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Invasive Terrestial Flora & Fauna of Macaronesia. TOP 100 in Azores, Madeira y Canarias.
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that Macaronesia has considerable problems with exotic species, particularly those considered as invasive. For instance, in the Azores more than 60% of the vascular plant flora consists of non-indigenous species (Silva & Smith 2004, 2006). Several plants are presently considered to be serious threats not only to the conservation of the Azorean endemic flora and native plant communities, but also to the conservation of bird species, namely the Azores bullfinch (Pyrrhula murina) and of arthropods (Borges et al. 2006). In Madeira Archipelago, species like the black rat (Rattus rattus) and the domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) are known to have a strong negative impact on populations of native birds. In the Canaries, about 11% of the terrestrial biota corresponds to alien species, and some recent introductions originated some social alarm, namely the recent naturalization of a species of snake (Lampropeltis getula) in Gran Canaria.
However, of the considerable number of introduced species, how many are considered
as really invasive (i.e. they are not only naturalized but are presently causing a negative
impact on the Macaronesian biota)? Among those species, which are amenable to control or eradication? Which species should be considered priorities for control actions and other measures because they are causing impact but are still possible to control or eradicate?
For instance, in Canaries the Barbary ground squirrel (Atlantoxerus getulus) is
considered an emblematic invasive alien species (IAS), but is it the top-ranking invader in
Macaronesia? French Hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla) is a touristic icon in the Azores, but is now also considered as an invasive alien species. What is the real impact of the different species of alien rodents in Macaronesia?
Although negative impacts have been a concern, should positive impacts also be considered? For example, several alien species still have and will most probably continue
to have an important role in the islands’ economy or as game species.
This book aims to answer some of these questions. It is a first attempt to present
information regarding alien species in the European region of Macaronesia in a systematic way. Undoubtedly, this is a difficult task, due to differences regarding legislation but also to the differences in the general treatment given to IAS in the different archipelagos.
A standard set of criteria was designed and applied to those species considered as
naturalized and occupying natural and semi-natural habitats. A first set of criteria was
used to score the effect on biodiversity values, in terms of species and habitats, which are
being affected by the invasive species. A second set of criteria was used to score the
feasibility of control or eradication of the invasive species. In this second set of criteria we
also included items reflecting the social importance of the species concerned. The
application of both sets of criteria has allowed identification of the most noxious IAS in
Macaronesia and also the ranking of those species according to a management priority.
This is of considerable importance, since, due to the large scale of the IAS problem not
only in Macaronesia but globally, it is not possible to control every introduced species.
Resources will have to be allocated to those species that are still possible to control or
eradicate with sustainable costs. Although the criteria were applied by experts from each
archipelago, a global Macaronesian approach was possible after a thorough analysis and
careful treatment of the data from each archipelago, this being the main objective of the
book.
This book is also intended to serve as a tool to raise awareness of the problem of IAS.
In fact, island ecosystems have been considered as more susceptible to IAS than
continental systems, largely due to the small scale of the islands and to peculiarities of
island biota which make them more susceptible to foreign competitors, predators and
pathogens. However, islands, particularly European islands, are important hotspots for
biodiversity, and the preservation of this natural heritage is currently also dependent on
the implementation of effective measures to contain IAS
... To evaluate the level of anthropogenic alteration in the composition of the plant communities, we categorised the plant taxa according to their colonisation status, following species lists [12,38] and local legislation (DLR n.º 15/2012/A, 2 de Abril), into (see Supplementary Table S2): indigenous (i.e., taxa that arrived or evolved on the islands in the absence of human intervention), with two subgroups -"native" and "endemic"; (ii) non-indigenous (i.e., taxa that were intentionally or accidentally introduced as the result of human activities), with two subgroups -"naturalised", and "invasive". ...
... The occurrence of a high number of generalist, nonindigenous species on the coastal habitats, is leading to alterations in plant composition, cover, species richness, diversity, and evenness, due to disassembly processes [63], explaining the lack of support for the existence of well-defined coastal plant communities in the cluster analysis. While indigenous species still thrive in coastal plant communities of halophytic or lithophytic character [61], these are becoming scarce, given the expansion of non-indigenous taxa, with many invasive species (e.g., A. donax, C. edulis, A. americana, P. undulatum) [38] becoming dominant and invading large areas near the coast, where only a few endemic plant taxa survive, often at marginal habitats. ...
