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NOTES ON NEGLECTED AND UNDERUTILIZED CROPS
Saccharum spontaneum: an underutilized tall grass
for revegetation and restoration programs
Vimal Chandra Pandey •Omesh Bajpai •
Deep Narayan Pandey •Nandita Singh
Received: 22 August 2014 / Accepted: 8 December 2014
ÓSpringer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract Saccharum spontaneum L. is a perennial
tall grass and invades naturally abandoned and pastoral
lands in many tropical countries. Although it is a
potentially multiple-use and multifunctional species, it
remains neglected and underutilized. It is commonly
known as ‘Wild cane’ in English and ‘Kans’ in Hindi. In
recent years, S. spontaneum has attracted serious
attention for its potential in ecological restoration. The
present paper deals with geographic distribution, ecol-
ogy, morphological description, multiple uses, restora-
tion potential, and propagation of this species. We also
report the suitability of S. spontaneum for the restoration
and stabilization of bare fly ash (FA) dumps. In this
context, the highest importance value index, visual
observations and practitioner insights reveal that S.
spontaneum has great ability to grow on bareFA dumps
and can be used as an ecological tool in restoration of
vast tracts of fly ash dumps across the world. Besides
grass vegetation study, we also report the change in
physicochemical properties of abandoned site and
compared with naturally colonized site with S. sponta-
neum of FA dumps to assess its ecological suitability for
restoration of bare FA dump. Overall, the field results
showed that S. spontaneum is a promising and potential
tall grass for the restoration of FA dumps.
Keywords Ecological restoration Fly ash dump
Natural colonization Saccharum spontaneum
Underutilized tall grass
Introduction
Growing waste dumps of a wide variety such as fly ash
(FA) dumps, mine spoils, red mud disposals, sewage
sludge and other wastes are worldwide ecological,
economic and social challenges. These waste-dumps
may cause heavy metals pollution, soil and water system
degradation, and serious dust pollution to atmosphere.
These waste-dumps pose adverse conditions for soil
microbe and plant growth, due to its low organic matter
and unfavourable substrate chemistry (Pandey and
Singh 2012). The pollution and consequent human
health risks from these dumps are indeed a large concern
requiring holistic approach to remediation. The man-
agement of waste-dumps is a challenging geotechnical
and ecological problem and a substantial issue for
ecological, economic and social sustainability.
Revegetation is one of the most widely used
approaches for controlling erosion and stabilisation of
waste-dumps, and thereby maintaining ecological
V. C. Pandey (&)N. Singh
Eco-Auditing Group, CSIR-National Botanical Research
Institute, Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
e-mail: vimalcpandey@gmail.com;
vimalcpandey@hotmail.com
O. Bajpai
Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi 221005, India
D. N. Pandey
Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board, Jaipur, India
123
Genet Resour Crop Evol
DOI 10.1007/s10722-014-0208-0
services and sustaining ecosystem functions (Tormo
et al. 2007; Pandey and Singh 2011; Pandey et al. 2012;
Pandey 2013; Pandey and Singh 2014). The role of
vegetation growth upon waste-dumps can be variously
described in terms of pollutants remediation, rehabil-
itation, substrate improvement, carbon sequestration,
and creating a functional ecosystem on derelict lands
(Pandey and Singh 2011; Pandey et al. 2012; Pandey
2013; Kumari et al. 2013; Verma et al. 2014).
Additionally, the root system of growing vegetation
play an important role in controlling the capture of
rainwater and evapotranspiration and the resulting pore
pressure reduction (Blight 1987; Hussain 1995). Eco-
logical restoration is a potential approach of renewing
degraded, damaged or derelict lands with afforestation
and cropping through active human intervention (Pan-
dey et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2012). Recent approaches
have posited restoration as an activity also aimed at
biodiversity enrichment and livelihoods improvement
of local communities (Pandey et al. 2014a). Indeed,
successful ecological restoration can create novel
multifunctional ecosystem capable of generating eco-
system services such as improved water quality and
increased carbon storage for the benefit of society.
Emerging recent research provides insightful knowl-
edge and perspectives of Saccharum spontaneum L.,
such as development of S. spontaneum fibers (Kaith et al.
