beverages and resultant toxic effect on human health. This study aimed to determine the level of phthalate migration into bottled drinking water, manufactured commercially in India and to identify a possible relationship between the amount and type of phthalate migration. Eight phthalate easters were investigated. The analysis included 375 samples (75 sets of 5 bottles each from 5 manufacturers, having same batch numbers and manufacturing dates) of drinking water packed in 1-Litre bottles made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The samples were incubated and analyzed at the Centre of Mass Spectrometry (Analytics Department) of the CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad on Agilent 6420 QQQ MS/MS system coupled to Agilent 1290 UPLC pump and 0 Thermo TSQ Altis coupled to Thermo RSLC 3000 system at room temperature (27 C) and two temperatures of extreme conditions representing 0 0 refrigeration temperature (4 C) and summer outdoor temperature (45 C) at the interval of 0, 30, 60, 120 and 180 days, 180 days (6 months) being the projected self-life for bottled drinking water in India. Of eight investigated phthalate esters, Di-butyl Phthalate (DBP) was detected in 94% and Di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP) in 80% of samples analyzed. The highest migration of 0.0027 mg/l was recorded from PET bottles to drinking water for DBP, followed by 0.0024 mg/l for DiBP. DEHP (Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) was detected in 40% of sample sets with maximum concentration of 0.0006 mg/l. DPP (Di-pentyl phthalate) was detected in the least number of samples (21.3%) and its maximum concentration observed was 0.0004 mg/l. Migration of all eight investigated esters were detected in drinking water samples stored for 180 days at the three temperature conditions. In other temperature and storage conditions, frequency of detection varied between 0-66%. This study did not account for the factors like source of raw water, manufacturing process, PET types (virgin or recycled), and composition, etcetera. This is probably reected in widely varied standard deviation. The phthalate levels measured in these samples pose no risk for human health considering reference dose determined by USEPA, EU and FSSAI, for daily oral exposure to the human population. Nevertheless, the accumulation of small individual quantity taken with time may increase the lifelong phthalate exposure and eventually threaten the exposed person's life. Further studies with larger sample size and variants may be desirable. Also, drinking water quality standards needs to be revisited to include all signicant phthalate esters.
This study investigated the health risk assessment of total chromium (CrT) in qanats of South Khorasan, Eastern Iran. For this, concentration of CrT in a total of 83 qanats were measured in summer 2020. Samples were initially tested in the field for temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS). In the lab, collected samples were filtered and fixed with nitric acid (HNO3) for the detection of CrT using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Hazard quotient (HQ) and carcinogenic risk assessments were considered to evaluate the risks of CrT to inhabitants. Results showed that concentration of CrT ranged from 1.79 to 1017.05 μg L⁻¹, and a total of 25 stations illuminated CrT concentrations above the WHO standards (50 μg L⁻¹). HQ demonstrated HQ < 1 for 90.37% of studied samples with negligible hazard, whereas 9.63% of stations illuminated HQ ≥ 1 meaning the presence of non-carcinogenic risk for water consumers. Carcinogenic risk (CR) exhibited CR > 1.00E-04 in 81.93% of qanats while 18.07% of stations had 1.00E-06 < CR < 1.00E-04 meaning no acceptable and acceptable CR for the studied qanats, respectively. Zoning map displayed that qanats in the south of South Khorasan possessed the highest HQ, but north regions showed the lowest ones. Together, CrT in qanats of South Khorasan is above the WHO limit, which results in a high risk of carcinogenicity for residents, and in turn, more efforts should be made to provide hygienic groundwater for consumers.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a usually used material in the industry of bottled water. Now days the consumption of bottled water has been steadily growing in the world from the last 30 years. A total of 24 PET bottled water, 4 of each brand with 2 different batch numbers were collected randomly from the local market of Noida city, India. Numerous water quality parameters such as physico-chemical, phthalate, trace metals, and total coliform were analyzed in these samples. These parameters may affect the safety of PET bottled water. The purpose of this study was to estimate the quality of PET bottled water of different brands available in Noida. The samples were analyzed as per the Indian Standard (IS)-14543 (2016). The results were compared with the standard of drinking water set by WHO, IS, USEPA and met the standard value of these agencies. pH was found in the range of 6.72–6.97 while turbidity and TSS were found < 1.0. Total hardness was found in the range of 5.0–131.0 mg/l and total alkalinity was found in the range of 3.33–115.0 mg/l. Sodium was present from 2.10–39.10 mg/l while potassium was present from 0.20–7.20 mg/l. The presence of fluoride was in the range of 0.18–0.67 mg/l. Heavy metals such as Pb, Hg, Cd and As were found in the range of 0.18–4.52 µg/l. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was found below the detection limit while no growth was observed for total coliform in these samples. All six brands of PET bottled water were found to be safe and healthy for drinking.