... Invasive species were the most frequent threat observed, with many known coastal invaders, such as Carpobrotus edulis and Arundo donax [38], accompanying indigenous taxa. While a worldwide concern [4,7], their occurrence is intrinsically linked to human disturbance [72]. ...
Background
Anthropogenic threats are causing alteration of coastal areas worldwide. Most of the coastal biodiversity is endangered, taking a particular toll on island ecosystems, like the Azores. To better understand the biotic and abiotic factors constraining the distribution and conservation status of two endemic plants, Azorina vidalii (Campanulaceae) and Lotus azoricus (Fabaceae), we performed a global survey of coastal plant communities in the archipelago, also covering environmental descriptors, natural and anthropogenic threats. Moreover, we revised their IUCN conservation status and estimated the population fractions within protected areas.
Results
Non-indigenous plants were commonly found in plots with or without the target endemics, contributing to the absence of well-defined coastal plant communities. Nonetheless, indigenous taxa commonly occurred at the plots with L. azoricus. With a larger area of occurrence, A. vidalii ecological niche differed from that of L. azoricus, the latter being restricted to dry and rocky sea cliffs, mostly in Santa Maria Island. Besides the presence of invasive plants, signs of habitat destruction, trampling and grazing, and of natural threats, such as coastal erosion, were commonly observed.
Conclusions
Occurrence data indicated an endangered status for both species, although this would change to critically endangered for L. azoricus when using smaller-sized occurrence cells. Both species are threatened since their habitat is restricted to a very narrow vegetation belt, strongly limited by sea influence and human pressure, and with the frequent presence of invasive plants. While focusing on two endemic plants, our study allowed a broader view of the impact of anthropogenic disturbance on Azorean coastal plant communities.
... However, changes in land use have led to a drastic reduction in natural forest cover and the expansion of exotic woodland and production forest [45,46]. Besides land cover change, invasive species, including a large number of plant taxa that are recognized as problematic invaders worldwide, constitute a major threat to the preservation of the remaining natural plant communities in the Azores [47,48]. ...
... Colocasia esculenta (3rd in our study) is an abundant species in all the Azores archipelago that is easy to obtain and maintain in cultivation. Despite being a potentially invasive species in many places, in the Azores and Madeira Island [48], particularly along water streams and in steep, wet coastal areas, it has been widely used for commercial and agricultural purposes in the Azores, being planted but also frequently escaping from cultivation, forming from small groups of plants to dense stands, resulting from vegetative propagation of the rhizomes. Previous research showed removal of nitrate, phosphate and organic matter, and tolerance to very high COD concentrations. ...
... Arundo donax was introduced intentionally in the Azores to hedgerows, to control soil erosion, handcraft, ornamental, and agriculture, but when established, it caused drastic ecological changes and affected several endemic and native species, including vascular plants and seabirds [48,106]. It has invaded large areas in all the archipelago, particularly along water streams and in coastal areas, including very steep sea cliffs. ...
Constructed wetlands are considered integrated ecosystems and a promising wastewater
treatment option, relying on vegetation, soils, and microbial assemblages. The potential dispersal of effluents from domestic septic systems, the application of dairy farm effluents containing excessive nutrients and pathogens into pastures, and undertreated effluent discharge in coastal areas are some of the threats to water quality in the Azores. Constructed wetlands could be used in the Azores to protect and preserve the quality of drinking water sources and bathing waters. However, the most used plant species in other regions are considered as introduced in the Azores, where a considerable number of invasive plants and weeds are already present. Here, we present a review of the plant taxa
already present in the Azorean flora with the potential to be used in constructed wetland systems, based on a literature review, and on the assessment of nine criteria. We evaluated 73 taxa, including mostly Cyperaceae, Poaceae and Juncaceae, showing that, although some of the top-ranking species were considered potentially noxious, several native and some naturalized taxa could be used for wastewater treatment. This work supports the implementation of constructed wetlands in the Azores, while minimizing the risk of new invasions.
... Nicotiana glauca it is a sempervirens shrub (Sanz-Elorza et al., 2005;Silva et al., 2008) with a natural distribution throughout South America. However, it was introduced in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Oceania and arrived to the Canary Islands as an ornamental plant. ...
