WOMEN-PARTICIPATION-IN-AGRICULTURE-IN-TANZANIA FV

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1.
PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE IN TANZANIA:
CHALLENGES AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Rural women play a significant role in domestic and socio-economic
life of the society such that national development is not possible
without developing this important and substantial segment of our
society. This paper examined the participation of women in
agriculture activities. Data were collected from various publication
and journal, papers and articles related to the topic of interest.
According to various studies it was discovered that the socio-
economic characteristics of the women farmers significantly affect
participation of women in agriculture. However, other factors
militating against women in their participation in agricultural
production are many, some of which are socio-cultural and
economic in nature. The task of surmounting such obstacles can be
very daunting, even though women have largely succeeded in
overcoming some of them.
CLKnet Policy Brief No 8: : 2013 www.clknet.or.tz
By Mmasa Joel, J
POLICY BRIEF No: 8
“…After decades in which agriculture and nutrition didn't
always get the attention ... to the lack of credit, especially for
small farmers, most of whom are women. ... and play a role --
because government cannot and should not do this alone…”
President Jakaya Kikwete on the African Development Bank
Group Opening Statement at the 47th Annual General
Assembly, 31st May 2012 – Arusha – Tanzania.

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Clknet Policy Brief No.8: Participation of Women in Agriculture: Challenges and Policy Implications 1
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Rural women play a significant role in domestic and socio-economic life of the society
such that national development is not possible without developing this important and
substantial segment of our society. This paper examined the participation of women in
agriculture activities. Data were collected from various publication and journal, papers
and articles related to the topic of interest. According to various studies it was
discovered that the socio-economic characteristics of the women farmers significantly
affect participation of women in agriculture. However, other factors militating against
women in their participation in agricultural production are many, some of which are
socio-cultural and economic in nature. The task of surmounting such obstacles can be
very daunting, even though women have largely succeeded in overcoming some of
them.
2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Agriculture is a principal source of livelihood for the Tanzanian population (URT, 2003).
Agriculture provides 27.8% of Tanzania‘s GDP (ibid). Women play an essential role in
agricultural production (Leavens and Anderson, 2011).The sector is characterized as
female intensive, meaning that women comprise a majority of the labor force in
agriculture (54%). Moreover, there over 15 million smallholder farmers in the country,
more than half of who are women (Nyomora et al., 2012). Most cultivate one and three
hectares, with limited access to modern machinery, inputs and improved technologies
(ibid). Agriculture also comprises a greater part of women‘s economic activity than
men‘s: 81% of women, compared to 73% of men, are engaged in agricultural activity. In
rural areas, that number rises to 98% for women. Moreover, in Tanzania, the share of
adult population working in agriculture is higher than regional averages, especially for
women: 81% of the female population works in agriculture in Tanzania, compared to 55%
in the rest of sub-Saharan Africa.
Box 1
There should effective programs and policies to empower African women and allocate
more resources towards gender equality and women’s empowerment- Honorable Sophia
M. Simba, Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children (MCDGC) - 7 April,
2011.
Source: mcdgc.go.tz

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Ironically, women are known to be more involved in agricultural activities than men in
Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. Agriculture is an important source of employment
for 84% of economically active women and 80% of economically active men (Blackden
and Rwebangira, 2004).Women constitutes 51% of the economically-active labor force in
Tanzania and only 4% of women are in paid jobs, as compared with 10% of men (ibid).
Data suggest that women comprise 38% of the informal sector, a share that is lower than
their 51% share of the active labor force (Blackden and Rwebangira, 2004). Key among
these policies are those that help increase incomes of the rural poor. Participation of
women in agriculture is inevitable. The role that women play and their position in
meeting the challenges of agricultural production and development are quite dominant
and prominent (Jeckonia et al., 2012). Their relevance and significance, therefore, cannot
be overemphasized (Ibe 1996 and Rahman 2008). Tanzania is among the world’s poorest
countries with a per-capita income of about US$ 280 (NBS, 2011).
Tanzania pursued socialist policies which resulted in extended periods where economic
performance was clearly below Tanzania’s potential (URT, 2005). In the mid-eighties,
Tanzania embarked on economic reforms which were not sustained and after an initial
period of economic growth
in the late eighties, the early
nineties were again
characterized by macro-
economic disequilibria and
poor economic growth.
According to the United
Republic of Tanzania data
(URT) (2003b) showed that
98% of the rural women
defined as economically
active are engaged in
agriculture and produce a
substantial share of the food
crops for both household
consumption and for export.
Moreover, women
constitute 61% of the farmers in the communal areas and comprise at least 70% of the
labour force in this area (ibid). Agriculture provides 70% of employment and 30 % of Sub-
Saharan Africa’s gross domestic product. Cognizant, the sector contributes 27.8% of GDP
in Tanzania (Tanzania Economy Profile), 30% of the GDP in Kenya, 37% in Uganda, 33% in
Rwanda and 43% in Burundi.
According to Tanzania Gender Networking Programme (TGNP) press release on budget
analysis 2010/2011.The Government of Tanzania allocated 7.78% of the budget to
Box 2
“…The impact of higher food prices on women is
particularly profound. Women play key roles in Agricultural
Societies. Sub- Saharan Africa, Women contribute about 80
% of the total food production. Their contribution is about
65 per cent in Asia and 45% in Latin America. In rural
communities, in particular, women play a central role in
ensuring food security; when women have access to income
they tend to spend a high percentage on food for the
family, while men tend to spend more on themselves. When
there is less money for food, women go hungry. The
challenge is on how to enable them use their land more
productively (Mizengo Pinda, 2008)
Source; Eleventh Sokoine Memorial Lecture, Sokoine
University of Agriculture, Morogoro, 17th October 2008.

