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Faunal remains from the Oldowan site of Muhkai II in the North Caucasus: Potential for dating and palaeolandscape reconstruction
Abstract
The results of study of faunal materials unique for the north-eastern Caucasus are published, deriving from layer 80 of the Oldowan site of Muhkai II. Twenty-six specimens of four species of carnivorous mammal and six species of herbivorous mammal were identified in this material. In addition, the remains of small mammals, reptiles and amphibians were identified, which are indicators for the dating of the assemblage and the establishment of the specific characteristics of the natural environment at the time of usage of the Oldowan site. While in the modern day the investigated region consists of a belt of medium high mountains, during the chronological period under study open landscapes of savannah type with small areas of forest vegetation dominated. Based on a combination of data from palaeomagnetic analysis and faunal determinations, the time of existence of the complex is established as no later than the lower limit of the Olduvai episode during the Matuyama palaeomagnetic epoch.
... The deposits at the Muhkai 2 site have a total thickness of 73 m and include 129 lithological layers. The cultural layers with stone artifacts and a large number of fossil bones are found in a stratum of reversed magnetized (below the Olduvai event) brownish-grey petrified loams in the middle portion of the section (Amirkhanov and Ozherelyev 2011;Amirkhanov et al. 2012bAmirkhanov et al. , 2016aAmirkhanov 2016;Ozherelyev 2019). The thickness of the brownish-grey loams containing the osteological material, large carbonate concretions and pebbles and filled with sandy-clay varies between 5 and 40 cm (Ozherelyev 2019). ...
... The available data indicate that the site was located near a slightly saline body of water with periodic fluctuations in the water level (Stolpnikova et al. 2016). Apart from numerous bones of large mammals, a few bones of small mammals (10 bones), Aves (9 bones), Lacertilia (3 bones), Anura (10 bones), and also a chela fragment of a semi-terrestrial freshwater crab Potamon sp. were recovered (Amirkhanov et al. 2016a;Sablin 2020). At the base of the brownish-grey loams containing the osteological material there is a horizon of shells of terrestrial mollusks (Geophila Férussac, 1819). ...
... In Europe, the remains of the goral-like antelope are not found in deposits younger than 1.77 Mya, the remains of the Stenon horse and the bush-antlered deer are not found in deposits younger than 1.6 Mya, and the remains of the corsac-like fox are not found in deposits younger than 1.5 Mya (Amirkhanov et al. 2014(Amirkhanov et al. , 2016a(Amirkhanov et al. , 2017Sablin 2020). In general the large mammal fauna from Muhkai 2 is similar to faunas dating to the end of the Middle and beginning of the Late Villafranchian from sites such as of Puebla de Valverde (Spain), Saint-Vallier, Chilhac and Senéze (France), Costa San Giacomo and Olivola (Italy), Liventsovka (Russia), Palan-Tyukan (Azerbaijan) and Dmanisi (Georgia), which existed during the interval 2.1-1.77 ...
The Early Pleistocene locality Muhkai 2 was discovered in Central Dagestan, northeastern Caucasus, Russia, in 2006. Archaeological investigations of the site have been directed by Corresponding member of RAS H.A. Amirkhanov (Institute of Archaeology RAS, Moscow). The article presents the results of the study of osteological material from the excavations of 2006–2017. The cultural layers with stone tools and mammal bones are found within stratum of brownish-grey petrified loams with reversed magnetization. We identified 14 large species of mammals, which are indicators for the dating of the faunal assemblage and crucial in identifying the specific characteristics of the natural environment at the time of site formation. Stenon horse and Etruscan wolf dominate the spectrum of species at Muhkai 2. All large mammal species from the site are inhabitants of open and semi-open landscapes and animals indicative of closed biotopes are absent. The biotope appears to have been a dry savannah-steppe with small areas of forest vegetation. The climate at this time was warm and quite arid. Most likely, the animals died here due to natural causes and their carcasses were buried at the bottom of an ancient, slightly saline and shallow, temporary body of water. Data from the theriofauna place the age of the site Muhkai 2 within the chronological range of 2.1–1.77 Mya.
... Наряду с упомянутыми памятниками проанализированы местонахождения, описанные другими исследователями или авторами данной статьи в предшествующие годы. Таковы Убейдия (Ubeidiya) в Израиле [Bar-Yosef, Belmaker, 2017], Халабийе-Залабийе (Halabiyeh-Zalabiyeh) в долине Евфрата в Сирии [Besançon et al., 1978;Copeland, 2004;Demir et al., 2007;Trifonov et al., 2012], Карахач, Мурадово и Агворик в Северо-Западной Армении, подробно описанные ниже в статье Е. В. Беляевой [Любин, Беляева, 2011;Беляева, Любин, 2013;Presnyakov et al., 2012;Trifonov et al., 2016], Дманиси в Южной Грузии [Lordkipanidze et al., 2007;de Lumney et al., 2008;Ferring et al., 2011], пещера Азых на юге Нагорного Карабаха [Гусейнов, 2010] и Мухкай-II в Дагестане [Амирханов, 2012;2015;Amirkhanov et al., 2016]. Выполненный обзор показал, что, несмотря на различия типологической атрибутации, все хорошо датированные памятники древнейшего палеолита Аравийско-Кавказского региона принадлежат единой эпохе 2,0-1,7 млн лет назад. ...
... По совокупности данных оно датируется второй половиной гелазия. Фауна крупных млекопитающих Мухкай II представляет собой хорошо выраженный поздневиллафранкский комплекс с Archidiskodon meridionalis, Equus stenonis, Eucladoceros senezensis, Palaeotragus, Galogoral и другими формами [Amirkhanov et al., 2016]. Небольшая ассоциация мелких млекопитающих включает Ellobius (Bramus) ex gr. ...
... Последняя форма является типичным элементом европейского позднего виллания и фауны ранней части псекупского фаунистического комплекса Восточной Европы, региональной зоны MNR3. С учетом обратной полярности уровня с фауной ниже двух нормально намагниченных зон [Amirkhanov et al., 2016] возраст захоронения можно оценить примерно в 2,1 млн лет [Тесаков, Ожерельев, 2017]. В фауне млекопитающих сочетаются как формы закрытых лесных биотопов, так и животные, адаптированные к более открытым степным и каменистым местообитаниям, которые располагались в раннем плейстоцене на значительно более низких гипсометрических уровнях по сравнению с сегодняшней высотой около 1600 м над уровнем моря. ...
... 1;Амирханов 2016;Саблин и др. 2013;Саблин 2016б;Amirkhanov et al. 2014;2016b). Коллекция ископаемой фауны из Мухкая 2 хранится в ЗИН РАН (Санкт-Петербург, Россия). ...
... Геологический возраст стоянки оценивается в интервале 2,10-1,77 млн л. (Амирханов и др. 2017;Amirkhanov et al. 2014;2016b). В настоящее время известны близкие к Мухкаю 2 по геологическому возрасту и видовому составу раннеплейстоценовые местонахождения Западной Европы (Пуэбло де Вальверде (Испания); Сен-Валье, Сенез и Шийак (Франция); Оливола (Италия)), Восточной Европы (Ливенцовка (Россия), Закавказья (Дманиси (Грузия); Палан-Тюкан (Азербайджан)) (Саблин 1990;Кузьмина, Саблин 1991;Саблин, Гиря 2009;Vekua 1995;Rook, Martiinez-Navarro 2010;Amirkhanov et al. 2014;2016b). ...
... 2017;Amirkhanov et al. 2014;2016b). В настоящее время известны близкие к Мухкаю 2 по геологическому возрасту и видовому составу раннеплейстоценовые местонахождения Западной Европы (Пуэбло де Вальверде (Испания); Сен-Валье, Сенез и Шийак (Франция); Оливола (Италия)), Восточной Европы (Ливенцовка (Россия), Закавказья (Дманиси (Грузия); Палан-Тюкан (Азербайджан)) (Саблин 1990;Кузьмина, Саблин 1991;Саблин, Гиря 2009;Vekua 1995;Rook, Martiinez-Navarro 2010;Amirkhanov et al. 2014;2016b). ...
... The Muhkai II sequence of sediments is the most complete (73 m). Its 57-m thick upper section is described in details, being divided to 117 layers (Amirkhanov et al., 2014(Amirkhanov et al., , 2016. The upper part of this section (13 m) consists mostly of coarse deposits (pebbles, gravels and sands). ...
... Loam is exposed lower again. The reported section contains 35 cultural layers with abundant lithics that are attributed to the classical Oldowan Amirkhanov et al., 2016). ...
... The large mammal fauna of Muhkai II represents a well defined late Villafranchian assemblage with Archidiskodon meridionalis, Equus stenonis, Eucladoceros senezensis, Palaeotragus, Galogoral, and other forms (Amirkhanov et al., 2016). The scarce small mammal assemblage includes Ellobius (Bramus) ex gr. ...