2010); revegetation of uranium tailings (Singh and Soni
2010);bioethanol production(Chaudary et al.2012); and
reclamation of coal mine dump (Chaulya et al. 2000).
However, S. spontaneum based restoration is still poorly
studied in various waste-dumps and the subject requires
further exploration. The present study deals with the
restoration of flyash dumps through naturally colonizing
S. spontaneum for long-term protection of environment
and to develop a holistic approach for improving rural
livelihoods and sustaining ecosystems (Fig. 1).
In the sections that follow, we discuss ecology of the
species, geographic distribution, ecology, morpholog-
ical description, various uses, and the suitability of the
species for ecological restoration. We specifically
report the suitability of S. spontaneum for the restora-
tion and stabilization of bare fly ash (FA) dumps.
Ecology
Saccharum spontaneum L., a wasteland weed, is a tall
perennial C4 grass with deep roots and rhizomes,
growing up to 3–4 m in height. In the plains of north
India, it is commonly known as ‘‘Kans’’ and ‘‘Kansa’’
(Hindi name) but the Tharu tribes of Himalayan Terai
region (India and Nepal) also called it ‘Jhaksi’ as folk
name (Dangol 2005). S. spontaneum L. grows in banks
of water bodies (river, lakes and ponds), along roadsides
and railway tracks, alluvial plains, damp depressions
and swamps. It grows in lowland eco-region at the base
of the Himalayan range in India, Nepal, China and
Bhutan. It occurs at an altitude ranging from sea-level to
1,800 m (Holm et al. 1997). It belongs to Poaceae
family with Magnoliophyta division. Genus Saccharum
has five extant species, of which S. spontaneum L. is a
wild species. It also grows very well on less nutritious
sandy soils (Balyan et al. 1997). The species also shows
some allelopathic effects by leachates from their
Fig. 1 A A landscape view of naturally colonizing S. spontaneum on fly ash dump; BClose view of naturally colonizing S. spontaneum
on fly ash dump. Photographs by V.C. Pandey
Genet Resour Crop Evol
123
rhizomes and roots on crops (Amritphale and Mall
1978). The grass lands of S. spontaneum L. in the
Himalayan Terai and Duar, provide an important habitat
for the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis L.). The
species is most commonly found in association with
Saccharum bengalense Retz., Cynodon dactylon (L.)
Pers., Typha latifolia L., Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.)
Willd., Cyperus esculentus L., Eragrostis nutans (Retz.)
Nees ex Steud. and Fimbristylis umbellata Schrad. ex
Nees. Its phenological behaviour (flowering and fruiting
at the end of rains) make it capable to colonize very
quickly on the bare sandy soils, and invades abandoned
pastoral fields in many tropical countries.
Morphological description
Saccharum spontaneum is a tall (100–600 cm) perennial
grass with a creeping, tufted and rhizomatous rootstock.
Stem 100 90.4–400 91.5 cm, solid above, fistular
below (=Culm), serect, polished, robust; internodes
solid; node 5–10, waxy. Leaves linear-lanceolate, invo-
lute, with long hairs at base, base rounded; ligule
2–8 mm long, ovate, brown, membranous, ciliolate;
leafblade 45 90.2–200 91.5 cm, glabrous, apex ac-
cuminate, base simple or tapering to the white midrib,
scabrid to serrate along margins; sheath longer than
internode. Inflorescence plumose panicles; peduncle
hirsute above; panicle 15–60 cm long, silky white, axis
silky pilose or hirsute, open, ovate, dense; racemes
3–17 cm long; rachis internodes filiform; spikelets
homomorphic, 2.5–5.0 (-7.0) mm long, lanceolate,
reddish-brown, paired (one sessile and the other pedi-
celled), pilose with long silky hairs, awnless. Fertile
spikelets sessile, 0.35–0.70 cm long, lanceolate, dor-
sally compressed, two in the cluster, subequal; pedicels
filiform, ciliate. Glumes similar, membranous above,
chartaceous below; lower glume 3–4 91 mm, ovate-
lanceolate to elliptic, subcoriaceous to coriaceous,
acuminate at apex, ciliate along margins, much thinner
above, 2-keeled; upper glume 3–4 91mm, ovate-
lanceolate, coriaceous, acute at apex, ciliate along
margins, mucronate, much thinner above, without keels.