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Agriculture compared to the 10% target of Maputo accord. The budget suggests that the
needs of organised large scale agriculture producers are prioritized in terms of planned
expenditures as well as numerous tax and tariff exemptions.
Furthermore, women are responsible for as much as 80% of the staple food items and
provide 70-80 % of all agricultural labor and 90 % of all labor involving food production in
Uganda, 75% in Kenya, 90% in Rwanda and 70 -80 % in Burundi. Increasing attention is
also being given to the role of smallholder subsistence agriculture in ensuring the food
security of the continent, as 73% of the rural population consists of smallholder farmers
(IFAD, 1993:6).Hence women empowerment is paramount important this segment want
to enjoy form the sector.
By most accounts, women in Tanzania take charge of weeding, harvesting, processing
and storing food crops; they also contribute significantly to these tasks for cash crops,
though men tend to help more with agricultural tasks for cash crops (National Sample
Census of Agriculture, 1996; Keller (1999) cited in Ellis (2007). Accounts of specific
divisions of labor differ, one source found that tasks in which men tend to contribute
more include site clearing and land preparation and heavy-labor tasks like construction
of fences. The project by FAO in Mogabiri, Mara region found that generally in crop
production, men and women participate fairly equally in land clearance, land
preparation, sowing and planting, while women take most responsibility for weeding,
harvesting, transportation, threshing, processing and storage. National Sample Census
in Agriculture (NSCA) data from 2002-03 found no significant difference between men‘s
and women‘s responsibilities for crop-related activities with data that was not
disaggregated by cash and food crops. The analysis did find that men strongly dominated
animal husbandry and construction. Conflictingly, another analysis of earlier NSCA data
found significant differences between men‘s and women‘s agricultural responsibilities,
and produced
Moreover, this abstract paper is in line with current government efforts to empower
women and enhance their productivity; Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to
reduce hunger and poverty by 2015 and National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of
Poverty (NSGPR) programme in reducing the prevalence of income poverty in Tanzania
of which according to the household budget survey of 2000/01 the proportion of
population below the national basic needs such as food, shelter and water is 35.7 % (URT,
2005). Moreover, this s policy brief is in line with Tanzania Agricultural Food Security
Investment Plan (TAFSIP), Agriculture Sector Development Plan (ASDP) and Agriculture
first “Kilimo Kwanza” (2011) that promotes Agriculture and food security in the country.

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2.1. Definition of Key Terms
 Gender inequality;
Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on
their gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles as well as
biologically through chromosomes, brain structure and hormonal differences
 Gender mainstreaming
It is a strategy for making the concerns and experiences of women as well as of men
an integral part of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies
and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres, so that women and
men benefit equally, and inequality is not perpetuated (ILO, 2012). The ultimate goal
of mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality.
2.2. Methodology
This part aim at explaining the methodology used in conducting the study and
justification for using those methods. It describes the rationale for the selected
techniques and procedures and data collection methods and data analysis and
presentation plan. Secondary data was the main source used to obtain sufficient and
realistic information (Kothari, 2004). This method included review of relevant
literature including journals, papers, thesis and various documentation. Under this
design the data was collected from the following sources; Sokoine National
Agricultural Library (SNAL), Tanzania Bureau of Statistics, websites, journals and
other sources relevant to the study. This approach was very useful hence the
reviewer selected the relevant articles for the study.
3. KEY FINDINGS ON WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN AGRICULTURE
Findings from a study financed by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) on the
role of women in agriculture revealed that women make up more that 50% percent of
agricultural labour force in East Africa (FAO, 2011).
Smallholder farmers characterize Tanzanian agriculture. The average size of land
cultivated varies between less than 1 ha to 3 ha of land. Agriculture accounts for three
Box 3
Rural women are extensively involved in agricultural activities. In Tanzania women make
up 70 percent of agricultural labour force (Courtesy of FAO)