Majority of researchers consider the Arabian-Caucasus region as a corridor for migration of earliest hominins from their African motherland to Eurasia. The paper is devoted to geological position of main stratified localities of the earliest Paleolithic industries in the Arabian-Caucasus region and estimation of environment of creators of these industries. The following early Paleolithic localities are analyzed: ‘Ubeidiya in Israel, middle Orontes River, Halabiyeh-Zalabiyeh area in the Euphrates River valley, and Aïn al Fil in Syria, Dursunlu in Central Turkey, Şambayat, Bostancık, Eskimalatya, and Kovancılar in Eastern Turkey, Karakhach, Muradovo, Agvoric, and Jradzor in NW Armenia, Dmanisi in Southern Georgia, the Azykh cave in Nagornyi Karabakh, Muhkai II in Dagestan, and Kermek in the Taman Peninsula. The evolution of large and small mammals and palynological data on changes of vegetation from the Late Pliocene to the early Middle Pleistocene are studied to determine the age of the earliest Paleolithic industries and climatic conditions of that epoch. Combined analysis of paleontological, paleomagnetic and radio-isotopic data and geological correlation of the sections available for the Halabiyeh-Zalabiyeh, Şambayat, Kovancılar, Karakhach, Dmanisi, Muhkai II, and Kermek localities shows that their age is ranged in time interval ca. 2.0–1.7 Ma. The 1.7–1.6 Ma age of the lowest layers of ‘Ubeidiya with Oldowan-type artefacts probably marks the end of this epoch. Removal of topographic effects of the late Calabrian and younger tectonic uplifts and offsets on major strike-slip faults shows that the topography of the late Gelasian – early Calabrian was much lower and less differentiated and main river systems were more passable than in the present time. The climate of the end of Gelasian was wet and relatively warm, with meadow-steppe and forest-steppe savanna-type vegetation in basins and valleys and coniferous and coniferous–broad-leaved forests in the mountains. Abundance of vegetation was supported by water resources of numerous rivers, lakes, and springs in the intermountain basins and valleys that were controlled partly by fault activity. This stimulated abundance of herbivorous mammals. In spite of relative aridisation at the beginning of Calabrian, vegetation continued to be freely available for herbivores. Hominin dispersal into the region was supported by rich resources of herbivores during the late Gelasian – early Calabrian time.
... Изначально эта ассоциация была описана с территории Северного Кавказа (р. Псекупс, местонахождения Бакинская, Саратовская), но в последующем его находки были определены и в других местонахождениях с территории юга Восточной Европы и сопредельных регионов (Большая Камыше-ваха, Северное Причерноморье; Георгиевск, Палан-Тюкан, Мухкай II, Северный Кавказ) [Гарутт, Сафронов, 1965;Алексеева, 1977;Титов, Швырёва, 2016;Amirkhanov et al., 2016] Конец палеоплейстоцена охарактеризован рядом местонахождений, свидетельствующих о существовании на территории Кавказа на этом уровне представителей рода Homo. Орудия труда совместно с костными остатками животных известны, например, из памятников Кермек (разрез Тиздар, Та-манский полуостров) и Мухкай II (Дагестан) [Amirkhanov et al., 2016;Shchelinsky et al., 2016]. ...
... Псекупс, местонахождения Бакинская, Саратовская), но в последующем его находки были определены и в других местонахождениях с территории юга Восточной Европы и сопредельных регионов (Большая Камыше-ваха, Северное Причерноморье; Георгиевск, Палан-Тюкан, Мухкай II, Северный Кавказ) [Гарутт, Сафронов, 1965;Алексеева, 1977;Титов, Швырёва, 2016;Amirkhanov et al., 2016] Конец палеоплейстоцена охарактеризован рядом местонахождений, свидетельствующих о существовании на территории Кавказа на этом уровне представителей рода Homo. Орудия труда совместно с костными остатками животных известны, например, из памятников Кермек (разрез Тиздар, Та-манский полуостров) и Мухкай II (Дагестан) [Amirkhanov et al., 2016;Shchelinsky et al., 2016]. Это уровень хорошо согласуется с близким по возрасту местонахождением Дманиси (Закавказье), откуда известны останки Homo erectus ergaster [Lordkipanidze et al., 2013]. ...
The current collective monograph contains the results of archaeological, paleoanthropological, and palaeontological studies of the material from a series of sites of the Early and Middle Palaeolithic from the territory of the Northern and Southern Sea of Azov Region. The specific focus is on the sites of the Taman Early Palaeolithic complex and on the Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Taganrog Bay. The monograph presents the results of radiocarbon dating applied to the faunal collections of Rozhok I site, as well as the results of taxonomic analysis of the human molar from cultural layer No. 6 of the mentioned site. Systematization of studies implemented during the recent years for Nosovo I, the Middle Palaeolithic site and the archaeological complex of Maryeva Gora is made. The results of novel surveys on the southern coast of the Taganrog Bay are given. Part of the material is published for the first time.
... Ma, northern Sea of Azov region (Sablin and Girya, 2010), lithic artifacts at Mukhai II, 2.1-1.77 Ma, the Caucasus (Amirkhanov et al., 2016), and the butchery mark and lithic tools at Kermek, 2.1-1.8 Ma, the Taman Peninsula (Shchelinsky et al., 2016 (Gabunia et al., 2000;Bukhsianidze, 2005;de Lumley et al., 2005;Lordkipanidze et al., 2007Lordkipanidze et al., , 2013Hemmer at al., 2010). ...
... Ma, the Taman Peninsula (Shchelinsky et al., 2016 (Gabunia et al., 2000;Bukhsianidze, 2005;de Lumley et al., 2005;Lordkipanidze et al., 2007Lordkipanidze et al., , 2013Hemmer at al., 2010). The small lithic tools were found in a number of sites in northern Caucasus, e.g., Aibakan, > 1.5 Ma (Amirkhanov et al., 2016), Darvagchai-1, Rubas-1, in Dagestan, Russia (Derevianko, 2006;Derevianko and Zenin, 2007), and in Italy at Pirro Nord (fissure P13), 1.6-1.4 Ma (e.g., Arzarello et al., 2012Arzarello et al., , 2016Sardella et al., 2018). ...
Problems of dispersals of early hominins into Europe are widely discussed. In the Early Pleistocene, the dispersal of mammals and humans from Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe into the south of Western Europe passed mostly through the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Data on evolution and distribution of mammal faunas provide a solid basis for correlation and estimation of main dispersal events. In this paper authors made an attempt to analyze the paleobiogeographical aspects of possible hominin dispersals in the mid-Early Pleistocene of the Mediterranean in the context of a broad paleozoogeographical and paleoecological approach to addressing this issue. The study of the Early Pleistocene Trlica TRL11–10 mammal fauna of Trlica cave in Montenegro in the Central Balkans offers valuable information on biotic events in the region, migratory pathways and faunal transformations against a background of alternating environmental conditions. A recent discovery of several unique bones amongst other fossil mammalian remains excavated between 2010 and 2014 from the Trlica TRL11–10 level is of particular interest. The analysis of the assemblage of two large and two small bone artifacts suggests their anthropogenic nature. The Trlica TRL11–10 artifacts may constitute the first evidence of the initial ‘Peopling events’ in Mediterranean Europe. The artifacts are associated with a very diverse TRL11–10 fauna that includes 34 species of both small and large mammals and belongs to the late Early Pleistocene within the interval 1.8–1.5 Ma, Donau/Eburonian (MIS 63–51). The article emphasizes the close relationship between the early human dispersals and the evolution of biota and the importance of a holistic approach to the study of the problem of dispersals. Paleobiogeographic evidence confirms the possibility of the arrival of early hominins in the Balkans in the mid-Early Pleistocene, prior to 1.5 Ma, very likely closer to the Olduvai time.
... It is reasonable to suggest that this route is marked by related sites. Stratified Oldowan and Early Acheulean Palaeolithic localities have been found in Yemen (Amirkhanov, 2008), Israel ( Bar-Yosef et al., 1993;Bar-Yosef, 1994;Ronen, 2006;Zaidner et al., 2010), Syria in the Orontes River valley (Liere, 1961(Liere, , 1966Hours, 1975;Besançon et al., 1978;Copeland and Hours, 1993), Middle Euphrates (Copeland, 2004) and the El-Kowm Oasis (Le Tensorer et al., 2015), Iran (Ariai and Thibault, 1975;Biglari and Shidrang, 2006), northern Armenia (Belyaeva, Lyubin, 2013;Gasparyan et al., 2014), southern Georgia ( Lordkipanidze et al., 2007;Lumley et al., 2005), and the north- western ( Shchelinsky et al., 2010Shchelinsky et al., , 2016) and eastern (Amirkhanov et al., 2014(Amirkhanov et al., , 2016 terminations of the Greater Caucasus (Fig. 1A). ...
... Some of the cultural layers may also date to slightly earlier than the Olduvai subchron (Ferring et al., 2011). The Muhkai II locality in Dagestan (the eastern Greater Caucasus) oc- cupies the uppermost Gelasian and Calabrian, and the lowest layers with Oldowan artefacts are situated below the Olduvai subchron layers and are dated to ~2.0 Ma, according to paleontological and paleomagnetic data (Amirkhanov et al., 2014(Amirkhanov et al., , 2016). Thus, the earliest archaeological artefacts are dated to ~2.0e1.8 ...
Early Palaeolithic finds older than Acheulean were unknown in Eastern Anatolia until recently. During exploratory works carried out by a joint Russian-Turkish expedition in the Euphrates River basin (2014–2016), several stratified Early Palaeolithic localities were found. Lithic finds are represented by choppers, picks, retouched tools, and flakes. A similar stone tool industry has been found in the Caucasus (Armenia, Dagestan). In addition to the archaeological typological dating of lithic tools in eastern Turkey, geomorphological, stratigraphic, paleontological, and paleomagnetic records also confirm the Early Pleistocene age of the localities. Some of these sites are dated to before the Olduvai subchron, i.e., ∼2 Ma. New Early Palaeolithic discoveries in Eastern Turkey are important for the study of the oldest human cultures of the Middle East and the Caucasus. Acheulean and Middle Palaeolithic stone tools were also found in the lower river terraces of tributaries of the Euphrates, south of the Taurus Mountains. These finds were used to date the terraces.