The global water bottling market grows annually. Today, to ensure consumer safety, it is important to verify the possible migration of compounds from bottles into the water contained in them. Potential health risks due to the prevalence of bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates (PAEs) exposure through water bottle consumption have become an important issue. BPA, benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) can cause adverse effects on human health. Papers of literature published in English, with BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP detections during 2017, by 2019 by liquid chromatography and gas chromatography analysis methods were searched. The highest concentrations of BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP in all the bottled waters studied were found to be 5.7, 12.11, 82.8 and 64.0 μg/L, respectively. DBP was the most compound detected and the main contributor by bottled water consumption with 23.7% of the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI). Based on the risk assessment, BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP in commercial water bottles do not pose a serious concern for humans. The average estrogen equivalent level revealed that BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP in bottled waters may induce adverse estrogenic effects on human health. HIGHLIGHTS
DBP was the most compound detected.;
An estimated intake of BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP was far below their TDIs.;
The risk assessment of BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP does not raise serious concern for humans.;
The average estrogen equivalent level for BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP may induce adverse estrogenic effects on human health.;
BPA, BBP, DBP and DEHP in bottled water need more accurate data to avoid their effects on human health.;
Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) have attracted increasing attention because of their toxicity and ubiquity. In the present study, the level of five common PAEs in plastic bottled milk were determined using a novel adsorbent (a combination of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles), and the PAEs’ associated potential risks to human were also assessed. The investigated compounds were dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP). The good repeatability, high sensitivity, and short time extraction made this method an effective one for analysis of PAEs in milk. Twenty-four plastic bottled milk samples from 11 commercial brands were chosen according to their fat content and analyzed for target PAEs under different storage times (1 and four days upon purchased). The results revealed that the mean levels of PAEs were as follows: DnOP > DEHP > DBP > DEP > DMP. The results of correlation analysis and principal component (PC) biplot analysis revealed that DnOP and DEHP in the analyzed milk samples had common sources and/or similar chemical behavior. Moreover, fat content had a significant effect on the PAEs level of milk. While no significant correlation was obtained between the level of PAEs and the storage time. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of PAEs from bottled milk consumption were below the tolerable daily intake (TDI) values. Hence, daily consumption of bottled milk should not pose non-carcinogenic adverse health effects to humans. Moreover, the estradiol risk of bottled milk was low.
Cadmium (Cd) is a widely distributed toxic metal, which is mainly exposed to humans through diet. The impact of dietary guidelines on the Chinese diet structure has indirectly led to changes in dietary Cd exposure. The Chinese Dietary Guidelines were issued in 1997 and revised in 2007. Based on the time between issuance and revision, this study examined the Cd contamination levels in Shanghai foods from 1988 to 2018 and evaluated cancer risk and disease burden of dietary Cd exposure accordingly. Over the time periods of 1988–1997, 1998–2007, and 2008–2018, it was found that Cd dietary exposure of Shanghai residents showed a trend of increasing and then decreasing (39.7, 44.7, and 36.4 μg/day, respectively). In contrast to cereals, the contribution rates of meat and vegetables to Cd exposure have gradually increased over time, and aquatic foods have become the main source of Cd exposure (40.6%). Although the non-cancer risk hazard quotients of dietary Cd exposure and the excess lifetime cancer risks (ELCR) are relatively low (HQ < 1, ELCR < 10⁻⁴), 26.6% of Shanghai residents had a potential risk of kidney injury calculated by toxicokinetic model (TK model), and the disability adjusted life years (DALYs) have been rising (from 41.6 to 58.2). Results indicated that in the past three decades, changes of Cd contamination in food due to both limit standards and changes in dietary structure have influenced cancer risk and disease burden from Cd exposure in Shanghai residents. In summary, our study suggested that while regulating the contamination in foods, attention should also be paid to the potential impacts of dietary structure and guidelines on the exposure of pollutants.
The present study aimed to investigate the concentration of PAEs, their migration from the walls of PET containers into highly acidic juices (such as lemon juice, vinegar, and verjuice) and the risk assessment based on the estrogenic potential of these widespread pollutants. We analyzed and quantified six priority compounds of PAEs, including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n‑butyl phthalate (DnBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP) in 40 samples of aforementioned juices packed in PET containers. The results showed that DEHP and DnBP were the major compounds with the median value of 8.1 and 6.8 µg/L, 10.5 and 7.2 µg/L, and 9.8 and 6.7 µg/ L, in lemon juice, vinegar, and verjuice, respectively. The results also showed that ∑PAEs concentration was higher in juices packed in PET containers than in glass containers (two sample t-test, pvalue < 0.05). A significant and positive correlation was observed between the concentration of PAEs and the storage temperature, storage time, and sun exposure of containers of juices (Pearson correlation test, pvalue <0.05). However, there was a significant and negative correlation between pH and the concentration of these pollutants (pvalue < 0.05). The human daily intake-based risk assessment showed that the safety factor (SF) calculated for all PAEs was much higher than 1. This indicates that the consumption of these acidic juices would not put consumers at the risk of these compounds. However, the risk assessment based on the estrogenic potential of PAEs compounds showed that the average of estrogen equivalence (EEQ) calculated for the ∑PAEs was higher than 1 ng E2/L and could have long-term adverse effects on human health.