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quarters of merchandise exports and represents a source of livelihood to about 80% of
the population (URT, 2003). Agricultural income is the main source of income for the
poor, especially in rural areas. But households that rely heavily on such income tend to
be extremely poor. The poor are more likely to grow and sell crops than the non-poor,
but the majority of production is not sold but consumed by the households.
In Tanzania women make up 70 percent of agricultural labour force (URT, 2003b). Yet, in
spite of these, widespread assumption that men and not women make the key farm
management decisions has prevailed. Sadly, farmers in the Tanzania are among the
voiceless, especially with respect to influencing agricultural policies. Such policies, which
are aimed at increasing food security and food production, tend to underestimate or
totally ignore women’s role in both production and the general decision-making process
within the household.
Socio-economic characteristics of the farmers, among other factors, affect their decision-
making in agriculture. (Source: IFAD's Governing Council- 14- February 2007)
However, gender inequality which adversely affects their overall performance and
output has persistently manifested in a number of ways: high level of poverty (World
Bank, 2001),vulnerability to external and uncontrollable hazards (IDB, 2000), low
strength or energy level (Kaul, 1996), low educational attainment (Filmer, 1996), poor
anthropometric variables (Kaul, 1996) marginalization by agricultural extension (FAO,
2006), high productive and reproductive work load (Commonwealth, 1992), and
restricted access to productive resources (Saito and Spurling, 1992; Saito et al, 1994;
Quisumbing, 1994; Gray and Kevan, 1996). It is common knowledge that gender
inequality is one of the most pervasive forms of inequality, particularly because it cuts
across other forms of inequality (Franklin, 2007). Different rules, norms and values
govern the gender division of labour and the gender distribution of resources,
responsibilities, agency and power. These are critical elements for understanding the
nature of gender inequality in different societies. Gender segmentation in household
arrangements in sub-Saharan Africa is prevalent in the face of highly complex lineage-
based homesteads. Much of Sub-Saharan African (SSA) is matrilineal, with women’s
access to land being through usufruct rights through their husband’s lineage group.
Since women’s obligation to the family includes provision of food and caring for their
children, they are granted this access to enable them carry out these responsibilities.
In parts of West Africa women generally have usufruct rights to separate holdings
through their husband’s lineage. Women’s low participation in national and regional
policy-making, their invisibility in national statistics and their low participation in
extension services have meant that those issues of most concern to women have been
neglected in the design and implementation of many development policies and
programmes. In some countries such as the Benin Republic, the programmes developed
were far from addressing the main concerns of women as they were neither involved in
policy making decisions nor were they directly consulted to articulate their needs. In

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some countries, despite legislative and tenure changes in favour of smallholders, women
continued to be placed in a disadvantaged position in terms of access to land. Women’s
access to land was rarely discussed and thus their benefits from land reforms were few
(FAO, 1988).
The study by Franklin (2007) in nine countries in Africa, he found that while women are
present in greater degrees in agricultural/rural organizations, they tend to comprise a
low proportion of the membership and are often not represented in the higher levels of
leadership. While women’s membership is most often limited by their lack of formal land
ownership, many rural organizations do not sufficiently concern themselves with the
needs of rural women. Women’s participation as office holders in these organizations
tends to be even more limited. The most striking example is in Zimbabwe, where despite
the fact that women constitute 75% of the members in the Zimbabwe Farmers Unions,
only 5% of the officials are women. However, the largest numbers of women decision
makers are found in the Sudan, where 14% of the office holders in agricultural
cooperatives are graduate women. In Africa, few women hold policy-making positions at
the national level and those that do tend to be concentrated in social ministries such as
education, health and women affairs. Only rarely do women hold such positions in
technical ministries such as agriculture, which has far-reaching implications for the
policies generated there. Overall, women hold an extremely low number of decision-
making positions in the ministries dealing with agriculture and rural development. It is
clear that the sharing of decision-making between genders varies substantially from
country to country and among different cultural and ethnic groups within the same
country. While women’s decision-making power tends to increase in many countries
when the husband is not present, men may remain involved in many of the most
important decisions
According to Afolabi (2008) on role of women in household economy, food production
and food security: focusing on the activities of rural women in Ondo State of Nigeria
made a careful analytical study of women’s agricultural activities and discovered that
they are very strong pillars of the economy in the state. Women in the state are
organized into groups, which are often engaged in more than one economic activity.
(Source: IFAD, 2007)