... This is related, first of all, to the dating of the Early Paleolithic artefacts. Stratified sites with the earliest Paleolithic stone industries were found in Israel ( Bar-Yosef et al., 1993;Ronen, 2006;Zaidner et al., 2010), the Orontes River valley (Besançon et al., 1978), the middle Euphrates valley (Copeland, 2004) and El-Kowm region in Syria (Le Tensorer et al., 2015), the Birecik area in SE Turkey (Demir et al., 2008), NW Armenia (Belyaeva and Lyubin, 2013), the southern Georgia (Lordkipanidze et al., 2007;Ferring et al., 2011), the north-western (Shchelinsky et al., 2010) and eastern (Amirkhanov et al., 2014(Amirkhanov et al., , 2016 slopes of the Greater Caucasus. The artefacts in the Euphrates River valley in Syria are ∼2.0-1.5 Ma (Demir et al., 2007;Trifonov et al., 2012Trifonov et al., , 2014. ...
... The archaeological site Muhkai-II in Dagestan (the eastern Greater Caucasus) corresponds to the late Gelasian and Calabrian. The lowest layers with the Oldowan industries have the R magnetic polarity, underlie the layers correlated to the Olduvai subchron and are dated to ∼2.0 Ma, according to the paleontological and paleomagnetic data (Amirkhanov et al., 2014(Amirkhanov et al., , 2016. This allows us to date the Oldowan industry of layer 17 of the Kovancılar (s 9) section to the same age, since layer 17 also has the R magnetic polarity and underlies layers 6-14 with N polarity, which may probably correspond to the Olduvai subchron. ...
The Pliocene–Quaternary paleogeography of the Euphrates River valley changed due to sinistral movements on the East-Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) and the Taurus Ridge rise by movements on the South-Taurus Thrust. Evidence of these changes is based on studies of the Pliocene–Quaternary deposits of the Euphrates River basin to the north and to the south of the Taurus Ridge and the Late Cenozoic deformation including offsets on the EAFZ. Combination of methods was used to date the Pliocene–Quaternary deposits. It includes geological and geomorphic analysis and correlation of sections, determination of remanent magnetization, paleontological and archaeological finds, pollen analysis, and K-Ar dating of volcanic rocks. To the north of the Taurus Ridge, the Late Miocene tectonic depressions were filled by lakes connected by braided streams. In the Early Pliocene, the Euphrates and Murat river valleys formed and the Euphrates flew to the south westwards of its recent position, via the graben-like trough of the Sultan-Suyu River valley and farther to the Erikdere that are recent Euphrates tributaries. The flow was interrupted later because of some desiccation and rise of the Taurus Ridge. The flow recommenced in the end Gelasian – early Calabrian via the Göksu-Çayı and Erikdere valleys consecutively and was interrupted again. At the end of Calabrian (∼0.8–0.9 Ma), the Euphrates waters found the recent way via the Taurus Ridge and the former upstream bottoms of the Euphrates and its tributaries valleys became a vast upper terrace. After this, the Taurus Ridge rose by more than 330 m. Lower terraces were formed because of the tectonic uplift that was more intense to the north of the Taurus Ridge (0.13–0.16 mm/year), than to the south of it (0.1 mm/year). The new-formed segment of the Euphrates valley was offset on the EAFZ at 12 km that gives the slip rate of 13–15 mm/year.
... This is related, first of all, to the dating of the Early Paleolithic artefacts. Stratified sites with the earliest Paleolithic stone industries were found in Israel ( Bar-Yosef et al., 1993;Ronen, 2006;Zaidner et al., 2010), the Orontes River valley (Besançon et al., 1978), the middle Euphrates valley (Copeland, 2004) and El-Kowm region in Syria (Le Tensorer et al., 2015), the Birecik area in SE Turkey (Demir et al., 2008), NW Armenia (Belyaeva and Lyubin, 2013), the southern Georgia (Lordkipanidze et al., 2007;Ferring et al., 2011), the north-western (Shchelinsky et al., 2010) and eastern (Amirkhanov et al., 2014(Amirkhanov et al., , 2016 slopes of the Greater Caucasus. The artefacts in the Euphrates River valley in Syria are ∼2.0-1.5 Ma (Demir et al., 2007;Trifonov et al., 2012Trifonov et al., , 2014. ...
... The archaeological site Muhkai-II in Dagestan (the eastern Greater Caucasus) corresponds to the late Gelasian and Calabrian. The lowest layers with the Oldowan industries have the R magnetic polarity, underlie the layers correlated to the Olduvai subchron and are dated to ∼2.0 Ma, according to the paleontological and paleomagnetic data (Amirkhanov et al., 2014(Amirkhanov et al., , 2016. This allows us to date the Oldowan industry of layer 17 of the Kovancılar (s 9) section to the same age, since layer 17 also has the R magnetic polarity and underlies layers 6-14 with N polarity, which may probably correspond to the Olduvai subchron. ...
Paleogeography of the Euphrates River valley changes due to sinistral movements on the
East-Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) and the Taurus Ridge rise by movements on the South Taurus
Thrust. Evidence of these changes is based on studies of the Pliocene–Quaternary deposits of the
Euphrates River basin to the north and the south of the Taurus Ridge and the Late Cenozoic
deformation. Combination of methods was used to date the Pliocene–Quaternary deposits. They were
geological and geomorphological correlation of sections, determination of remanent magnetic
polarity, paleontological and archaeological finds, palynological analysis, and K-Ar dating of volcanic
rocks. To the north of the Taurus Ridge, the Late Miocene tectonic depressions were filled by lakes
connected by migrated channels. The waters found flow at the Early Pliocene to the south via the
graben-like trough of the recent Sultan-Suyu River valley and farther to the Göksu River. The flow was
interrupted because of some desiccation and rise of the Taurus Ridge, recommenced in the end
Gelasian – early Calabrian and was interrupted again. At the end of Calabrian (~0.8–0.9 Ma), the
Euphrates waters broke via the Taurus Ridge along the recent valley and the former upstream
bottoms of the Euphrates and its tributaries became the upper terrace. After this, the Taurus Ridge
raised more than to 330 m. The lower terraces were formed because of the regional uplift. The uplift
was more intense to the north of the Taurus Ridge, than to the south of it. The new-formed Euphrates
valley was offset on the EAFZ at 12 km that gives the average slip rate 13–15 mm/year. The Early
Paleolithic stone industries were found in the Lower Pleistocene deposits. They are picks, pick-like
tools, one-sided and double-sided choppers. The oldest artefacts were found in the layers that
deposited before the Olduvai subchron, i.e., ~2 Ma. These finds mark a way of migration of the oldest
hominine from Arabia to Caucasus and possibly to the other Eurasia.
... We recognize that hominin dispersal surely did not unfold as a unidirectional march from A to B, but additional securely dated sites are needed to build upon our simple sketch. Moreover, other early hominin sites 34,36,[39][40][41][42][43] could change the picture of Europe's colonization once robust chronologies become available. But for now, we can say that Korolevo's occupation at around 1.4 Ma directly challenges the proposal 8 that people moved to higher latitudes only after the widespread colonization of southern Europe by around 1.2 Ma. ...
Stone tools stratified in alluvium and loess at Korolevo, western Ukraine, have been studied by several research groups since the discovery of the site in the 1970s. Although Korolevo’s importance to the European Palaeolithic is widely acknowledged, age constraints on the lowermost lithic artefacts have yet to be determined conclusively. Here, using two methods of burial dating with cosmogenic nuclides, we report ages of 1.42 ± 0.10 million years and 1.42 ± 0.28 million years for the sedimentary unit that contains Mode-1-type lithic artefacts. Korolevo represents, to our knowledge, the earliest securely dated hominin presence in Europe, and bridges the spatial and temporal gap between the Caucasus (around 1.85–1.78 million years ago) and southwestern Europe (around 1.2–1.1 million years ago). Our findings advance the hypothesis that Europe was colonized from the east, and our analysis of habitat suitability suggests that early hominins exploited warm interglacial periods to disperse into higher latitudes and relatively continental sites—such as Korolevo—well before the Middle Pleistocene Transition.
... The bed yielded association of large mammals of the late Villafranchian dated as 2.1-1.76 Ma (Sablin et al., 2013;Amirkhanov et al., 2016). Small mammals found at this level in Mukhkai IIa section (Ozherelyev, 2021) are correlated to the late Villaniyan of Central Europe and the Psekups fauna of Eastern Europe, not younger than 2.0 Ma (Tesakov and Ozherelyev, 2017). ...