Florets basal sterile and upper fertile; sterile florets
barren, without significant palea; lemma 1–2 91mm,
lanceolate, hyaline, 0-veined, without midvein, without
lateral veins, acute at apex; fertile floret bisexual, first
lemma 1–2 91 mm,linear, hyaline; second lemma
2–2.5 mm long, linear-lanceolate, hyaline; Palea absent
or minute. Flower lodicules, cuneate, ciliate. Stamens
three; anthers yellow or reddish, 1.5–2.0 mm. Ovary
oblong; stigma white. Flowering and fruiting occurs
from June to September. Flowers emerge just before
rains and takes 1–2 months to produce seeds.
Geographic distribution
Saccharum spontaneum is native to South Asia (India)
(Panje 1970). Globally, it is distributed throughout the
tropical countries of Asia, Africa, America as well as
in tropical Australia. It is often planted in Bangladesh,
Sri Lanka, India, Nepal and Pakistan (Cook 1996).
Propagation
Saccharum spontaneum is propagated through seeds
as well as vegetatively by creeping rhizomes and stem
cuttings. The number of seeds produced per plant may
vary as 3,042 seeds/plant in India (Datta and Banerjee
1973) to 12,800 seeds/plant in Philippines (Pancho
1964). Due to the presence of callus hairs seed
dispersal occurs by wind. Occasionally few seeds get
entwined to form a woolly mass, which increase its
dispersal distance (Sharma and Tiagi 1979). The seeds
germinate and emerge in July–August after the first
rain of the season. Vegetative regeneration occurs by
rhizomes and stem fragments (Artschwager 1942).
Stem shows good regeneration potential even after
6 days of drying (Graham et al. 2014). S. spontaneum
is cultivated around the barren lands as hedges and
along the water canals to prevent soil erosion (Bhan-
dari 1990; Sastri and Kavathekar 1990).
Multiple uses
Saccharum spontaneum is one of the important
medicinal plants in traditional systems of medicine
in India according to Ayurveda. The roots of the plant
are sweet, astringent, emollient, refrigerant, diuretic,
lithotriptic, purgative, tonic, aphrodisiac and used in
the treatment of dyspepsia, burning sensation, piles,
sexual weakness, gynecological troubles, respiratory
troubles etc. (Kumar et al. 2010). Fresh juice of plant
stem is also used in the treatment of mental illness and
disturbances by different tribes in India. In Philip-
pines, numerous medicinal uses have been described
(Pancho and Obien 1983). In Indonesia, the young
shoots are boiled and relished with rice (Uphof 1968).
Culm of the species is a good source of pulp for the
Genet Resour Crop Evol
123
production of different grades of papers, especially the
grease-proof paper. Leaves are good thatching mate-
rial and used by local people in the making of ropes,
mats, baskets, broom, huts, etc. to support their
livelihood. It is reported as fodder for goats and
camels (Thakur 1984) in juvenile stage and suitable
for the production of silage (Komarov et al. 1963). Its
slow rate of decomposition makes it an excellent
mulching material (Wapakala 1966). S. spontaneum L.
contains high levels of carbohydrates in its cell walls
(67.85 % on a dry solid basis), which makes it novel
and suitable substrate for ethanol production (Chandel
et al. 2011; Scordia et al. 2010). It is a fast growing
biomass with flowers containing fibers. These fibers
are distinctly different in appearance from other type
fibers such as cotton, jute, flax, ramie and hemp. These
fibers are white/purplish silky and have better strength
and fineness (Bhandari 1990; Sastri and Kavathekar
1990). Chemical modification of S. spontaneum fibers
for enhancement of moisture retardance, chemical
resistance and thermal stability through graft copoly-
merization with methyl methacrylate and study of
morphological changes were studied by Kaith et al.