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Emerging from the study were the following facts: (a) that rural women in the state are
major contributors to food production (b) that these rural women have successfully
managed human and economic resources to achieve optimum results; (c) that they
became employers of labour, thereby reducing unemployment; and (d) that output from
the farms of these rural women contributed to reduction in food shortage crisis. By so
doing, they contribute substantially to national agricultural output, maintenance of the
environment and family food security (Brown et al., 2012).
3.1. Division of labour in Agriculture
Source: National Sample Census of Agriculture, 1996. Keller (1999) cited in Ellis (2007)
Furthermore, overholt et al., (1984) described five patterns of women’s involvement
in crop production as follows:
 Separate crops system, where women undertake the responsibility for producing,
processing and marketing subsistence crops, while women handle cash crops
 Separate fields system, where women and men produce same crops but on
different fields
 Separate tasks systems, where much of the work in the cropping cycle is assigned
by gender, and while men prepare the ground, women do the planting, weeding
and harvesting.
Division of Labor in Agriculture
% of hrs spent on task
Female
Male
General crop production
56
44
Food crop production
75
25
Land tilling
56
44
Sowing
74
26
Weeding
70
30
Harvesting
71
29
Marketing
73
27
Box 4
“…Participation and the involvement of women, youth and
vulnerable groups in Agriculture are of paramount important in
reduction of rural- urban migration…”- Hon. Stephen Masato
Wasira- Former Minister (MAFSC) – Tanzania.

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 Shared task system, where men and women undertake same tasks on same
crops, especially during labour bottlenecks like weeding and harvesting; and
women-managed farms with de facto situations, where men are away for a period
of time and women managed the farm in their absence; and de jure situations,
where farms are controlled by widowed, divorced, abandoned or never-married
w
o
m
e
n
.
4. POLICY IMPLICATIONS
4.1. National Land Policy and Women Access to Land
The overall objective of the national land policy of 1997 was to promote and ensure
land tenure system, encourage the optimal use of land resources, and facilitate broad
based social economic development without upsetting or endangering the ecological
balance of the environment.Moroever all land is in Tanzania is public land vested in
the president as trustee on behalf of all citizens. According to section 4.2.1 of the
National land policy of 1997b women access to land under customary law, women
generally have inferior land rights relative to men and their access to land indirect
and insure. Traditional provisions which used to protect women’s land use rights
have been eroded. In allocating land village councils have been guided by custom and
have continued to discriminate against women by allocating land to heads of
households who are usually men.
Box 7
Agriculture and Livestock Policy (1997) on Women Participation in Agriculture
According to Agricultural and Livestock Policy 1997. It is estimated that the ratio of males to females in the
agricultural sector is 1:1.5. Women in Tanzania produce about 70% of the food crops and also bear substantial
responsibilities for many aspects of export crops and livestock production. However, their access to
productive resources (land, water etc.), supportive services (marketing services, credit and labor saving
facilities etc.) and income arising from agricultural production is severely limited by social and traditional
factors..(URT,1997)
Box 8
Agriculture and Livestock Policy Statement
In order to enhance and guarantee women’s access to land and security of tenure, women will
be entitled to acquire land in their own right not only through purchases but also the land
through allocations. However, inheritance of clan land will continue to be governed by custom
and tradition provided such custom and tradition is not contrary to the constitution and is not
repugnant to principles of natural justice. (URT,1997)

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5. CONCLUSION
The contribution made by rural women to agricultural production and rural development
in Tanzania is grossly underappreciated in spite of the dominant role women play in the
sector. That women compete more favourably with their men folks in terms of their
over-participation in agricultural activities and contribution to household economy and
food security would be an understatement. The survival and sustenance of agriculture
and rural development in Tanzania, as well as in many sub-Saharan Africa countries, rest
squarely on the rural women. They therefore deserve to be given due recognition as far
as participation in agriculture is concerned.
5.1. Recommendations and Implications
Rural women’s productive role in agriculture continues to be underestimated in many
countries including Tanzania as unpaid workers are frequently excluded from
national statistics and/or farm women are considered housewives in agricultural
statistics. Such underestimation must be addressed in order to clearly demonstrate
the importance of rural women-in-agricultural production.
 Support systems for women farmers within a holistic gender-sensitive
framework are urgently needed to form a policy development, project design
and implementation agenda.
 Women must be directly involved with the development and implementation
of the new technology especially in production, processing and marketing.
 Government should have police related to legal right for women to use lands,
women can then pledge them as collateral when applying for bank loans.
 Government should encourage efficient and sustainable use of the existing
cultivable land, by further investing in agricultural research and extension,
with a view to increase the agricultural output as well as the corresponding
income for households especially for those investing in commercial
agriculture.

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