... However, there appears to have been a dramatic loss of diversity after the Miocene such that in the Plio-Pleistocene only one genus, Mitilanotherium, possibly represented by only a single species, is documented in Europe (Athanassiou 2014), although recently an incomplete giraffid metatarsal was described from the site of Gephyra in Macedonia that is distinct in its dimensions, being shorter and more robust, and morphology, in lacking a deep furrow on its posterior surface, from Mitilanotherium specimens and, thus, it may represent a different taxon (Crégut-Bonnoure and Tsoukala 2017). In addition, some have argued that there is a late surviving Palaeotragus species, P. priasovicus, from the Early Pleistocene sites of Liventsovka and Mukhai II (Godina and Baygusheva 1986;Amirkhanov et al. 2016), located just north of the Greater Caucasus mountains. However, while a mandible from Liventsovka lacks the diagnostic elongated M 3 of M. inexspectatum (Godina and Baygusheva 1985), P. priasovicus cranial specimens are morphologically and metrically quite similar, including in their ossicone orientation and morphology, to the skull from Sesklo (Athanassiou 2014) and the postcranial material attributed to this taxon is consistent in size and morphology with Mitilanotherium specimens. ...
The palaeontological material from the Dacian Basin provides a complete and well-represented record of faunal succession during the important faunal turnover called the Pachycrocuta event. The present study describes fossil remains of ruminants (Cervidae, Bovidae, Giraffidae) from the Early Pleistocene of Valea Grăunceanului, Fântâna lui Mitilan and other smaller sites from the Olteț River Valley. The article discuss the taxonomic context, eco-morphology and functional morphology of the described taxa and dynamics of biogeographic distribution. The commutity of ruminant species from the Dacian Basin before the Pachycrocuta event is dominated by Pliocene holdovers: Pliotragus ardeus, Gazellospira torticornis, Rucervus radulescui, Metacervocerus rhenanus and Mitilanotherium inexspectatum. This assemblage also contains new forms for Western Eurasia as Dama eurygonos, Eucladoceros dicranios, Eucladoceros ctenoides, Alces sp. and Bison (Eobison) sp. This specific regional fauna of ruminants became extinct during the Pachycrocuta faunal turnover and was replaced by a more cold-adapted assemblage of ruminants (Megalovis latifrons, Eucladoceros sp., Dama sp., Praemegaceros obscurus and its specialised diminished form Praemegaceros cf. mosbachensis) that show a greater affinity with coeval Levant faunas. The revealed dynamics of paleobiogeographic zones from the Early Pleistocene of southeastern Europe supports the hypothesis of early hominin dispersals in Western Eurasia via Balkan-Anatolia path.
... It is also proportionally longer compared to that of MNHN.F.ACA-293 (Fig. 4). Few isolated remains of foxes were recently found in the Oldowan north-Caucasian site of Muhkai II (Amirkhanov et al. 2016). Th e former fragmentary remains were tentatively included in Vulpes alopecoides without describing it in detail. ...
The Pliocene record of genus Vulpes Frisch, 1775 in Eurasia is scarce, coming from few sparse locali-ties. The lack of a comprehensive and integrated revision led to the description of numerous different taxa, often only tentatively related to extant species but not with one another. Çalta-1 is an important Pliocene site located in the Anatolian region of Turkey, dated to 4.0 Ma. In the present review, we reappraise the interesting record of Vulpes galatica Ginsburg, 1998. Morphological and morphometric evidence suggests a strong similarity between this taxon and the early Late Pliocene V. beihaiensisQiu& Tedford, 1990, recovered from the Chinese Yushe Basin. Such evidence favors the parsimonious interpretation of synonymy between the two species, under the name V. beihaiensis. This hypothesis opens a new interpretation on the biogeography of the Pliocene-Early Pleistocene foxes of Eurasia. Vulpes beihaiensis links the Asian and European records, with its affinity to V. alopecoides (Del Cam-pana, 1913) and, eventually, to the extant red fox (Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758)).
... In our opinion, animals died here due to natural causes; for example, they drowned in a short autumn "rainy season" with catastrophic heavy rainfall after a long drought . The composition of this faunal complex allows us to consider the animal community of dry African savannah as its closest analogue Sablin, 2016aSablin, , 2016b Amirkhanov et al., 2014Amirkhanov et al., , 2016Amirkhanov et al., , 2017. ...
... The dating of finds from layer 80 is substantially supported by the evolutionary level of the rhizodont voles and also by the complete absence of representatives of the Microtini and Lagurini tribes, which appear in Northern Eurasia in the second half of the Early Pleistocene. According to these data, layer 80 should be dated to the first half of the Early Pleistocene, before the Villanyian-Biharian boundary (1.8 mya) (Sala and Masini, 2007;Amirkhanov et al., 2016). ...
In 2004–2006 a group of Lower Palaeolithic sites was discovered in the northeastern Caucasus: Ainikab I–VI, Gegalashur I–III and Muhkai I–II. Since then, they have been the subject of comprehensive scientific investigations. One site which is undergoing active research is the multilayered site of Muhkai II. Multiple cultural layers at the site have been found in a 73 m thick sequence of Early Pleistocene sediments. The geological age of the layers encompasses the interval 2.1–0.8 million years ago, or the majority of the Early Pleistocene. Layer 80 of Muhkai II is located in the central part of the section at a depth of −33.6 to −34.0 m. Its significance lies in the fact that the site contains two cultural layers–the upper and the lower (main)–that are preserved in situ or have been subject to minimal fluvial processes. The finds consist of lithic artefacts and osseous faunal remains. According to field observations and microstratigraphic analyses, the cultural layers can be characterised as the ancient surfaces of an occupation area. Two stages of occupation can be defined in the lower cultural layer. Layer 80 of Muhkai II was a periodically visited location at the banks of a waterbody, where the acquisition and butchery of large mammals took place. The faunal collection contains 301 bones, deriving from four carnivorous and six herbivorous species of mammals. The total lithic collection contains 1094 finds. According to typological and technological criteria the lithic assemblage relates to the Oldowan and has analogies with Oldowan sites in Africa (particularly with sites of the Olduvai Gorge as well as others). At the same time, some specifics of the lithic assemblage reflect the uniqueness of the site and its functional type. Layer 80 of the Muhkai II site is estimated to date to within the chronological interval ∼2.1–1.7 mya.
Entre 2004 et 2006, un ensemble de sites du Paléolithique inférieur a été découvert au nord-est du Caucase: Ainikab I–VI, Gegalashur I–III and Muhkai I–II. Depuis lors, ces sites ont fait l’objet de recherches scientifiques approfondies particulièrement le site de Muhkai II. Dans ce site, une séquence de sédiments du Pléistocène inférieur de 73 m d’épaisseur présente une stratigraphie contenant plusieurs niveaux culturels. Ces couches, datées de 2,1 à 0,8 millions d’années, correspondent au Pléistocène inférieur. La couche 80 de Muhkai II est située dans la partie centrale de la section, à une profondeur de −33,6 à −34,0 m. Son importance réside dans le fait que le site contient deux couches culturelles – la couche supérieure et la couche inférieure – qui sont bien conservées ou du moins ont été soumises à des processus fluviaux minimaux. Elles contiennent des artefacts lithiques et des restes osseux. D’après les observations sur le terrain et les analyses microstratigraphiques, les couches culturelles peuvent être caractérisées comme d’anciennes zones d’occupation. Deux niveaux d’occupation peuvent être définis dans la couche culturelle inférieure. La couche 80 de Muhkai II correspond au bord d’un plan d’eau périodiquement visité où l’acquisition et la boucherie de grands mammifères ont eu lieu. L’ensemble faunistique contient 301 ossements provenant de mammifères, quatre espèces de carnivores et six espèces d’herbivores. L’industrie lithique comporte 1094 pièces. Selon des critères typologiques et technologiques, l’assemblage lithique se rapporte à l’Oldowayen et présente des analogies avec les sites oldowayens africains (en particulier avec les sites de la gorge d’Olduvai ainsi que d’autres). En même temps, certaines particularités de l’ensemble lithique reflètent le caractère unique du site et son type fonctionnel. La couche 80 du site de Muhkai II est estimée, à ce jour, appartenir à l’intervalle chronologique ∼2,1–1,7 mya.
... Ma. This is confirmed by a combi- nation of paleontological and paleomagnetic data related to the section ( Amirkhanov et al., 2014Amirkhanov et al., , 2016Chepalyga et al., 2012;Derevyanko et al., 2012). The argument for the establishment of the upper age limit was the discovery of bone remnants of voles of the genus Mimomys in layer 80 of Muhkai 2 site, which, in turn, lies in a sequence of sediments below Olduvai paleomagetic episode. ...
The article gives an analytical overview of paleoanthropological finds from Palaeolithic Caucasus. Archaeological studies show that in the Early Pleistocene, the region was extensively inhabited. The path of the first settlers ran along the Western Caspian and possibly the Eastern Black Sea regions. This way was probably a transit on the one hand, and, on the other hand, a natural refuge where natural resources allowed people to exist for a relatively long time. Further evolutionary process, according to the paleoanthropological remains, was associated with Western Asia, as well as with Western Europe. However, the emergence of Homo sapiens in the Caucasus was most likely due to the migration of sapiens forms from the African continent around 100 thousand years ago.
... Approximately coeval stone industries of the Oldowan Paleolithic locally also possessing Acheulian features were found in the northern Arabian Plate: in the Orontes [38,41] and Euphrates [40] river valleys in Syria, as well as near the settlement of Birecik [42] and in the Göksu-Chai River valley [60] in southern Turkey. In the AlpineHimalayan Belt, similar ware was found near the town of Мalatya and at the lower reaches of the Murat River and in southern Russia, including the Taman Peninsula [33] and Dagestan [30,35,36]. Two landscape features are typical of both African pra-fatherland for the oldest hominine and the aforementioned areas of Syria, Turkey, Armenia, and Georgia. ...