(2009). Furthermore, Kaith et al. (2010) worked on
development of corn starch based green composites
reinforced with Saccharum spontaneum fiber and graft
copolymers. From the perspective of ecological
importance, the species is very effective against soil-
erosion, due mainly its extensive rhizome network
(Bor 1960). The species also acts as a valuable genetic
resource containing various climatic stress tolerant
genes especially for sugarcane (Saccharum officina-
rum L.) (Anonymous 1972). Beside all these uses, it
also has religious importance in India.
Use of S. spontaneum in ecological restoration
programs
Ecologically, S. spontaneum is recognized as a good
colonizer of wastelands and marginal lands. The
ecological significance in terms of high biomass
productivity and good root system indicates that S.
spontaneum is a promising tall grass for restoring
disturbed soils and colonization of wastelands. S.
spontaneum is considered as a weed or the invasive
grass in some countries like the Republic of Panama as
it interferes with the natural vegetation over the
landscape (Park et al. 2010). S. spontaneum can be
used for restoration programs because of its ability to
grow on various waste-dumps where other plants are
unable to grow. It can survive on various types of
degraded lands like fly ash basins, mine spoils, red
mud disposals and other industrial disposals. Thus, it
contributes to enhance the productivity of underuti-
lized land resources. Interestingly, S. spontaneum
dominate the spoil-vegetation with a very high value
of prevalence (80 %) of over-burdens (Das et al.
2013). In a case study, S. spontaneum has been
identified in eco-restoration of a high-sulphur coal
mine overburden dumping site in northeast India
(Dowarah et al. 2009). S. spontaneum has been planted
in the initial phase of restoration of rock phosphate
mine (Bhatt 1990). S. spontaneum has reported for
restoration of sponge iron solid waste dumps (Kullu
and Behera 2011) and biostabilization for a coal mine
overburden dump slope (Chaulya et al. 1999). How-
ever, being invasive species, the control of spreading
of S. spontaneum is an important issue regarding
biodiversity loss. For this, Doren et al. (2009)
proposed a comprehensive ecological model to control
spreading of invasive species. Thus, we can follow this
ecological model to stop the spreading of S. sponta-
neum during the revegetation and restoration programs
and to allow native species to become established.
The fly ash dumps and its remediation
FA is a coal combustion residue of thermal power
stations and its disposal as FA dumps are serious
problems across the world (Pandey et al. 2009; Pandey
and Singh 2012). FA contains plant’s micro- and
macro-nutrients (Pandey and Singh 2010; Ram and
Masto 2014), and 10 % FA amended sand has been
recommended as a suitable rooting media for vegeta-
tive propagation of Leucaena leucocephala (Pandey
and Kumar 2013). Besides these nutrients, FA is also a
source of toxic metals, radioactive elements and
organic pollutants (Pandey et al. 2009,2011; Ribeiro
et al. 2014). Therefore, FA dump’s remediation is
urgently needed worldwide. Phytoremediation is a
holistic approach and has been found suitable for the
remediation of FA dumps (Ram et al. 2008; Pandey
et al. 2009; Maiti and Jaiswal 2008). Furthermore,
naturally colonizing and socio-economically valuable
plants based phytoremediation has been explored well
for the phytomanagement of FA basins and obtaining
self-sustainable FA ecosystem (Maiti and Nandhini
2006; Pandey et al. 2009; Pandey 2012a,b; Pandey
Genet Resour Crop Evol
123
2013; Pandey and Singh 2011). In the present study,
we now assess the restoration ability of naturally
colonizing S. spontaneum of FA basin in the next
section.
Experimental design
The field study was conducted at coal fly ash (FA)
dump of Unchahar thermal power station (25°5305900
N81°1705900 E), Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh (Pandey
et al. 2014b). For the study of grass diversity, we
surveyed vegetation colonizing on FA dump. Several
naturally colonizing grasses were noticed on coal FA
dump. S. spontaneum is one of the most abundantly
colonized grasses on this FA dump, and has been
reported from other FA dumps of India. For testing the
restoration ability of S. spontaneum grass on FA basin,
we took soil samples from the abandoned site and
naturally revegetated site with S. spontaneum grass.