... It is common on borders of roads and highways, as well as in the bed of ravines. It also grows near crops and in house gardens (Silva et al., 2008). In the Canary Islands it was introduced as ornamental in the 1930s. ...
Nicotiana glauca it is naturally distributed throughout South America. It was introduced in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Oceania and arrived to the Canary Islands as an ornamental plant, where has been invading altered soils. Endophytic fungi are known to produce active compounds that provide protection to their host against diseases and attack of herbivores, these microorganisms being an interesting source of novel molecules. So far, the endophytic fungal communities of Nicotiana have not been studied in the Canary Islands. The goal of this study is to evaluate the diversity of the fungal endophytes community associated with Nicotiana glauca. A total of 36 fungal species were isolated from roots, stems and leaves of plants collected in three locations from Tenerife Island - San Miguel de Abona, Fasnia and Puerto de la Cruz. The highest species richness values were found in leaves and stems (Margalef index = 3.33 and 3.36, respectively) versus roots (Margalef index = 2.52). Simpson's index complements the results of the Margalef index, indicating a fungal community with a high dominance value in roots (D = 0.65) due to the presence of multiple Fusarium species. Fungal community in Fasnia had the highest value of species richness (Margalef index = 3.69 versus 2.17 and 2.27 for San Miguel de Abona and Puerto de la Cruz, respectively). Results indicate fungal specificity to organ and location with 13 genera isolated from a single location and organ, among which rare species like Collariella and Gelasinospora. In this study was detected and isolated for the first time in Canary Islands the fungal species Collariella hilkhuijsenii which is of importance for the ecology of this genus scarcely known. Special attention should be offered to the presence of Fusarium, which possibly relates to the alkaloid production ability of both, the plant and the fungal strains.
... Nicotiana glauca it is a sempervirens shrub (Sanz-Elorza et al., 2005;Silva et al., 2008) with a natural distribution throughout South America. However, it was introduced in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Oceania and arrived to the Canary Islands as an ornamental plant. ...
... It is common on borders of roads and highways, as well as in the bed of ravines. It also grows near crops and in house gardens (Silva et al., 2008). In the Canary Islands it was introduced as ornamental in the 1930s. ...
Nicotiana glauca it is naturally distributed throughout South America. It was introduced in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Oceania and arrived to the Canary Islands as an ornamental plant, where has been invading altered soils. Endophytic fungi are known to produce active compounds that provide protection to their host against diseases and attack of herbivores, these microorganisms being an interesting source of novel molecules. So far, the endophytic fungal communities of Nicotiana have not been studied in the Canary Islands. The goal of this study is to evaluate the diversity of the fungal endophytes community associated with Nicotiana glauca. A total of 36 fungal species were isolated from roots, stems and leaves of plants collected in three locations from Tenerife Island - San Miguel de Abona, Fasnia and Puerto de la Cruz. The highest species richness values were found in leaves and stems (Margalef index = 3.33 and 3.36, respectively) versus roots (Margalef index = 2.52). Simpson's index complements the results of the Margalef index, indicating a fungal community with a high dominance value in roots (D = 0.65) due to the presence of multiple Fusarium species. Fungal community in Fasnia had the highest value of species richness (Margalef index = 3.69 versus 2.17 and 2.27 for San Miguel de Abona and Puerto de la Cruz, respectively). Results indicate fungal specificity to organ and location with 13 genera isolated from a single location and organ, among which rare species like Collariella and Gelasinospora. In this study was detected and isolated for the first time in Canary Islands the fungal species Collariella hilkhuijsenii which is of importance for the ecology of this genus scarcely known. Special attention should be offered to the presence of Fusarium, which possibly relates to the alkaloid production ability of both, the plant and the fungal strains.
... In Azores, A. melanoxylon is one of the most common invasive plant species on the islands of Pico and São Miguel and occurs on all nine islands (the previous two and Corvo, Faial, Flores, Graciosa, São Jorge, Santa Maria and Terceira), frequently in disturbed woodlands (Silva et al., 2008;E. Marchante, May 2023, personal observation). ...