New data on the stratigraphy, faults, and formation history of lower to middle Pleistocene rocks in Late Cenozoic basins of northwestern Armenia are presented. It has been established that the low-mountain topography created by tectonic movements and volcanic activity existed in the region by the onset of the Pleistocene. The manifestations of two geodynamic structure-forming factors became clear in Pleistocene: (i) collisional interaction of plates due to near-meridional compression and (ii) deep tectogenesis and magma formation expressed in the distribution of vertical movements and volcanism. The general uplift of the territory, which was also related to deep processes, reached 350–500 m in basins and 600–800 m in mountain ranges over the last 0.5 Ma. The early Pleistocene (~1.8 Ma) low- and medium-mountain topography has been reconstructed by subtraction of the latest deformations and uplift of the territory. Ancient human ancestry appeared at that time.
... Dark red triangles correspond to ages ranging from 2.0-1.2 Ma for sites of (1) Dmamisi 5, 6 , (2) Muhkai II41 , (3) Kermek 42 , (4) Rodniki 42 , (5) Bogatyri 42 , (6) Kozarnika 43 , (7) Pirro Nord 44 , and (8) Orce 7, 8 ; red diamonds to 1.2-1.1 Ma at (9) Sima del Elefante 9 , (10) Bois-de-Riquet 10 , (11) and Vallonnet (this study); and pink circles to ages around 1.1-0.9 Ma at (12) Lunery 13 , (13) Untermassfeld 14 , (14) Monte Poggiolo 15 , (15) Vallparadis 16 and (16) Happisburgh 17 . ...
The first " Out of Africa " migrations represent a seminal event in the history of humankind. At the gates of Europe, the first appearance of Hominins is recorded in Georgia, 1.8 million years ago (Ma); however, the picture of migration across the continent remains incomplete. Vallonnet Cave (France) is a Lower Paleolithic prehistoric site with traces of hominin activities including lithic remains and cut-marks on mammal bones. Here, we apply the uranium-lead (U-Pb) methods to two flowstones to date the intervening archaeological levels. The U-Pb data, coupled with paleomagnetic constraints, provide an age range from 1.2 to 1.1 Ma. The results conclusively demonstrate that Vallonnet Cave is one of the oldest European prehistoric sites in France with early hominin occupations associated with an Epivillafranchian fauna. Combined with data from other archaeological sites, the new precise chronology suggests a widespread occupation the Northern Mediterranean to Southwestern Europe at ~1.2 Ma.
... Малатья и низовьях р. Мурат [60], и на юге России, на Таманском полуострове [33] и в Дагестане [30,35,36]. ...
The species composition of the mid-Early Pleistocene fauna in northwestern Azerbaijan has been elucidated through the analysis of fossil material recovered from the Palan-Tyukan site. This research also included a review of the relevant literature. The paleontological material has been fossilized to a similar extent, indicating similar burial conditions. Animal bones at the site were accumulated during a single sedimentation cycle in sediments of what was once a shallow, heavily silted body of water with slow-flowing or standing water. We have identified 16 species of large mammals, whose presence has allowed us to determine the time period in which this faunal complex existed, as well as the characteristics of the natural environment at the time of its formation. The order Carnivora is represented by 10 individuals, the order Proboscidea by 2 individuals, the order Perissodactyla by 3 individuals, and the order Artiodactyla by 18 individuals. The Palan-Tyukan paleo-landscape can be described as a mosaic of different environments. Flat riverine areas with dense vegetation gradually transitioned into the hilly steppe with mixed vegetation of varying densities. Our reconstruction of the paleogeographic environment indicates that large mammals of Palan-Tyukan lived there under conditions of a relatively humid subtropical climate. The Palan-Tyukan faunal complex belongs to the Mediterranean palaeobiogeographical subregion, biozone MNQ18, at the beginning of the Late Villafranchian period, and falls within the time interval from 1.93 to 1.77 million years ago.
The Lower Pliocene to upper Middle Pleistocene continental sedimentary infillings of the Baza Basin (Guadix-Baza Depression, SE Spain) are worldwide unique by their high stratigraphic completeness and exceptional preservation of their fossil record of terrestrial vertebrates. These sediments were deposited in fluvio-lacustrine environments and preserve huge assemblages of large mammals, including the oldest evidence of hominin presence in Western Europe at the late Lower Pleistocene sites of Barranco León and Fuente Nueva-3, dated to ∼1.4 Ma. Since latest Miocene times, the basin was subject to intense tectonic activity, showing sedimentary deposits originated from ancient hot springs. These hot springs were developed in a spatio-temporal network related to tectonic fractures, showing a higher concentration in the Orce sub-basin during Late Pliocene to Holocene times. Compositional analyses of cherts and other facies associated with these hot springs show geochemical and mineralogical markers linked to hydrothermal scenarios. The contribution of hot springs in the Baza Basin resulted in rich and productive biotopes, which supported a high diversity and biomass of terrestrial mammals. Similar geological, hydrochemical and ecological environments are found along hotspot lines in East Africa, the Levantine Corridor and the circum-Mediterranean realm. We hypothesize here that the presence of these hot springs corridors favored the dispersal of hominins and other large mammals during the Plio-Pleistocene, which led to the first hominin arrival in Europe.
The Early Pliocene to late Middle Pleistocene continental sedimentary infillings of the Baza Basin (Guadix-Baza Depression, SE Spain) are worldwide unique by their high stratigraphic completeness and exceptional preservation of their fossil record of terrestrial vertebrates. These sediments were deposited in fluvio-lacustrine environments and preserve huge assemblages of large mammals, including the oldest evidence of hominin presence in Western Europe at the late Early Pleistocene sites of Barranco León and Fuente Nueva-3, dated to ∼1.4 Ma. Since latest Miocene times, the basin was subject to intense tectonic activity, showing sedimentary deposits originated from ancient hot springs. These hot springs were developed in a spatio-temporal network related to tectonic fractures, showing a higher concentration in the Orce sub-basin during Late Pliocene to Holocene times. Compositional analyses of cherts and other facies associated with these hot springs show geochemical and mineralogical markers linked to hydrothermal scenarios. The contribution of hot springs in the Baza Basin resulted in rich and productive biotopes, which supported a high diversity and biomass of terrestrial mammals. Similar geological, hydrochemical and ecological environments are found along hotspot lines in East Africa, the Levantine Corridor and the circum-Mediterranean realm. We hypothesize here that the presence of these hot springs corridors favored the dispersal of hominins and other large mammals during the Plio-Pleistocene, which led to the first hominin arrival in Europe.
The article analyzes archaeological materials from the Ainikab 6 Early Paleolithic site in Central Dagestan. Location Ainikab 6 is located on the southeastern outskirts of the village. Ainikabmakhi on the remnant of the 145-meter terrace of the Usisha River. The considered stone inventory comes from the pebble-gravel deposits of the terrace. According to the geological and geomorphological data, the age of the archaeological finds coming from the alluvium of the 145-meter terrace is estimated within the framework of the Baku horizon of the Caspian regional stratigraphic scheme (800-500 thousand years ago). The collection includes single single-platform cores, large and small tools made from flakes and fragments of flint raw materials, debitage. The tool set is represented by various types of choppers, a flat pick, scrapers, knives, scrapers. The stone inventory also contains archaic axes and a cross-bladed biface. The presence of axes in the stone inventory indicates that the monument belonged to the Acheulean industry.
The authors discuss the geoarchaeological data indicating that the Oldowan-age assemblages, which are reported during the last years on the Taman peninsula, in the northwestern Caucasus, and in Dagestan, in the northeastern Caucasus, are found in the marine coast environment near the contact with the sea basin, with evidence for the presence of shallow water (in Muhkai II and other localities in Dagestan) or wave activity (in Kermek and other localities on Taman). The marine environment is not reported in any Early Pleistocene archaeological site in either Europe or southwestern Asia, or Africa. Moreover, the geological contexts identified in the Early Pleistocene localities in the Northern Caucasus correspond to typical conditions for the formation of eoliths or geofacts. The combined archaeological and geoarchaeological indicators strongly suggest that these North Caucasian assemblages most likely represent collections of naturally broken stones that were selected by researchers among fragments of the same rock that is present naturally in these areas.
The lithic industries of the sites Kermek, Ciscaucasia (2.1–2.0 Ma) and Karakhach, South Caucasus (1.85–1.78 Ma) contain almost all the components of the Acheulian, indicating that this techno-complex appeared in the different areas of the Caucasus region not later than at the end of the Gelasian. Such extremely old ages of these industries as well as a number of their features due to the influence of the local raw material (tabular clasts) suggest that they were formed independently of the Early Acheulian industries known in Africa and the Near East. The very early appearance and further dispersal of Early Acheulian in the Caucasus can be explained by the presence there of raw materials with qualities supporting the production of large tools inherent of Acheulian, and by the very favorable natural conditions of the region in the final Gelazian-initial Calabrian (low or medium altitude terrain with subtropical climate and savanna-like landscape).
Résumé
Le présent article a pour objectif de présenter les résultats d’études de la collection paléontologique issue du site de Muhkai 2 (Daghestan central, Russie). Actuellement, elle est constituée de 2508 ossements déterminés, attribués à 19 espèces de mammifères. Le gisement résulte probablement d’une mort naturelle des animaux. Il est déterminé que toutes les espèces livrées par le site de Muhkai 2 caractérisent des paysages ouverts ou semi-ouverts. L’âge géologique estimé du site est compris entre 2,1 et 1, 77 Ma.