Five 5 95 m quadrates were laid out at five different
points of FA dump, one in each direction (North, East,
West and South) and one in the centre of the FA
dumping site to cover the maximum range of varia-
tions in the vegetation as well as FA sampling.
Materials and methods
Twenty-five observations for quantitative assessment
of ecological data were done by laying quadrates. In
each quadrate number of individuals of each grass
species have been counted, and this information was
used to calculate frequency, density and abundance
(Curtis and McIntosh 1950). This was further used in
the calculation of relative frequency, density and
abundance and finally importance value index (IVI) by
adding them (Cootam and Curtis 1956). IVI represents
to the sum of relative frequency, relative density and
relative abundance to show the importance of a species
in the location (Singh et al. 2013). The details
regarding the definitions and calculation formulas of
others vegetation indices are presented in our earlier
work (Singh et al. 2013). All grasses were identified
with the help of pertinent floras and literature (Duthie
1960; Mishra and Verma 1992). At the same time,
twenty-five random composite samples of FA were
collected from the rhizosphere of dominant species S.
spontaneum colonizing naturally on FA dump to
reduce the spatial heterogeneity of the FA, if any. All
the FA samples were taken up to a 30 cm during the
digging of plant’s rhizosphere. Same process was also
done during the collection of soil samples from
abandoned site. The samples were air-dried and
ground to pass through a 2.0 mm sieve, homogenized
and analyzed for physicochemical characteristics. The
pH and electrical conductivity (EC) of FA were
analyzed by using a pH meter and a conductivity
meter, respectively. Organic carbon (OC) was ana-
lyzed by using the method of Walkley and Black
(1934). Available phosphorus was estimated by Olsen
et al. (1954). Potassium was determined by flame
photometric method. Nitrogen was estimated by the
micro-Kjeldhal method.
Results and discussion
Relative Frequency (R.F.), Relative density (R.D.),
Relative Abundance (R.Ab.) and importance value
index (IVI) of naturally growing grasses on fly ash
basin is presented in Table 1. The IVI calculated for
the individual grass species encountered on fly ash
basin revealed S. spontaneum L. was the most
important grass species followed by the Cynodon
dactylon (L.) Pers., Saccharum bengalense Retz.,
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd., Cyperus escu-
lentus L., Typha latifolia L., Fimbristylis bisumbellata
(Forssk.) Bubani and Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees
ex Steud. This indicates the ability of S. spontaneum to
compete with stressful conditions and survive on fly
ash basin. S. spontaneum appeared as a pioneer grass
species in abandoned fly ash landfill with an IVI about
146 %. This is consistent with our previous study
(Singh et al. 2013; Pandey et al. 2014a). We reported
91–182 % IVI of dominant grass S. spontaneum in
inner and outer sides of two fly ash dumps when other
grasses became an important companion species
(Pandey et al. 2014a). This indicates that most
adaptable species, S. spontaneum, created suitable
micro-climatic conditions for less adaptable species
towards succession. Indeed, several plants are able to
survive in hostile and nutrient poor soil conditions due
to their interactions with rhizosphere and root associ-
ated efficient microbes (Singh et al. 2011).