At least 316 Australian Acacia species (‘wattles’) are known to have been introduced into Europe since the late
1700s. Most of these species are found only occasionally in gardens, others may have not survived in the envir-
onment, some are used for gardening, perfume or the cut-fower industries, 13 species are considered naturalized
and ten are invasive. The uses and propensity for invasiveness of wattles are not uniform across Europe. In gen-
eral, in central and northern Europe some species are mostly used as ornamentals. For example, A. baileyana and
A. dealbata are frequently used in the UK and Switzerland but seldom persist in the wild. In south-western
and Mediterranean Europe, especially in France, Italy, Portugal and Spain, several wattle species have naturalized
and became invasive, notably A. dealbata, A. longifolia, A. mearnsii, A. melanoxylon and A. saligna. For the European
Union, only A. saligna is included in the List of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern under the European Union
Regulation No. 1143/2014. However, in Portugal all Acacia species are classifed as invasive, and in Spain a few
species are also listed as invasive in national legislation. In France and Italy, although several species are invasive,
wattles are cultivated for the cut-fower and perfume industries. This chapter summarizes the introduction
history, current status and the present or future uses of wattles in Europe.
... In particular, it has been reported that invasive species negatively affect 73% of the top 100 endangered and priority species for conservation in the archipelago (Silva, L et al. 2008). ...
As the climate of the globe changes, the resilience of regions to the impacts of climate change will not be uniform. Some regions will experience more severe changes than others, changes which threaten areas of high biodiversity importance (‘biodiversity hotspots’) or locally important economic activities and livelihoods. Others, while not being exposed to such severe impacts may have limited adaptive capacity and so be
vulnerable to climate impacts. The European Union (EU) Adaptation Strategy, adopted in spring 2013, recognises that the Outermost Regions1 (OR) of the EU are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. They are regions characterised by their remoteness, insularity, climate, terrain and richness of biodiversity as well as an economic dependence on a small number of products. They are important to the EU for the development of trade with third countries.
The OR are an integral part of the EU and are subject to the same regulations, policies and directives as the rest of the EU however, in a changing climate, the OR are also amongst the parts of EU facing some of the most significant challenges. Major impacts to their ecosystems have been identified including extinction of endemic species, coral bleaching and shoreline erosion. Observations have already shown changes to water and air temperature, cyclone activity, ocean acidification and sea level rise have occurred. Such observed changes are consistent with projections of future climate change.
Climate risks (or opportunities) are a consequence of climate change. For example, increasing ocean temperatures can result in coral bleaching. The consequence of this is that coral reefs die and their protective, supportive and provisionary functions are lost. The resulting risk is that vulnerable coastlines could lose the protection offered by shallow coral reefs, thereby increasing risk of erosion and flooding, and that ecosystems supported by the coral collapse.
Adaptation is the action of climate risk management. Well informed adaptation is based on assessment of risk, understanding of good practice and the application of sustainable interventions which increase resilience and reduce vulnerability. This could be a physical measure such as coastal erosion management schemes or ‘softer’ interventions such as ecosystem-based adaptation through maintaining and restoring coastal ecosystems, coastal flood warning schemes or support in diversifying the local economy.
Adaptive capacity is based on understanding climate risk, awareness of adaptation needs and the availability of resources to increase levels of resilience and preparedness to climate impacts. Adaptive capacity can be increased through measures as simple as knowledge sharing, for example using facilities such as the EU’s European Climate Adaptation Platform (Climate-ADAPT3), but also through the application of appropriate strategies, policy and legislation or via investment, such as can be financed through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) or Cohesion Policy Funds which could, for example, be used for the development of blue or green infrastructure. EU regional policy is an investment policy, supporting job creation, competitiveness, economic growth, improved quality of life and sustainable development. These investments support delivery of the Europe 2020 Strategy and, in line with the objectives and actions set out in the EU Adaptation Strategy have a role in increasing the level of adaptation across the EU, including the OR.
Understanding the current state of knowledge, knowledge gaps and the effectiveness of current activities informs effective adaptation planning. Further, good adaptation is based on understanding the economic costs and benefits of action versus no action. In spite of knowledge gaps and uncertainty, there are no-regret and synergy measures such as ecosystem-based adaptation and green infrastructure that can be implemented now. One of the objectives of this study is to examine the current state of knowledge, seeking examples of action within the OR to address climate risk.