The presence of diethyl-phthalate (DEP), dibutyl-phthalate (DBP), butylbenzyl-phthalate (BBP), diethylhexyl-phthalate (DEHP) and diisononyl-phthalate (DINP) was determined in 295 tequila samples. They were grouped by age of maturation (white, aged, extra aged or ultra aged) and year of production (between 2013 and 2018). Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry was used for identification and quantification. The results showed that 65 samples (22% of the total) were phthalate free. DEP (0.13-0.27 mg/kg), BBP (0.05–2.91 mg/kg) and DINP (1.64–3.43 mg/kg) were detected in 11 (3.73%), 37 (12.54%) and 5 (1.69%) samples, respectively. But, these concentrations did not exceed the maximum permitted limits (MPL) of phthalates for alcoholic beverages. DBP (0.01–2.20 mg/kg) and DEHP (0.03–4.64 mg/kg) were detected in 96 (32.54%) and 224 (75.93%) samples, from them only 10 (3.39%) and 15 (5.08%) samples, respectively, exceeded the MPL for alcoholic beverages and they were few tequilas produced in the year 2014 or before. DEHP was the most frequent phthalate found in tequila and observed DEHP concentrations were 2-times higher in ultra aged tequilas compared to those in white tequilas. We concluded that all tequilas produced in 2015 and after, satisfied the international standards for these compounds.
Background and purpose: Consumption of bottled water is increasing in the world and there
are many concerns about the migration of phthalate esters into bottled water. These compounds are risky
for consumers. This study investigated the concentration of phthalate esters in bottled water in
polyethylene terephthalate containers in different storage conditions.
Materials and methods: Bottled water samples were stored in different conditions and then the
phthalate esters were analyzed by gas extraction liquid-liquid-aqueous extraction (ALLME) method and
gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Data analysis was done in SPSS V24.
Results: Findings showed that the average concentrations of 5 phthalate esters (DEHP, DBP,
DIBP, DEP, and DMP) in different conditions increased by an average of 392.84% compared to the initial
levels in control samples. Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) concentrations in bottles of drinking water
incubated at 42°c for 15 days and 25°c for 75 days were 10.33 and 9.62 ppb, respectively, which were
higher than the limits.
Conclusion: Current research showed increased concentration of phthalate esters in water
samples in different storage conditions. High temperatures and prolonged storage time were found to
influence the migration of phthalate esters. Therefore, PET packaging is not suggested for drinking water
to be kept in higher temperatures and longer storage times.
Keywords: phthalate esters, polyethylene, bottled water, storage conditions
A method was developed for the extraction of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) from bottled water. Surface-functionalized magnetic
particles (MPs) were used as adsorbent of magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE). The MPs were prepared by using both polydimethylsiloxane
and multiwalled carbon nanotubes. By coupling the developed MSPE with GC–MS instrument, a reliable, sensitive and cost-effective
method for the simultaneous determination of six main PAEs including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl
phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate, di-n-octyl phthalate and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was developed. Under optimized conditions, the LODs and limits of
quantification were in the range of 0.01–0.025 and 0.025–0.05 µg/L, respectively. The calibration curves were linear (r2 ≥ 0.992) over the concentration ranges from 0.05 to 20 µg/L. Based on the intra- and interday precision values with overall RSD
≤ 12.40%, the method reproducibility was adequate. The recovery values of the six PAEs ranged from 91.5 to 97.8% with the
RSDs <10.64%. Finally, the developed method was successfully applied to determine PAEs in bottled water samples. DMP, DEP,
DBP and DEHP were detected in most of the samples. Taken together, the developed MSPE–GC–MS method provides a new option for
the determination of PAEs in aqueous samples.
Phthalates are associated with a variety of health outcomes, but sources that may be targeted for exposure reduction messaging remain elusive. Diet is considered a significant exposure pathway for these compounds. Therefore, we sought to identify primary foods associated with increased exposure through a review of the food monitoring survey and epidemiological data. A search in PubMed and Google Scholar for keywords "phthalates" and "diet" "food" "food stuffs" "dietary intake" "food intake" and "food concentration" resulted in 17 studies measuring phthalate concentrations in United States (US) and international foods, three epidemiological association studies and three interventions. We report on food groups with high (>=300 mug/kg) and low (<50 mug/kg) concentrations and compare these to foods associated with phthalate body burden. Based on these data, we estimated daily intakes of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) of US women of reproductive age, adolescents and infants for typical consumption patterns as well as healthy and poor diets. We consistently observed high DEHP concentrations in poultry, cooking oils and cream-based dairy products (>=300 mug/kg) across food monitoring studies. Diethyl phthalate (DEP) levels were found at low concentrations across all food groups. In line with these data, epidemiological studies showed positive associations between consumption of meats, discretionary fat and dairy products and DEHP. In contrast to food monitoring data, DEP was found to be associated with intake of vegetables in two studies. DEHP exposure estimates based on typical diets were 5.7, 8.1, and 42.1 mug/kg-day for women of reproductive age, adolescents and infants, respectively, with dairy as the largest contributor to exposure. Diets high in meat and dairy consumption resulted in two-fold increases in exposure. Estimates for infants based on a typical diet exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency's reference dose of 20 mug/kg-day while diets high in dairy and meat consumed by adolescents also exceeded this threshold. The review of the literature demonstrated that DEHP in some meats, fats and dairy products is consistently found in high concentrations and can contribute to exposure. Guidance on future research in this area is provided that may help to identify methods to reduce dietary phthalate exposures.