The physicochemical properties of abandoned and
naturally revegetated site with S. spontaneum of coal
FA dump is given in Table 2. In this study, the
porosity of abandoned site was higher (48.75 %)
Genet Resour Crop Evol
123
compared to naturally revegetated site with S. spon-
taneum (46.50 %). The water holding capacity (WHC)
of abandoned site was also highest (68.50 ±2.00 %)
than naturally revegetated site with S. spontaneum
(65.45 ±1.50 %). The pH and EC were higher in
abandoned site than the naturally revegetated site. The
reason of high pH in abandoned site may be due to the
alkaline nature of fly ash, because of the presence of
low sulphur content, hydroxides, carbonates of cal-
cium and magnesium in coal (Pandey and Singh 2010;
Pandey et al. 2009). Organic acids produced by root
associated microbes and present in root exudates may
play a significant role in the reduction of soil pH (Babu
and Reddy 2011; Koranda et al. 2011). Thus, it seems
that the lower pH in naturally revegetated site might be
due to the growth of S. spontaneum and root associated
microbes and also due to the accumulation of OC in
naturally revegetated FA basin. On the other hand,
OC, available N, available P, and available K were
significantly (P\0.05) higher in naturally revegetat-
ed FA dump with S. spontaneum than the abandoned
site. This was most likely due to the poor OC, N and
Pin ash substrate of FA dump (Pandey and Singh
2010). Increased level of OC was noticed in naturally
revegetated FA dump, and it may be due to fine root
decay of S. spontaneum. Because it is reported that
vegetation cover can restore soil organic matter (Ruiz-
Sinoga et al. 2012) and stabilize FA substrate (Pandey
et al. 2012) in degraded lands and FA dumps,
respectively. Available Pcontent was found to be
significantly higher (P\0.05) in naturally revegetat-
ed FA dump in comparison to abandoned site due to
the presence of phosphate solubilizing bacteria or
mycorrhizal associations in revegetated site. This
seems clearly that S. spontaneum has potential to
ameliorate the substrate of FA basins (decrease in pH
as well as increase in OC, available N, available P, and
available K). Overall, S. spontaneum has remarkable
potential for ecological restoration of FA dump and
thus convert these unproductive tracts into functional
ecosystems.
Conclusion and future perspective
The present study concludes that unfavourable physi-
cochemical properties of FA inhibit the vegetation
establishment and growth on freshly laid FA dump.
While some naturally colonizing grass species are
present on FA dump, the S. spontaneum is one of the
most abundantly colonized grasses. The highest impor-
tance value index, visual observations, practitioner
insights and analytical results presented in this study
demonstrated that S. spontaneum has great ability to
colonize on bare FA dumps and thus can be used as a
valuable genetic resource for ecological restoration.
We believe that our research has world-wide
relevance from the perspective of restoration of
waste-dumps, particularly in countries that are facing
Table 1 Relative Frequency (R.F.), Relative density (R.D.),
Relative Abundance (R.Ab.) and importance value index (IVI)
of naturally growing grasses on fly ash dump (n =25)
Plant species R.F. R.D. R.Ab. IVI
Saccharum spontaneum
L.
16.41 68.03 61.98 146.41
Cynodon dactylon (L.)
Pers.
13.28 14.68 16.52 44.49
Saccharum bengalense
Retz.
14.84 4.70 4.73 24.27
Dactyloctenium
aegyptium (L.) Willd.
10.94 4.45 6.08 21.47
Cyperus esculentus L. 10.94 3.98 5.43 20.35
Typha latifolia L. 13.28 2.78 3.13 19.19
Fimbristylis bisumbellata
(Forssk.) Bubani
9.38 1.01 1.62 12.01
Eragrostis nutans (Retz.)
Nees ex Steud.
10.94 0.37 0.51 11.82
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 300.00
Table 2 Physicochemical properties of abandoned and natu-
rally revegetated site with S. spontaneum of coal FA dump;
Values are mean ±standard deviation (n =25)
Parameter Coal FA dump
Abandoned
site
Naturally revegetated
site
Porosity (%) 48.75 46.50*
WHC (%) 68.50 ±2.00 65.45 ±1.50*
pH 9.45 ±0.10 8.50 ±0.08*
EC (lScm
-1
) 145 ±4.50 110.5 ±6.50*
OC (%) 0.00 ±0.00 1.10 ±0.05*
Available N (%) 0.00 ±0.00 0.03 ±0.01*
Available P(lgg
-1
) 6.75 ±0.25 25.45 ±0.09*
Available K (lgg
-1
) 37.50 ±2.5 77.65 ±6.5*
* Indicates significance difference between abandoned and
revegetated site (paired ttest, P\0.05)
Genet Resour Crop Evol
123
serious waste dump problems due to industrial activ-
ities. The knowledge and insights we provided here
can be linked to action on the ground by practitioners
for revegetation and restoration programs of a variety
of waste-dumps.
Acknowledgments Financial support given to first author as
Young Scientist by Science and Engineering Research Board,
Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India (No. SR/
FTP/ES-96/2012) is gratefully acknowledged. Author is also
thankful to Dr. C.S. Nautiyal, Director, CSIR-National
Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow for his kind support.
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