Although each of the OR has a unique character and face separate climate challenges, combining the state of knowledge for each may result in knowledge exchange that could increase levels of resilience across the regions. Understanding the EU funds that may apply, and how they have been used to date, may also suggest a range of options to support the OR in furthering understanding of climate risks and implementing good adaptation actions. The overall objective of this study is therefore to make policy recommendations such that available EU funds can be employed most effectively.
In order to compare each of the OR, an assessment framework has been developed, based upon available datasets which consider each of the OR consistently. This is important because different models and approaches are used to compile datasets of climate projections and economic data and hence, when comparing data from two sources, it is not clear how much of any differences results from the data methods used. This sets some constraints in that it limits the data available to inform the study but it offers the advantage of allowing each of the OR to be compared using the same sources of data, eliminating one are of significant uncertainty.
The study is focused upon identification of climate impacts and priorities for adaptation activities to manage risks and opportunities for the OR associated with future climate change. Mitigation, i.e. the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases, is not considered directly within the scope of this study although it is recognised that energy infrastructure is diversifying to include more low carbon energy sources and that this can have adaptation benefits through increasing energy security but also be vulnerable to climate impacts at the same time. This is a perspective considered in this study, rather than the mitigation benefits per se.
The study examines the available information which can underpin an assessment of climate impacts for the OR and their economic consequences, examining existing actions
(including through the use of EU funds) and the develop recommendations for further action which will develop the resilience of the OR to the challenges (and opportunities) they face as climate continues to change.
The Azores archipelago is located in the North Atlantic Ocean, including nine volcanic islands. The Azores climate, temperate oceanic, is influenced by the Azores anticyclone, being characterized by high air humidity indices, low thermal amplitude, abundant precipitation and persistent wind. Like other urban areas, Ponta Delgada, in S. Miguel Island, suffers from high impermeabilization with all the negative environmental consequences that arise. As such, the present chapter intends to discuss the opportunity of greening rooftops in urban areas in S. Miguel Island (performing a survey of the roofs and the corresponding area that could be used) showing the advantages that could arise, regarding the environmental performance improvement (e.g., building water storage and heat balance) and their role in the minimization of extreme weather events effects (e.g., urban wastewater infrastructure). As a first step toward evaluating the contribution of these infrastructures in the urban areas of the Azores, a green rooftop pilot study using plants and local substrates has been designed, to be built in the near future.
Island ecosystems are experiencing a significant decline in biodiversity, with forest biodiversity being particularly affected by several biodiversity erosion drivers. This alarming situation highlights the urgent need for conservation managers to develop more accurate and efficient tools to assess and monitor the quality status of sites. To address this issue, our study focuses on the development of two biological integrity indices (IBI) that utilize arthropod communities as indicators to measure the quality of forest sites. In accordance with studies that showed stratification of species diversity, we developed an IBI for canopy stratum (IBI-Canopy) and an IBI for an intermediate stratum targeting the forest understory (IBI-SLAM). We calibrated both indices on seven parameters for comparison purpose with a previous developed epigean IBI. Percentages of endemic, native non-endemic and introduced species richness and abundance were included in both indices. Percentages of Diplopoda species richness and abundance were included in IBI-Canopy and percentages of Saprophagous species richness and abundance were included in IBI-SLAM. As expected species richness and abundance of endemic species were negatively related to disturbance and selected for both IBI. Surprisingly, species richness and abundance of native non-endemic species were positively related to disturbance. The study highlights the limitations of single measurements in detecting all types of pressure sources, and proposes a multi-measurement system to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the overall system conditions. Our efficient and accessible indices confirmed low preservation status in Flores Island compared to Terceira and Pico, consistent with prior empirical studies. Our analyses also showed that canopy detect disturbance earlier than intermediate understory stratum. Our methodology has successfully been developed and tailored to the unique arthropod communities found in the Azores forests. While it may not be suitable for random forest sites, it can serve as a valuable source of inspiration for the development of arthropod-based IBIs in other islands of the world for which standardized endemic and exotic species richness and abundance could be obtained. The study also showed that arthropod assemblages mimicked forest biodiversity stratification and this is reflected in differences expressed by the IBIs.
This datasheet on Agave americana covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
This datasheet on Spartium junceum covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
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