Background: Phthalates have been found in many personal care and industrial products, but have not previously been reported in food purchased in the United States. Phthalates are ubiquitous synthetic compounds and therefore difficult to measure in foods containing trace levels. Phthalates have been associated with endocrine disruption and developmental alteration.
Objectives: Our goals were to report concentrations of phthalates in U.S. food for the first time, specifically, nine phthalates in 72 individual food samples purchased in Albany, New York, and to compare these findings with other countries and estimate dietary phthalate intake.
Methods: A convenience sample of commonly consumed foods was purchased from New York supermarkets. Methods were developed to analyze these foods using gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy. Dietary intakes of phthalates were estimated as the product of the food consumption rate and concentration of phthalates in that food.
Results: The range of detection frequency of individual phthalates varied from 6% for dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) to 74% for di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). DEHP concentrations were the highest of the phthalates measured in all foods except beef [where di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP) was the highest phthalate found], with pork having the highest estimated mean concentration of any food group (mean 300 ng/g; maximum, 1,158 ng/g). Estimated mean adult intakes ranged from 0.004 μg/kg/day for dimethyl phthalate (DMP) to 0.673 μg/kg/day for DEHP.
Conclusions: Phthalates are widely present in U.S. foods. While estimated intakes for individual phthalates in this study were more than an order of magnitude lower than U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reference doses, cumulative exposure to phthalates is of concern and a more representative survey of U.S. foods is indicated.
An analytical method was developed to analyze 5 phthalate esters (dimethylphthalate, diethylphthalate, di-n-butylphthalate,
butylbenzylphthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate), nonylphenol, bisphenol A and BADGE (Bisphenol A diglycyleter) in distribution
and bottled water. They are all industrial chemicals used in the manufacture of epoxy resins or paints, polycarbonate and
polyethylene plastics (global production of phthalates over 4 Mton/year) or surfactants and have been classified as persistent,
with high migration potential from plastic containers and with endocrine disrupting properties. The present paper reports
a specific extraction protocol using solid phase extraction with Oasis 60 mg or C18 cartridges, followed by gas chromalography coupled to mass spectrometric detection using an appropriate surrogate and internal
standard for process control. Quality parameters are reported, making special emphasis to limits of detection, reproducibility
and blank analysis, which permitted to detect ng L−1 concentrations. In an application step, the method was used to determine target compounds in 7 distribution water and 9 mineral
water bottled in polyethylene, polyethyleneter phthalate and glass containers which were analysed upon purchase and after
10 week storage at temperatures up to 30 °C. Distribution water coming from different aquifers which at some point are in
contact with plastic or painted concrete reservoirs and pipes, contained dimethylphthalate, diethylphtalate, nonylphenol,
buthylbenzylphthtalate and DEHP at concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.331 μgL−1, depending on the sampled crea whereas bottled water showed levels up to 1.7 μg L−1 of some of the studied compounds, attributed to 10 week storage conditions.
This study assessed the health risks for children exposed to phthalate through several pathways including house dust, surface wipes and hand wipes in child facilities and indoor playgrounds.
The indoor samples were collected from various children's facilities (40 playrooms, 42 daycare centers, 44 kindergartens, and 42 indoor-playgrounds) in both summer (Jul-Sep, 2007) and winter (Jan-Feb, 2008). Hazard index (HI) was estimated for the non-carcinogens and the examined phthalates were diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and butylbenzyl phthalate (BBzP). The present study examined these four kinds of samples, i.e., indoor dust, surface wipes of product and hand wipes.
Among the phthalates, the detection rates of DEHP were 98% in dust samples, 100% in surface wipe samples, and 95% in hand wipe samples. In this study, phthalate levels obtained from floor dust, product surface and children's hand wipe samples were similar to or slightly less compared to previous studies. The 50(th) and 95(th) percentile value of child-sensitive materials did not exceed 1 (HI) for all subjects in all facilities.
For DEHP, DnBP and BBzP their detection rates through multi-routes were high and their risk based on health risk assessment was also observed to be acceptable. This study suggested that ingestion and dermal exposure could be the most important pathway of phthalates besides digestion through food.
Several phthalate esters have been linked to the Phthalate Syndrome, affecting male reproductive development when administered to pregnant rats during in utero sexual differentiation. The goal of the current study was to enhance understanding of this class of compounds in the Sprague Dawley (SD) fetal rat following exposure on gestational days (GDs) 14-18 by determining the relative potency factors for several phthalates on fetal testes endpoints, the effects of a nine phthalate mixture on fetal testosterone (T) production, and differences in SD and Wistar (W) strain responses of fetal T production and testicular gene expression to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). We determined that diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) and diisoheptyl phthalate (DIHP) reduced fetal testicular T production with similar potency to DEHP, whereas diisononyl phthalate (DINP) was 2.3-fold less potent. DINP was also less potent at reducing StAR and Cyp11a gene expression levels, whereas DIBP was slightly more potent than DEHP. We observed that administration of dilutions of a mixture of nine phthalates (DEHP, DIHP, DIBP, dibutyl-, benzyl butyl-, dicyclohexyl-, diheptyl-, dihexyl-, and dipentyl phthalate) reduced fetal T production in a dose-dependent manner best predicted by dose addition. Finally, we found that the differential effects of in utero DEHP treatment on epididymal and gubernacular differentiation in male SD and W rats (0, 100, 300, 500, 625, 750, or 875 mg DEHP/kg/day) are likely due to tissue-specific strain differences in the androgen and insl3 signaling pathways rather than differential effects of DEHP on fetal testis T and insl3 production.