The main premise of this work is highlighting how old the human race
actually is. Its origins, as the Author believes, are constantly shifting deeper into
history, reaching now millions of years’ distance.
Our position in relation to animals makes us unique beings, if only because
it is solely us who can meditate on this subject. One should agree that evolution
of our kind is a biological process, but talking about it is exclusively a product of
our culture.
The Author is aware that this book asks more questions than it answers.
This is what it must be at the current level of our knowledge. The dynamic of
archeological, paleontological and genetic discoveries is simply too great at
this point in the 21st century. In reference to the possible criticism that the
Author treats many of the findings presented in this book as hypotheses (and
even working hypotheses), the Author must point out that in his opinion it is
impossible to do otherwise.
We have been on this planet for a very long time, at least several million
years. The concepts of separate species of Homo which appear in academic
discourse are rather vague. The crossbreeding of different kinds of proto-humans
points rather to the community of humanity of these creatures rather than to the
unbridgeable gaps between them.
This phenomenon has various biological and cultural consequences. One
must be aware that such creations of the human spirit, perhaps supported by
264 ABSTRACT
natural abilities, such as morality and, consequently, ethics and the foundations
of the law, are very old. They are as old as we are. This is the fact that the Author
wants to highlight in this book.
Spirituality (symbolic culture), and in general - culture forming social
structures specific for humans, even if not originating in our minds and being only
a manifestation of biological evolution (although it has not been convincingly
explained how this happens solely on the biological path), must still be stored
in our minds. Most likely, they are or at some point become emergent entities in
relation to the underlying factors. They form a new human quality.
Culture, including legal culture, must have human mental space appropriate
for its impact. It is within this culture that validation decisions are made with
respect to the origin of legal norms as such (the origin of natural law) and the
legitimacy of its application in a given case (the impact of primitive law). This
publication makes an attempt to present the research area which appears under
the influence of the achievements of the Stone Age archeology, exploring the
beginnings of our kind.
The ambitious goal of this work is showing the stage on which these
phenomena, extremely important for our existence, were able to occur both
in time, in physical space, as well as in the mental space of our ancestors. This
attempt is an archaeologist’s look at pra-culture with an emphasis on the moment
when law may appear as a product of the human condition, which may be as old
as the condition itself. It is widely known that the older something is, the more
attractive it is to archaeologists.
The work includes numerous references to research on contemporary
primates, which in the face of rapid changes of the world are under threat in their
forest habitats. We must protect them! We are responsible for animals, as well
as for the whole nature. What is more, taking care of nature, we also take care
of ourselves. Protecting the environment is one of our most important tasks at
present. Understanding our responsibility for the world and actively participating
in its protection, in the Author’s opinion, makes much more sense than trying to
equate people with animals.
Key words:
human evolution, The Stone Age archeology, begginings of primitive law
Equus (Allohippus) stenonis из местонахождения Мухкай 2а (слой 2, Центральный Дагестан, Россия). Они представляют особый интерес из-за своей многочисленности и могут свидетельствовать об одном из первых пребываний древнего человека на Северном Кавказе-около 1.95 млн. лет назад. В результате сравнения состава и соотношения костей лошади Стенона, особенностей их тафономии показано, что местонахождение является результатом естественной гибели животных. Предполагается, что основная масса костей залегала в отложениях некогда неглубокого периодически пересыхающего и сильно заиленного водоема со слабо текущей или стоячей водой. После полного пересыхания водоема палеонтологический материал оказался запечатанным в глинистой массе, которая, в свою очередь, была захоронена в ходе дальнейших геологических процессов. Исходя из этого, в статье предлагается возможный сценарий формирования данного костного скопления. Скорей всего, это было место водопоя различных животных, где часть из них гибла в силу естественных причин (например, увязала, тонула), кто-то становился добычей хищников. Позже происходило захоронение снесенных в водоем целых трупов или их частей. Очевидно, что тела недавно погибших животных не могли не привлекать к себе древнего человека, будучи легкодоступным источником белковой пищи. Нахождение артефактов и порезов древними каменными орудиями на бедренной кости лошади Стенона свидетельствует о присутствии в Мухкае 2а (слой 2) древнего человека, воздействие которого на формирование тафоценоза было минимальным. Ключевые слова: зооархеологический анализ, лошадь Equus (Allohippus) stenonis, ранний палеолит, Северный Кавказ ABSTRACT The paper presents zooarchaeological analysis of the remains of Stenon horse Equus (Allohippus) stenonis from the site Muhkai 2a (layer 2), Central Dagestan, Russia. They are of special interest because of their large number and * Автор-корреспондент / Corresponding author
Purpose. Archaeological findings on the western Caspian coast indicate that this part of the Caucasus was populated throughout the Pleistocene. The earliest human habitation in the region is dated back to around 2 million years ago (2 Ма), which corresponds to the period of initial expansion of early Homo beyond Africa. Information on the environment and the features of the early human material culture is crucial for our understanding of the Caucasus’ earliest history. It was alternating processes of transgression and regression of the Caspian Sea throughout the Pleistocene that determined the paleoenvironment in the eastern Caucasus. The Early Pleistocene landscape of the southeastern part of Eastern Europe and northeastern Caucasus was similar to African open landscapes nowadays. The Khapry faunal complex characterizes the environment of that period. Its vertebrate composition is close to that typical for African savanna. Both animal communities included similar types of large herbivores: the elephant, rhinoceros, antelope, giraffe, ostrich and others. The African savanna carnivore community included the lion, guepard, hyena and jakal. The Khapry complex included the hyena, large sabre toothed Felidae, guepard and others. The earliest artifact collections in the Northeastern Caucasus are the artifact assemblage from stratum 5 at Rubas-1 in southeastern Dagestan and the archaeological materials from Ainikab-1, Mukhai-1 and 2 in Central Dagestan. The artifact age has been estimated in the range of ~ 2.3–1.8 Ma. Results. The initial stage of human habitation of the Northeastern Caucasus is characterized by two distinct lithic industries: the small tool industry (Rubas-1, stratum 5) and the Oldowan / pebble-flake industry (the Akushinski group of sites). Early human populations dispersed rather rapidly over the low-altitude savannas in the relative proximity to the seashore under the favorable environmental conditions of the initial Pleistocene. After the initial peopling stage, human communities set apart in particular regions where lithic industries were formed and developed. The first major region represents the Caspian shores (the small tool industry: Rubas-1); the second zone is the higher plateaus at the altitude not exceeding 1 500 m asl (pebble-flake industry: Dmanisi, Central Dagestan sites). Conclusion. It is asserted that the early human populations migrating out of Africa through Western Asia to the Caucasus, and its eastern part in particular, remained in the habitual environment, and it did not require any substantial changes in the adaptation strategies including stone working techniques and lithic tool production.
Most of the research on fossil mammals from Umbria (central Italy) has been carried out in the southwestern branch of the Tiber basin, due to its paleontological richness. This portion of the basin extends from Perugia to Terni and corresponds to a well-defined half-graben filled with fluvial-lacustrine deposits. The paleontological sample presented here was discovered in a sand and gravel quarry at Podere San Lorenzo, East of the town of Deruta. The stratigraphic succession exposed in the quarry is no longer visible, but we describe here a new outcrop (Palazzone), which is not far from Podere San Lorenzo and shows comparable facies associations. The two successions were deposited in a fluvial environment characterized by an average reduction of the hydrodynamic energy from the bottom upwards. They are referred to the Early Pleistocene Santa Maria di Ciciliano Subsyntheme (Madonna dei Bagni Lithofacies). Large mammal remains are attributed to Mammuthus cf. meridionalis (Nesti, 1825), Stephanorhinus etruscus (Falconer, 1859), Equus stenonis Cocchi, 1867, Leptobos cf. etruscus (Falconer, 1868), ‘Pseudodama’ nestii (Azzaroli, 1947), and Sus strozzii Forsyth Major, 1881. Some hyena coprolites are also reported. The assemblage is typical of the early Late Villafranchian Land Mammal Age and can be referred to the Olivola/Tasso Faunal Units (about 2.0–1.8 Ma). This is in agreement with the alleged age of some other assemblages found in the southwestern branch of the Tiber basin (e.g., Torre Picchio, Villa San Faustino, Colle Sant’Andrea, Pantalla).
The paper presents zooarchaeological analysis of the remains of Stenon horse Equus (Allohippus) stenonis from the site Muhkai 2a (layer 2), Central Dagestan, Russia. They are of special interest because of their large number and can testify to one of the first visits of an ancient man in the North Caucasus – about 1.95 million years ago. As a result of the comparison of the composition and ratio of the Stenon horse bones, their taphonomic features, showed that the site is the result of natural death of the animals. It is assumed that the bulk of the bones were laid in the deposits of a once shallow, periodically drying out and strongly silted reservoir with weakly flowing or standing water. After complete drying of the reservoir, the paleontological material was sealed in a clay mass, which in turn was buried during further geological processes. Based on this, we suggest a possible scenario for the formation of the bone accumulation. Most likely, it was a watering place for various animals, where some of them perished for natural reasons, for example, they got bogged down, drowned, and someone of them became prey for predators. Later, there was a burial of whole corpses, or parts thereof, transported to the pond. Obviously, the bodies of recently dead animals could not help attracting an ancient man, being an easily accessible source of protein food. The presence of artifacts and cut marks on the femur of Stenon horse indicate the presence of an ancient man in Muhkai 2a (layer 2), but the human activity seems to have played a minimal role in the taphocenosis forming.
