Article

The effect of contact with natural environments on positive and negative affect: A meta-analysis

Taylor & Francis
The Journal of Positive Psychology
Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

A growing body of empirical research suggests that brief contact with natural environments improves emotional well-being. The current study synthesizes this body of research using meta-analytic techniques and assesses the mean effect size of exposure to natural environments on both positive and negative affect. Thirty-two studies with a total of 2356 participants were included. Across these studies, exposure to natural environments was associated with a moderate increase in positive affect and a smaller, yet consistent, decrease in negative affect relative to comparison conditions. Significant heterogeneity was found for the effect of nature on positive affect, and type of emotion assessment, type of exposure to nature, location of study, and mean age of sample were found to moderate this effect. The implications of these findings for existing theory and research are discussed, with particular emphasis placed on potential avenues for fruitful future research examining the effects of nature on well-being.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Thus, we conclude that aesthetic appraisal is an underlying process in the relationship between contact with nature and employees' recovery and well-being. The total effect (sum of direct and indirect effect) was significant only for positive activation, which underlines the beneficial effect of nature especially for positive affective states which is consistent with previous research (McMahan & Estes, 2015;Ulrich, 1983). Moreover, the link between contact with nature and recovery processes appears to be more indirect than we hypothesized, as naturalness was just indirectly related to relaxation, detachment, serenity, and fatigue. ...
... Empirical findings have shown that being in nature is associated with higher positive and lower negative affective states (Bowler et al., 2010;McMahan & Estes, 2015) and can be used as a healthpromoting intervention in the workplace (Gritzka et al., 2020). In addition, savoring is associated with higher well-being (Hurley & Kwon, 2012;Jose et al., 2012) and is effective as an intervention to improve psychological health and well-being (Carr et al., 2021). ...
... Nature-Savoring Intervention. We developed a nature-savoring intervention that combines spending time in nature (Bowler et al., 2010;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Twohig-Bennett & Jones, 2018) and savoring (Bryant & Veroff, 2017;Carr et al., 2021) as two promising restorative elements. The nature-savoring intervention was presented and 37 held a university degree. ...
Preprint
Recovery from work is important for promoting employees’ well-being but little is known about which environments are most conducive for recovery. This article examines the relationship between recovery and experiencing nature and, thus, provides a link between recovery research and environmental psychology. In two studies, we drew on the Effort-Recovery Model and proposed that contact with nature is associated with employees’ recovery experiences and affective well-being. In Study 1, we theorized that appraising nature as aesthetic is an underlying mechanism in the relationship between being in nature and recovery. Using an experience sampling approach with multisource data from self-reports and smartphone photos (N = 50, measurements = 411), we found that being in nature was indirectly related to recovery experiences (i.e., relaxation, detachment) and affective well-being (i.e., positive activation, serenity, low fatigue) via perceived attractiveness. In Study 2, we theorized that appreciative contact with nature (i.e., nature savoring) is linked to enhanced recovery and well-being. Using a randomized controlled trial (N = 66), we found that a nature-savoring intervention, compared to a waiting-list control group, had beneficial effects on recovery experiences and positive affective states. Overall, our results suggest that contact with nature is a prototypical setting for employees’ recovery, and we discuss theoretical and practical implications of this finding for occupational health psychology
... Thus, we conclude that aesthetic appraisal is an underlying process in the relationship between contact with nature and employees' recovery and well-being. The total effect (sum of direct and indirect effect) was significant only for positive activation, which underlines the beneficial effect of nature especially for positive affective states which is consistent with previous research (McMahan & Estes, 2015;Ulrich, 1983). Moreover, the link between contact with nature and recovery processes appears to be more indirect than we hypothesized, as naturalness was just indirectly related to relaxation, detachment, serenity, and fatigue. ...
... Empirical findings have shown that being in nature is associated with higher positive and lower negative affective states (Bowler et al., 2010;McMahan & Estes, 2015) and can be used as a healthpromoting intervention in the workplace (Gritzka et al., 2020). In addition, savoring is associated with higher well-being (Hurley & Kwon, 2012;Jose et al., 2012) and is effective as an intervention to improve psychological health and well-being (Carr et al., 2021). ...
... Nature-Savoring Intervention. We developed a nature-savoring intervention that combines spending time in nature (Bowler et al., 2010;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Twohig-Bennett & Jones, 2018) and savoring (Bryant & Veroff, 2017;Carr et al., 2021) as two promising restorative elements. The nature-savoring intervention was presented and 37 held a university degree. ...