Concern exists over whether additives in plastics to which most people are exposed, such as phthalates, bisphenol A or polybrominated diphenyl ethers, may cause harm to human health by altering endocrine function or through other biological mechanisms. Human data are limited compared with the large body of experimental evidence documenting reproductive or developmental toxicity in relation to these compounds. Here, we discuss the current state of human evidence, as well as future research trends and needs.
Because exposure assessment is often a major weakness in epidemiological studies, and in utero exposures to reproductive or developmental toxicants are important, we also provide original data on maternal exposure to phthalates during and after pregnancy ( n = 242). Phthalate metabolite concentrations in urine showed weak correlations between pre- and post-natal samples, though the strength of the relationship increased when duration between the two samples decreased. Phthalate metabolite levels also tended to be higher in post-natal samples.
In conclusion, there is a great need for more human studies of adverse health effects associated with plastic additives. Recent advances in the measurement of exposure biomarkers hold much promise in improving the epidemiological data, but their utility must be understood to facilitate appropriate study design.
In the last decades, the availability of sophisticated analytical chemistry techniques has facilitated measuring trace levels of multiple environmental chemicals in human biological matrices (i.e. biomonitoring) with a high degree of accuracy and precision. As biomonitoring data have become readily available, interest in their interpretation has increased. We present an overview on the use of biomonitoring in exposure and risk assessment using phthalates and bisphenol A as examples of chemicals used in the manufacture of plastic goods. We present and review the most relevant research on biomarkers of exposure for phthalates and bisphenol A, including novel and most comprehensive biomonitoring data from Germany and the United States. We discuss several factors relevant for interpreting and understanding biomonitoring data, including selection of both biomarkers of exposure and human matrices, and toxicokinetic information.
As a result of concerns about the toxicity of phthalates to humans, several expert panels were convened toward the end of the 1990s to evaluate the implications of the scientific evidence for the risks of phthalates to humans of all ages. These panels concluded that the risks were low although they had concerns about specific applications of some phthalates, e.g., in medical devices. These groups identified data gaps and recommended additional studies on exposure and toxicity be conducted. In light of the additional data, reevaluations of the risks of phthalates were conducted. While these assessments were being undertaken, U.S. state governments and European authorities proposed and promulgated regulations to limit the use of certain phthalates, i.e., di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP), di-isodecyl phthalate (DIDP), di-isononyl phthalate (DINP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), especially in consumer products to which children are exposed. Very recently, similar regulations were promulgated in the United States under the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008. This article summarizes recent evaluations of the risks of these phthalates, and addresses the public health implications of the regulations that were enacted. The analysis considers biomonitoring studies and epidemiological research in addition to laboratory animal evidence. Analysis of all of the available data leads to the conclusion that the risks are low, even lower than originally thought, and that there is no convincing evidence of adverse effects on humans. Since the scientific evidence strongly suggests that risks to humans are low, phthalate regulations that have been enacted are unlikely to lead to any marked improvement in public health.
In mammals, exposure to antiandrogenic chemicals during sexual differentiation can produce malformations of the reproductive tract. Perinatal administration of AR antagonists like vinclozolin and procymidone or chemicals like di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) that inhibit fetal testicular testosterone production demasculinize the males such that they display reduced anogenital distance (AGD), retained nipples, cleft phallus with hypospadias, undescended testes, a vaginal pouch, epididymal agenesis, and small to absent sex accessory glands as adults. In addition to DEHP, di-n-butyl (DBP) also has been shown to display antiandrogenic activity and induce malformations in male rats. In the current investigation, we examined several phthalate esters to determine if they altered sexual differentiation in an antiandrogenic manner. We hypothesized that the phthalate esters that altered testis function in the pubertal male rat would also alter testis function in the fetal male and produce malformations of androgen-dependent tissues. In this regard, we expected that benzyl butyl (BBP) and diethylhexyl (DEHP) phthalate would alter sexual differentiation, while dioctyl tere- (DOTP or DEHT), diethyl (DEP), and dimethyl (DMP) phthalate would not. We expected that the phthalate mixture diisononyl phthalate (DINP) would be weakly active due to the presence of some phthalates with a 6-7 ester group. DEHP, BBP, DINP, DEP, DMP, or DOTP were administered orally to the dam at 0.75 g/kg from gestational day (GD) 14 to postnatal day (PND) 3. None of the treatments induced overt maternal toxicity or reduced litter sizes. While only DEHP treatment reduced maternal weight gain during the entire dosing period by about 15 g, both DEHP and DINP reduced pregnancy weight gain to GD 21 by 24 g and 14 g, respectively. DEHP and BBP treatments reduced pup weight at birth (15%). Male (but not female) pups from the DEHP and BBP groups displayed shortened AGDs (about 30%) and reduced testis weights (about 35%). As infants, males in the DEHP, BBP, and DINP groups displayed femalelike areolas/nipples (87, 70, and 22% (p < 0.01), respectively, versus 0% in other groups). All three of the phthalate treatments that induced areolas also induced a significant incidence of reproductive malformations. The percentages of males with malformations were 82% (p < 0.0001) for DEHP, 84% (p < 0.0001) for BBP, and 7.7% (p < 0.04) in the DINP group. In summary, DEHP, BBP, and DINP all altered sexual differentiation, whereas DOTP, DEP, and DMP were ineffective at this dose. Whereas DEHP and BBP were of equivalent potency, DINP was about an order of magnitude less active.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) due to its physicochemical properties, especially regidity and glass-like transparency is widely used as food packaging material. The relevant legislation states that substances may not migrate from food contacting materials in quantities that may cause undesirable changes in organoleptic properties of food coming into contact with such material. The lists of substances authorized for food contact plastic materials and requirements for the final product were established. The requirements concern global migration limits (60 mg/kg or 10 mg/dm2) and specific migration limits (SML) set for substances which, when migrate into food in grater quantities may cause risk for human health. For the products manufactured from PET the specific migration limits were set for terephthalic acid (7.5 mg/kg), for isophthalic acid (5 mg/kg), for isophthalic acid dimethyl ester (0.05 mg/kg) and for ethylene and diethylene glycol (30 mg/kg). PET may undergo thermal degradation resulting in formation of acetaldehyde, which may influence organoleptic characteristics of packaged foods changing taste and smell.