Application of magnetostratigraphic methods together with the evaluation of well-dated Pliocene faunas from Western Europe allows the absolute dating of the La Puebla de Valverde fossil locality. The local sequence of magnetozones is based on the stepwise thermal demagnetization of more than 70 standard samples belonging to 33 stratigraphic levels along a 30 m long profile. Four different local magnetozones can be unambiguously defined.
The profile is characterized by a dominant reverse polarity except for the lower 5 meters (normal polarity) and a small interval (1-2m) around meter 15. From the biostratigraphic point of view La Puebla de Valverde is older than Blassac (Olduvai), even older than Senèze (between Olduvai and Reunion) and younger than Montopoli (just over Gauss/Matuyama boundary). The biostratigraphic age is also similar to Chilhac and Saint Vallier fossil localities. In view of the biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic information the sampled section can be dated between 3.04 Ma and 1.95 Ma. The fossil locality, in the upper and reverse part of the profile, is interpreted to be bellow the Olduvai chron (1.95-1.78 Ma) and located over the Reunion event (2.27-2.14 Ma)
The sedimentary sequence cored in the Senèze maar (Velay, France) is very favourable for magnetostratigraphy of the Late Pliocene and for studying the paleoenvironmental changes that occurred during that period. The magnetostratigraphic studies revealed that the sediments from this lacustrine sequence were deposited during the Matuyama reverse period, except for the upper part where a short normal polarity episode was recorded. A tephra layer interbedded in the sediments contemporaneous with this normal polarity event is dated at 2.10±0.01 Ma by the 40Ar/39Ar method. Using this chronological marker, it can be inferred that the normal polarity episode recorded in the Senèze sequence corresponds to the Réunion event and that the age of the normal–reverse transition closing this event is ca. 2.09 Ma. These chronological constraints also permit to (1) demonstrate that the ‘Villafranchian’ mammal fauna found in the Senèze maar is younger than 2.09 Ma and (2) correlate the climatic events recorded in the Senèze sequence to the marine δ18O records. This suggests that the Senèze pollen sequence (5–120 m depth) ranges from isotopic stage 85 to 76.
The early Pleistocene colonization of temperate Eurasia by Homo erectus was not only a significant biogeographic event but also a major evolutionary threshold. Dmanisi's rich collection of hominin fossils, revealing a population that was small-brained with both primitive and derived skeletal traits, has been dated to the earliest Upper Matuyama chron (ca. 1.77 Ma). Here we present archaeological and geologic evidence that push back Dmanisi's first occupations to shortly after 1.85 Ma and document repeated use of the site over the last half of the Olduvai subchron, 1.85-1.78 Ma. These discoveries show that the southern Caucasus was occupied repeatedly before Dmanisi's hominin fossil assemblage accumulated, strengthening the probability that this was part of a core area for the colonization of Eurasia. The secure age for Dmanisi's first occupations reveals that Eurasia was probably occupied before Homo erectus appears in the East African fossil record.
This paper provides new insights on the geographical and the chronological distribution of the European Caprinae and Antilopinae from the Late Pliocene, the Pleistocene and the Holocene. From 254 localities, 18 genera and 42 species were identified. Their occurrence in the biozonation of the Pliocene and the Pleistocene is considered :MNQ 16: Gazella borbonica, Pliotragus ardeus, Gazellospira torticornis, Parastrepsiceros sokolovi.MNQ 17: G. borbonica, G. bouvrainae, G. aegeae, Gazella sp. 1, Gazella sp. 2, P. ardeus, Gazellospira sp., G. torticornis, Procamptoceras brivatense, Gallogoral meneghinii, Euthyceros thessalicus, Megalovis latifrons, Soergelia sp., Hemitragus orientalis.MNQ 18: G. bouvrainae, P. ardeus, G. torticornis, Antilope koufosae, P. brivatense, Gallogoral meneghinii, Ovis ammon ssp., O. ammon antiqua, H. orientalis.Early Pleistocene (MNQ 19 and first part of MNQ 20): G. bouvrainae, G. torticornis, G. meneghinii, P. brivatense, Pontoceros ambiguus, Caprovis savini, M. balcanicus, Soergelia sp. 1, Soergelia sp. 2, S. brigittae, S. minor, S. intermedia, Praeovibos mediterraneus, Ovis sp., Ovis ammon antiqua, H. cf. orientalis, H. albus, Capra dalii, Rupicapra sp.Middle Pleistocene (from the second part of MNQ 20 to MNQ 24): P. macedonicus, P. priscus, S. aff. intermedia, S. elisabethae, Ovibos pallantis, Ovis sp. , O. ammon antiqua, H. cf. orientalis, H. bonali, H. cedrensis, Capra sp., C. ibex, C. caucasica, R. rupicapra, R. pyrenaica.Late Pleistocene (MNQ 25 and MNQ 26): O. pallantis, H. cedrensis, C. ibex, C. caucasica, C. pyrenaica, O. argaloides, R. rupicapra, R. pyrenaica.Holocene: C. ibex, C. caucasica, C. pyrenaica, R. rupicapra, R. pyrenaica.Asynchrony exists comparing appearance and disappearance of some taxa: certain species penetrate earlier in East (Caucasus, Balkans: Megalovis, Capra, Rupicapra) ; some stay longer after their disappearance in the “cul-de-sac” of the Mediterranean area (Iberic peninsula, Italy, Greece : Gazella, Gazellospira, Pliotragus, Gallogoral, Ovis) and the Caucasus (Gallogoral).Some genera do not disappear at the end of the Pliocene: three are present to the beginning of the Lower Pleistocene(Gazellospira, Gallogoral, Procamptoceras), one (Megalovis) exists until the end of the Lower Pleistocene, and two (Pliotragus and Soergelia) until the Middle Pleistocene ; five (Gazella, Antilope, Hemitragus, Ovis and Capra) are present until now. At least two genera are present during the Miocene: Gazella and Pliotragus.The boundary between the Late Pliocene and the Pleistocene as defined today, does not correspond to a major structural change in the Caprinae and Antilopinae but to transformations connected to environmental modifications. This result is in accordance with the proposition to consider: - The Quaternary as a Period with the base at –2.6 Ma (base of the Gelasian),- The Pleistocene as an Epoch with the base at –2.6 Ma,- The Gelasian as a stage corresponding to the Late Pliocene.
The Plio-Pleistocene site of Dmanisi, Georgia, has yielded a rich fossil and archaeological record documenting an early presence of the genus Homo outside Africa. Although the craniomandibular morphology of early Homo is well known as a result of finds from Dmanisi and African localities, data about its postcranial morphology are still relatively scarce. Here we describe newly excavated postcranial material from Dmanisi comprising a partial skeleton of an adolescent individual, associated with skull D2700/D2735, and the remains from three adult individuals. This material shows that the postcranial anatomy of the Dmanisi hominins has a surprising mosaic of primitive and derived features. The primitive features include a small body size, a low encephalization quotient and absence of humeral torsion; the derived features include modern-human-like body proportions and lower limb morphology indicative of the capability for long-distance travel. Thus, the earliest known hominins to have lived outside of Africa in the temperate zones of Eurasia did not yet display the full set of derived skeletal features.
The study of Plio-Pleistocene mammal assemblages of Italian peninsula testifies strong modifications, influenced by climate changes. These assemblages are assigned to 13/16 FUs (= Faunal Units). The geochronological attribution of three of them is based only on biochronological estimates. These last FUs include two successive FUs of Late Villafranchian, Farneta and Pirro. Farneta FU is characterised by many species already present in the older Tasso FU but also by the FO (= First Occurrence) of some new elements like the first megacerine cervid Praemegaceros obscurus, the small rhino Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis, whilst in some lineages more advanced forms are present: Axis eurygonos evolved from Axis nestii, Mammuthus meridionalis vestinus, advanced subspecies of the Southern Mammoth. The turnover between Farneta and Pirro FUs is evidenced by the disappearance of some long lived elements like the bovids of the genus Leptobos, the cervids of the genus Eucladoceros, the canids Canis etruscus and Lycaon falconeri and by the FO of some species, like a bison, Bison (Eobison) degiulii, a slender horse of medium size, Equus altidens, a big baboon, Theropithecus sp., a new hunting dog, Lycaon lycaonoides. Lithic artefacts testifies also the presence, for the first time in Europe (Pirro Nord locality, southern Italy), of the genus Homo.
Our knowledge of Early Biharian (broadly corresponding to Late Villafranchian) micromammal assemblages assigned to Farneta and Pirro FUs is limited and comparisons between faunas testifying different environments is not easy. Allophaiomys chalinei, an ibero-occitanic element, is present only in Farneta FU. A. ruffoi of Farneta FU is rather primitive whilst in Pirro FU the typical form is present. This last FU is characterised as far as we know, by the FO in Italy of the living species of the genus Apodemus (A. flavicollis, A. sylvaticus) and a diversification of the genus Crocidura.
The modifications occurred in the faunal assemblages of Pirro FU, especially on the large mammals, indicate a tendency to more arid environments. Moreover, strong differences of the small mammal assemblages seems to indicate also a more pronounced climatic diversification (latitudinal and/or altitudinal) of the environments.