Article
Full-text available
Recovery from work is important for promoting employees’ well-being but little is known about which environments are most conducive for recovery. This article examines the relationship between recovery and experiencing nature and, thus, provides a link between recovery research and environmental psychology. In two studies, we drew on the effort-recovery model and proposed that contact with nature is associated with employees’ recovery experiences and affective well-being. In Study 1, we theorized that appraising nature as esthetic is an underlying mechanism in the relationship between being in nature and recovery. Using an experience sampling approach with multisource data from self-reports and smartphone photos (N = 50, measurements = 411), we found that being in nature was indirectly related to recovery experiences (i.e., relaxation, detachment) and affective well-being (i.e., positive activation, serenity, low fatigue) via perceived attractiveness. In Study 2, we theorized that appreciative contact with nature (i.e., nature savoring) is linked to enhanced recovery and well-being. Using a randomized controlled trial (N = 66), we found that a nature-savoring intervention, compared to a waiting-list control group, had beneficial effects on recovery experiences and positive affective states. Overall, our results suggest that contact with nature is a prototypical setting for employees’ recovery, and we discuss theoretical and practical implications of this finding for occupational health psychology.
... These findings are consistent with numerous studies on the psychological benefits of nature exposure (e.g. Martin et al., 2020;Reid et al., 2022;McMahan et Estes, 2015;Kotera et al., 2020). ...
... En revanche, rester à l'intérieur sans contact avec la nature a entraîné une diminution de l'affect positif. Les deux environnements naturels, réels et virtuels, ont été jugés tout aussi restaurateurs.Dans leur méta-analyse sur l'impact de l'exposition à la nature sur les émotions,McMahan et Estes (2015) avaient déjà souligné que les environnements naturels simulés produisaient des effets plus faibles comparés aux environnements naturels réels. Ces conclusions ont été corroborées parBrowning et al. (2020b) dans leur propre méta-analyse incluant 6 études, qui confirme une nette différence en faveur des environnements réels pour l'amélioration de l'affect positif. ...
... These results highlight the potential for favorable environmental conditions and personal connectedness with nature to enhance well-being. It is worth noting that the direct link between perceived exposure to nature and subjective wellbeing becomes non-significant when positive affect is included in the model, indicating a complete mediation.In line with some of the existing work (e.g.McMahan et Estes, 2015), our results suggest that exposure to nature in the city increases positive affect and, to a lesser extent, decreases negative affect. We do not find a moderating effect of connectedness to nature between perceived exposure to nature in the city and negative affect, nor do we find a significant impact of negative affect on subjective well-being. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Climate change and urbanization increase the vulnerability of cities. The (re)integration of nature can mitigate these effects by enhancing well-being through mechanisms such as biophilia, attention restoration, stress reduction, and a sense of connectedness to nature. This thesis aims to confirm the effects of urban nature on well-being, explore the associated psychological processes, analyze psychophysiological impacts, and assess the influence of environmental specifics through three studies involving city dwellers. The first study, involving 479 participants, shows that perceived quality and quantity of urban nature increase positive affects, especially among those with a strong connectedness to nature. The second study, conducted with 104 participants using 360° virtual reality (VR) videos, reveals that more natural environments reduce cognitive effort, as indicated by eye movements. The third study, with 83 participants in VR, compares a standard urban environment to a nature-enriched version after a stressful task. It combines subjective and objective measures (heart rate variability and electrodermal conductance) of stress, highlighting the importance of the sense of presence to optimize the benefits of VR experiences. The results demonstrate that urban nature enhances well-being, although its effects on attention and stress are more nuanced. The discussion highlights the importance of nature in mitigating the impacts of climate change and the usefulness of VR in environmental psychology research.
... Work by Maas et al. (2009) suggests that the more green space people have around them, the less stress, anxiety, depression and respiratory illness they develop. In another meta-analysis, McMahan and Estes (2015) provide strong evidence that exposure to nature increases positive emotions and, to a lesser extent, decreases negative emotions. Contact with nature also improves cognitive abilities (Berman et al., 2008(Berman et al., , 2012Stenfors et al., 2019), enhances social connections (Weinstein et al., 2015) and heightens subjective well-being (Martin et al., 2020;White et al., 2017). ...
... This study shows that French city-dwellers' perception of their exposure to nature in the city, in terms of quality and frequency, has a positive impact on their well-being even when likely sociodemographic confounders are controlled for. These findings are consistent with numerous studies on the psychological benefits of nature exposure (e.g., Kotera et al., 2020;Martin et al., 2020;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Reid et al., 2022). ...
... In line with some of the existing work (e.g., McMahan & Estes, 2015), our results suggest that exposure to nature in the city increases positive affect and, to a lesser extent, decreases negative affect. We do not find a moderating effect of connectedness to nature between perceived exposure to nature in the city and negative affect, nor do we find a significant impact of negative affect on subjective well-being. ...
Article
Climate change is generating harmful consequences, specifically in urban environments. Re/naturalizing urban areas and stimulating the connectedness to nature of a significant number of individuals may be responses to mitigate these effects. The main objective of this study is to investigate the interactions between perceived exposure to nature in the city in terms of quality and frequency, positive and negative affect, and subjective well-being by considering connectedness to nature as a moderator of these interactions. Data were collected by convenience using an online questionnaire. Participants had been living for at least one year in a French city of more than 100,000 inhabitants. The final sample consisted of N = 479 participants. Structural equation modelling showed that perceived exposure to nature in the city improves positive affect that contributes to subjective well-being and that the more connected individuals are to nature, the better. Implications and perspectives are discussed for the mitigation of the deleterious effects of climate change.