Surveys show that the public suspects that synthetic (manmade) chemicals released into the environment, especially pesticides, have adverse effects on human health and cause disease, including cancer. In reality, few scientifically documented examples support this view, especially for effects on the general population.1 However, the observation that many synthetic chemicals have intrinsic hormonal activity—they are “endocrine disruptors”—has reopened this debate.1 Pressure groups have called for all synthetic environmental chemicals with the potential to cause harm to be phased out or banned, whereas the chemical industry argues that such action must be based on proof of harm. Vociferous cases have been made on both sides, each lacking definitive data. Yet it is clear that environmental and lifestyle factors are key determinants of human disease—accounting for perhaps 75% of most cancers.2 New understanding and emerging results are reshaping our thinking, as is the recognition that establishing cause and effect for environmental chemical exposures is a daunting task.
Though this article is primarily an overview of the current evidence for reproductive effects resulting from exposure to environmental synthetic chemicals, it is relevant to the debate on wider potential health effects of such exposures. The review was compiled after detailed literature searches and cross referencing and scrutiny of relevant websites on environmental chemicals (see educational resources box). After revising the article in light of reviewers' comments, we sought the opinion of an expert toxicologist in industry to ensure balance in the review.
In this hugely contentious area, polarised opinions predominate (because of the lack of definitive data). There are enormous difficulties in establishing whether exposure to individual chemicals or to chemical mixtures causes harm, as adverse effects may not manifest until many years after exposure (for example, in adulthood after fetal exposure). This difficulty must be factored into any discussion of …
The comparison of the various sources of food contamination with organic chemicals suggests that in the public, but also among experts, the perception of risk is often distorted. Firstly, neither pesticides nor environmental pollutants contribute the most; the amount of material migrating from food packaging into food may well be 100 times higher. Secondly, control of these large migrants is often lagging behind the standards set up for other sources, since many of the components (particularly those not being "starting materials") have not been identified and, thus, not toxicologically evaluated. Finally, attitudes towards different types of food contaminants are divergent, also reflected by the legal measures: for most sources of food contamination there are strict rules calling for minimization, whereas the European packaging industry has even requested a further increase in the tolerance to as close as possible to the limit set by the toxicologists. This paper calls for a more realistic perception and more coherent legal measures-and improvements in the control of migration from packaging material.
Exposure to plasticizers di(n-butyl) phthalate (DBP) and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) during sexual differentiation causes male reproductive tract malformations in rats and rabbits. In the fetal male rat, these two phthalate esters decrease testosterone (T) production and insulin-like peptide 3 (insl3) gene expression, a hormone critical for gubernacular ligament development. We hypothesized that coadministered DBP and DEHP would act in a cumulative dose-additive fashion to induce reproductive malformations, inhibit fetal steroid hormone production, and suppress the expression of insl3 and genes responsible for steroid production. Pregnant Sprague Dawley rats were gavaged on gestation days (GD) 14-18 with vehicle control, 500 mg/kg DBP, 500 mg/kg DEHP, or a combination of DBP and DEHP (500 mg/kg each chemical; DBP+DEHP); the dose of each individual phthalate was one-half of the effective dose predicted to cause a 50% incidence of epididymal agenesis. In experiment one, adult male offspring were necropsied, and reproductive malformations and androgen-dependent organ weights were recorded. In experiment two, GD18 testes were incubated for T production and processed for gene expression by quantitative real-time PCR. The DBP+DEHP dose increased the incidence of many reproductive malformations by >or=50%, including epididymal agenesis, and reduced androgen-dependent organ weights in cumulative, dose-additive manner. Fetal T and expression of insl3 and cyp11a were cumulatively decreased by the DBP+DEHP dose. These data indicate that individual phthalates with a similar mechanism of action, but with different active metabolites (monobutyl phthalate versus monoethylhexyl phthalate), can elicit dose-additive effects when administered as a mixture.