Cet article présente les résultats de fouilles et de recherches multidisciplinaires sur le site extraordinaire Muhkai II d’Oldowan, dans le Nord du Caucase (république du Dagestan, Russie) de 2008 à 2012. Les matériaux archéologiques et paléontologiques, de même que les résultats d’analyses paléomagnétiques et palynologiques obtenus à partir de 34 niveaux du site, sont ici présentés. Tout ceci fournit l’opportunité d’une nouvelle approche à propos de l’itinéraire et de l’époque des premiers peuplements humains dans les moyennes latitudes de l’Europe occidentale, incluant l’Europe sub-orientale. D’après les résultats obtenus, leur installation remonterait à environ 2 Ma BP et la trajectoire de migration a été localisée le long du rivage occidental de la mer Caspienne.
New fieldwork undertaken at Saint-Vallier from 1993–1999 has revealed that the site has two fossiliferous horizons of hardened loess, of which the upper (LD 3) is richer and may be considered the reference locality for the Middle Villafranchian. The lower horizon, LD 2, yields many fewer taxa but is distinguished by the presence of an Allohippus stenonis quite different from that in LD 3.The faunal list includes six genera of molluscs, eight species of birds and 42 mammalian species, including three insectivores, six rodents, two lagomorphs, one primate, 15 carnivores, two proboscideans, four perissodactyls, and night artiodactyls. We have recovered fourteen taxa new to the locality: four molluscs, a bird, three insectivores, two rodents, two perissodactyls, and two artiodactyls. Pollen is relatively rare, but it is interesting to note the presence of cedar and plane trees.The mammalian community reflects a mosaic environment of steppe punctuated by open woodland, near a body of water and under a relatively moist but not especially cold climate.The age of the upper horizon is estimated at about 2 Ma; the mammalian fauna is characterized by eight species representing each an evolutionary stage in a defined lineage, two typical associations of taxa, and the first appearances (FADs) of seven taxa. Many European localities yield a comparable fauna with some or all of these features, and their ages correspond to the same biozone MNQ 17.
Between 2.5 and 0.8 Myr, at least four episodes of hominine dispersal from Africa to the Levant are known, each culturally distinct. All have settled on lakes or river banks. The oldest occurrence is Yiron, in the northern portion of the Israeli Rift, with flint artefacts in a fluviatile deposit below a basalt layer dated 2.4 Myr. Yiron was followed by the Ubeidiya group in the central Rift ca. 1.4 Myr, with a Lower Acheulean industry. Somewhat later, the Bizat Ruhama group has settled (1.0 Myr) in the eastern coastal plain, with a small, microlith-size industry. Around 0.8 Myr, newcomers have settled at Gesher Benot Yaaqov (GBY) in the northern Rift, introducing the cleaver tradition. None of the sites yielded human remains. The cultures of Bizat Ruhama and GBY have subsequently disappeared. During the Lower Palaeolithic the Levant remained largely an Acheulean province, probably evolved from Ubeidiya. The Late/Final Acheulean, with developed Levallois technology is the possible ancestor of the Middle Palaeolithic ‘Levallois–Mousterian’. To cite this article: A. Ronen, C. R. Palevol 5 (2006).
A fragment of a metatarsal of an extinct camel with chop marks found in the lower horizon of the Khapry alluvium on the Lower Don is described. The analysis demonstrated that the marks were left by a single tool with a robust and sharp edge (either a chopper or a large fl ake) during the butchering of a camel carcass. The animal belonged to the species Paracamelus alutensis – a typical member of the Khapry fauna (Middle Villafranchian, 2.1–1.97 Ma BP). The context of the find and the distinct traces of processing indicate an early human settlement of Eurasia.
The abundant documentation of small mammals in the Italian peninsula, collected over recent years, furnishes a detailed biochronological sequence mainly from the Late Pliocene onwards. An updated stratigraphic framework is here presented, based on the European small mammal biozonation. The Early Villanyian is characterized by Mimomys hassiacus, M. stehlini, and, later, poorly documented M. polonicus. The Late Villanyian localities are well characterized with M. pliocaenicus, M. pitymyoides and M. tigliensis. The older part of the Early Biharian is documented by assemblages containing Microtus (Allophaiomys) ex gr. pliocaenicus, M. pusillus, M. cf. ostramosensis and M. tornensis, while the later part of the Early Biharian, is characterized by advanced Microtus (Allophaiomys) species occurring together with M. pusillus or M. blanci. In the Late Biharian M. savini, Microtus hintoni-gregaloides, Microtus (Iberomys) ex gr. huescarensis-brecciensis and Terricola arvalidens occur. The Early Toringian with A. mosbachensis, Allocricetus bursae, Pliomys episcopalis and small-sized Microtus brecciensis, and the Late Toringian with A. terrestris in diversified associations are quoted. The most important faunal events are calibrated by independent chronological controls, thanks to the record of small mammals from lacustrine deposits. Several figures illustrate the most significant rodent species occurring in the succession of selected Italian localities.
Reconstructing the Neogene-Quaternary biostratigraphy in continental environments and recognising ‘boundaries’ between successive mammalian faunal complexes is a problematic task. The definition and application of biochronology has been often tainted by references to and inferences from biostratigraphy. Actually, the discontinuities in the continental sedimentary record, environmental conditions, taphonomic and sampling biases are responsible for the fact that the stratigraphical order of the lowest and highest occurrences of fossil remains (stratigraphic datum) does not necessarily reflect the temporal order of actual first/last appearances of taxa (palaeobiological events) in time. Nonetheless, the first/last appearance bioevents (recorded by lowest/highest occurrences of fossil remains in fossiliferous levels of different continental stratigraphical successions) have been the principal foundation for establishing the biochronological setting of continental mammal faunas. Therefore, from a theoretical point of view, ‘boundaries’ should be defined by the oldest and/or youngest ‘historical occurrence’ of one or more taxa. What about an operational approach?Some examples of the Italian faunas are presented, focusing on the transition from the Villafranchian to the Galerian and from the Galerian to the Aurelian Land-Mammal Ages. The results obtained indicate the difficulty of defining a stable scheme that can be applied for correlation by the international scientific community.
Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East Early Humans at the eastern gate of Europe: the discovery and investigation of Oldowan sites in the Northern Caucasus Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85e1.78 Ma
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- Yu N Sablin
- M V Trubikhin
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Amirkhanov, H.A., 2012. Pamyatniki Rannego Pleistotsena Tsentral'nogo Dagestana (in Russian). In: Problems of the Palaeolith of Dagestan, pp. 6e67 (Early Pleistocene sites of Central Dagestan). Novosibirsk. Amirkhanov, H.A., Chepalyga, A.L., Trubikhin, V.M., Sadchikova, T.A., Pirogov, A.N., Taimazov, A.I., 2012b. Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East. In: International Conference: Geomorphic Processes and Geoarchaeology: from Landscape Archaeology to Archaeotour-ism. Moscow-Smolensk, 20e24 August, pp. 57e62. Amirkhanov, H.A., Ozherel'ev, D.V., Gribchenko, Yu.N., Sablin, M.V., Trubikhin, V., Semenov, V.V., 2014. Early Humans at the eastern gate of Europe: the discovery and investigation of Oldowan sites in the Northern Caucasus. Comptes Rendus Palevol 13, 717e725. Cr egut-Bonnoure, E., 2007. Apport des Caprinae et Antilopinae (Mammalia, Bovi-Ferring, R., Oms, O., Agustí, J., Berna, F., Nioradze, M., Shelia, T., Tappen, M., Vekua, A., Zhvania, D., Lordkipanidze, D., 2011. Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85e1.78 Ma. Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 10432e10436. Gu erin, C., Faure, M., Argant, A., Argant, J., Cr egut-Bonnoure, E., Debard, E., Delson, E., Eisenmann, V., Hugueny, M., Limondin-Lozouet, N., Martin-Suarez, E., Mein, P., Mourer-Chauvire ́, C., Parenti, F., Pastre, J.-F., Sen, S., Valli, A., 2004. Le gisement plioc ene sup erieur de Saint-Vallier (Dr^ ome, France): syn-th ese biostratigraphique et pal eo ecologique. Geobios 37, 349e360.
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Issledovaniya pamyatnikov oldovana na Severovostochnom Kavkaze (Predvaritelnye rezultaty) (in Russian). Taus, Moscow. The Investigations of Oldowan Sites in the North-eastern Caucasus
- H A Amirkhanov
Amirkhanov, H.A., 2007. Issledovaniya pamyatnikov oldovana na Severovostochnom Kavkaze (Predvaritelnye rezultaty) (in Russian). Taus, Moscow.
The Investigations of Oldowan Sites in the North-eastern Caucasus (Preliminary
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Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East
- H A Amirkhanov
- A L Chepalyga
- V M Trubikhin
- T A Sadchikova
- A N Pirogov
- A I Taimazov
Amirkhanov, H.A., Chepalyga, A.L., Trubikhin, V.M., Sadchikova, T.A., Pirogov, A.N.,
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Pamyatniki Rannego Pleistotsena Tsentral'nogo Dagestana (in Russian)
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Amirkhanov, H.A., 2012. Pamyatniki Rannego Pleistotsena Tsentral'nogo Dagestana
(in Russian). In: Problems of the Palaeolith of Dagestan, pp. 6e67 (Early
Pleistocene sites of Central Dagestan). Novosibirsk.
The Early Pleistocene Large Mammal Assemblages from Venta Micena, Fuente Nueva-3 and Barranco Le on-5
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