The daily intakes (DI) were estimated in a Belgian general population for 5 phthalates, namely diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBzP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), based on the urinary measurements of their corresponding metabolites. DI values ranged between <LOD and 59.65μg/kg bw/day depending on the congener, and were globally higher for children than adults. They were compared to acceptable levels of exposure (tolerable daily intakes) to evaluate the hazard quotients (HQ), which highlight an intake above the dose considered as safe for values greater than 1. If very few of our Belgian participants exceeded this threshold for phthalates considered individually, 6.2% of the adults and 25% of the children showed an excessive hazard index (HI) which took into account the cumulative risk of adverse anti-androgenic effects. These results are of concern since these HI were based on only 3 phthalates (DEHP, DiBP and DnBP), and showed a median of 0.55 and 0.29 for children and adults respectively. The comparison with previously determined dietary intakes demonstrated that for DEHP, food intake was nearly the only route of exposure while other pathways occurred mainly for the other studied phthalates.
Because of wide exposure to phthalates we investigated whether simultaneous exposure to several phthalates reached levels that might cause adverse anti-androgenic effects. 33 healthy young Danish men each delivered three 24-hour urine samples during a three months period. The daily intakes of the sum of di-n-butyl and di-iso-butyl phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, di-iso-nonyl phthalate, and butylbenzyl phthalate were estimated based on urinary excretion of the metabolites. Based on a hazard quotient (HQ) of the individual phthalate (i.e. the ratio between the daily intake and an acceptable level of exposure), a hazard index (HI) for each man was calculated as the sum of HQs for the individual phthalates. All men were exposed to all phthalates during the urine collection periods. Median HIs were all below 1 (i.e. below an acceptable cumulative threshold) ranging from 0.11-0.17 over the three different sample collections. Of the 33 men two men had HIs above 1 in one of their three samples, indicating that occasionally the combined exposure to the investigated phthalates reached a level which may not be considered safe. Besides the phthalates investigated here humans are exposed to numerous other chemicals which also may contribute to a cumulative anti-androgenic exposure.
We have surface-functionalized magnetic particles (MPs) with polydimethylsiloxane and multi-walled carbon nanotubes in a two-step reaction. The MPs were applied to solid-phase extraction of the fluoroquinolones ofloxacin, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin prior to their determination by capillary liquid chromatography. The effects of sample pH, adsorption time, type of eluent, desorption time and desorption temperature were investigated. Under the optimum conditions, the extraction efficiencies are in the range from 81.5 % to 94.1 %, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of <7.6 %. The detection limits vary from 0.24 to 0.48 ng mL−1. The method was applied to the analysis of spiked mineral water and honey. The recoveries for the fluoroquinolones in the real samples range from 84.0 % to 112 %, with RSDs ranging from 2.9 % to 7.8 %.
Figure
A variety of chemicals may enter our food supply, by means of intentional or unintentional addition, at different stages of the food chain. These chemicals include food additives, pesticide residues, environmental contaminants, mycotox-ins, flavoring substances, and micronutrients. Packaging systems and other food-contact materials are also a source of chemicals contaminating food products and beverages. Monitoring exposure to these chemicals has become an integral part of ensuring the safety of the food supply. Within the context of the risk analysis approach and more specifically as an integral part of risk assessment procedures, the exercise known as exposure assessment is crucial in providing data to allow sound judgments concerning risks to human health. The exercise of obtaining this data is part of the process of revealing sources of contamination and assessing the effectiveness of strategies for minimizing the risk from chemical contamination in the food supply (Lambe, 2002) .
The impact of temperature and storage time on military packaged water (MPW) quality was examined at four temperatures (23.0°C to 60.0°C) for 120days. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles were filled in California and Afghanistan with unbuffered water treated by reverse osmosis. The US military's water pH long-term potability standard was exceeded, and US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) drinking water pH and odor intensity limits were also exceeded. During a 70day exposure period, Port Hueneme MPW total organic carbon and total trihalomethane levels increased from <0.25mg/L to 2.0±0.0mg/L and <0.05μg/L to 51.5±2.1μg/L, respectively. PET released organic contaminants into MPW and residual disinfectant generated trihalomethane contaminants. After 14days at 37.7°C and 60.0°C, Afghanistan MPW threshold odor number values were 8.0 and 8.6, respectively. Total organic carbon concentration only increased with exposure duration at 60.0°C. Acetaldehyde and formaldehyde contaminants were not detected likely due to the high method detection limits applied in this study. Phthalate contaminants detected and their maximum levels were butylbenzylphthalate (BBP) 0.43μg/L, di-n-butylphthalate (DnBP) 0.38μg/L, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) 0.6μg/L, and diethylphthalate (DEP) 0.32μg/L. Antimony was only detected in 60.0°C Afghanistan MPW on Day 28 and beyond, and its maximum concentration was 3.6±0.3μg/L. No antimony was found in bottles exposed to lesser temperatures. Environmental health, PET synthesis and bottle manufacturers, and bottle users can integrate results of this work to improve health protective decisions and doctrine.
In this study, magnetic carbon nanotubes (MCNTs) were prepared by assembling magnetic nanoparticles onto the acid-treated multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Due to their excellent adsorption capability, the MCNTs were used as adsorbent of magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) to extract phthalate monoesters (PMEs), the main biomarkers of phthalate exposure, from human urine. By coupling MSPE with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), a reliable, sensitive and cost-effective method for the simultaneous determination of five main PMEs including monomethyl phthalate (MMP), monoethyl phthalate (MEP), mono n-butyl phthalate (MBP), mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) was developed. The factors that could influence the extraction, including the amount of magnetic nanoparticles, pH of sample solution, extraction and desorption time, the amount of salt addition, the type and volume of desorption solvent were investigated in detail. Under optimized conditions, the LODs and LOQs achieved were in the range of 0.025-0.050 and 0.125-0.250ngmL(-1) respectively. And calibration curves were linear (r(2)≥0.992) over the concentration ranges from 0.250 to 250ngmL(-1). In addition, a satisfying reproducibility was achieved by evaluating the intra- and inter-day precisions with relative standard deviations (RSDs) less than 11.2% and 11.4%, respectively. The recoveries of the five PMEs ranged from 92.6% to 98.8% with the RSDs less than 10.7%. Finally, the established MSPE-GC-MS method was successfully applied to determine PMEs in human urine samples. MMP, MEP, MBP and MEHP were detected in most of the samples with the median concentration of 8.46, 9.26, 13.60, and 5.95ngmL(-1) respectively. MBzP was detected in 58.3% of the samples with the median concentration of 3.05ngmL(-1). Taken together, the MSPE-GC-MS method developed in current study provides a new option for the determination of PMEs in human urine.
This volume evaluates possible carcinogenic hazards from exposures to static and extremely low frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields. It is the first of two "IARC Monographs" volumes on various kinds of non-ionizing radiation.
A test protocol has been developed that contains a suite of complementary analytical methods to identify and estimate the concentrations of potential chemical migrants in polymeric coatings applied to metal substrates. The capabilities of these techniques (FT-IR, overall migration, headspace GC-MS, GC-MS, and LC-TOF-MS) have been tested for a variety of polymeric coatings, and the results for one particular coating, an epoxy phenolic, are described as an example. The example provided shows both the power and the limitations of current analytical techniques in the evaluation of the total migrate from food contact materials.
Human exposure to phthalate esters for five different age classes is evaluated for the following routes of exposure: inhalation of air (indoors and outdoors), ingestion of drinking water,
incidental ingestion of soil, ingestion of dust (indoors), and ingestion of food. Exposure is
estimated for: dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP).
For the five phthalate esters evaluated, the median estimated daily intake is highest for
toddlers and lowest for infants. For all five phthalates evaluated (except BBP exposure for formula-fed infants), food represents the most important source of exposure. The food categories contributing most to exposure depend upon the phthalate ester and the age group evaluated. Ingestion of dust and inhalation of indoor air represent the most important non-food sources of exposure to phthalate esters. Detection limits have a large influence on the estimated intakes.
A comparison of the results of the present study with studies that back-calculate phthalate ester intake from urinary metabolite data suggests that exposure in the present study may be overestimated for DEHP, BBP, and DBP due to changes in food processing over time (many of the measured concentrations of phthalates in food are not recent), loss of phthalates due to cooking has not been accounted for in the present study, and some measured concentrations in food may be elevated due to background contamination. Conversely, exposure to DEP is underestimated in the present study because direct exposure to personal care products is not included. The overestimate of exposure to BBP and DBP from food, referred to above, may be partially cancelled by the lack of inclusion of personal care products.
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a simple, effective and inexpensive water treatment procedure suitable for application in developing countries. Microbially contaminated water is filled into transparent polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottles and exposed to full sunlight for at least 6 h. Solar radiation and elevated temperature destroy pathogenic germs efficiently. Recently, concerns have been raised insinuating a health risk by chemicals released from the bottle material polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Whereas the safety of PET for food packaging has been assessed in detail, similar investigations for PET bottles used under conditions of the SODIS treatment were lacking until now. In the present study, the transfer of organic substances from PET to water was investigated under SODIS conditions using used colourless transparent beverage bottles of different origin. The bottles were exposed to sunlight for 17 h at a geographical latitude of 47° N. In a general screening of SODIS treated water, only food flavour constituents of previous bottle contents could be identified above a detection limit of 1 μg/L. Quantitative determination of plasticisers di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) and di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) revealed maximum concentrations of 0.046 and 0.71 μg/L, respectively, being in the same range as levels of these plasticisers reported in studies on commercial bottled water. Generally, only minor differences in plasticiser concentrations could be observed in different experimental setups. The most decisive factor was the country of origin of bottles, while the impact of storage conditions (sunlight exposure and temperature) was less distinct. Toxicological risk assessment of maximum concentrations revealed a minimum safety factor of 8.5 and a negligible carcinogenic risk of 2.8 × 10−7 for the more critical DEHP. This data demonstrate that the SODIS procedure is safe with respect to human exposure to DEHA and DEHP.