... Perhaps most prominently, Stress Reduction Theory posits that "modern humans, as a genetic remnant of evolution, have a proneness to quickly and readily acquire restorative responses to nature content and settings (vegetation, flowers, water)" (Ulrich, 2023, p. 144) that were once favorable to wellbeing (Ulrich, 2023;Ulrich et al., 1991). Indeed, recent meta-analyses found that direct contact with nature promotes positive and reduces negative affect (Bowler et al., 2010;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Roberts et al., 2019). Most important for the present study, these affective outcomes were also observed for mediated contact with nature in general (McMahan & Estes, 2015) and watching nature documentaries in particular (e.g., Keltner et al., 2017). ...
... Indeed, recent meta-analyses found that direct contact with nature promotes positive and reduces negative affect (Bowler et al., 2010;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Roberts et al., 2019). Most important for the present study, these affective outcomes were also observed for mediated contact with nature in general (McMahan & Estes, 2015) and watching nature documentaries in particular (e.g., Keltner et al., 2017). In particular, the emotion of awe was repeatedly found to be a common positive affective response to nature documentaries (e.g., Piff et al., 2015;Skurka et al., 2023;Valdesolo & Graham, 2014;see also Possler & Raney, 2021). ...
... Study 1 provides an initial test of our hypotheses. Consistent with previous findings on the hedonic qualities of mediated contact with nature McMahan & Estes, 2015), the nature documentary elicited a somewhat stronger hedonic entertainment response in participants than the culture documentary (H1). Extending previous research, we found that the nature documentary also elicited a slightly stronger eudaimonic entertainment response (H3). ...
Article
Nature documentaries are among the most popular media formats but are understudied in communication research. However, due to the format’s multifaceted potential to simultaneously inform, entertain, and persuade, nature documentaries seem particularly worthy of investigation. The present contribution has two aims: (1) to explain how nature documentaries facilitate entertainment responses in their viewers and (2) to investigate how entertainment experiences resulting from watching nature documentaries are linked with viewers’ pro-environmental behavior intentions and travel intentions. To establish a firm theoretical base, we integrated conceptual foundations from entertainment research and environmental psychology. To test our hypotheses, we analyzed data from two preregistered experiments: a paper-pencil study (N = 179) and an online study that aimed to replicate the findings of our first study (N = 308). Our findings provide initial evidence for the dual (i.e. hedonic and eudaimonic) entertainment qualities of nature documentaries and the mediating roles of suspense and awe. Furthermore, the results suggest that viewers’ hedonic entertainment experience is a relevant underpinning of their intention to travel to the depicted destination, whereas their eudaimonic experience inspires them to take action to protect the environment.
... Exploring the relationship between humans and nature is crucial to addressing two pressing issues in modern society: human well-being and environmental conservation. Research increasingly highlights the significant role that specific natural settings, landscapes, and features play in enhancing human health and well-being (e.g., Hartig et al., 2014;McMahan & Estes, 2015), while anthropogenic climate change and biodiversity loss present profound societal concerns (e.g., Whitmee et al., 2015). This dynamic between human well-being and environmental conservation emphasizes the need for a fundamental shift in behavior at both the individual and the collective level. ...
... For instance, a robust body of evidence has affirmed the positive effects of natural environments and engagement with nature on people's health and wellbeing. Specifically, studies have found that contact with nature provides health-related benefits for well-being (for umbrella review, see Yang et al., 2021), positive affect or emotions specifically (for an overview, see McMahan & Estes, 2015), and flourishing and meaning in life-related benefits (for an overview, see Capaldi et al., 2015). Trying to explain the mechanisms behind these findings, various biophysical, psychological, and social concepts and theories have been proposed to explain the many health, well-being-(and flourishing-) related benefits gained from living close to nature, contact with nature, and engagement in nature activities. ...
... A positive relationship between humans and the natural world has been shown to be crossculturally essential to sustain both human well-being and the well-being of the environment. This claim is supported by evidence of health-related and emotional well-being benefits from human interaction with nature (Hartig et al., 2014;McMahan and Estes, 2015) as well as its effects on pro-environmental attitude and behavior to address environmental sustainability issues (Geng et al., 2015;Ives et al., 2018;Rosa et al., 2018). In this context, a substantial body of literature has explored the human relationship and orientation toward nature. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Across cultures, the relationship between humans and nature affects both the well-being of humans and the natural environment. While the concept of nature connectedness is recognized as an important topic in this regard, little is known about the psychological processes that establish and foster it. Positioned at the intersection of environmental psychology and outdoor studies, this article-based thesis adopts a critical realism perspective to explore how social relational emotions, such as kama muta (≈ being moved) and awe, are specifically significant to the process of connecting in and to nature.
... A review of previous meta-analysis (Capaldi et al., 2014;McMahan and Estes, 2015;Gaekwad et.al, 2022;Jason et al., 2022;Gaekwad et al., 2023) exploring the biophilic effect was conducted ensuring that no existing meta-analyses cover the precise topic -to prevent redundancy of research efforts. Each of the identified previous studies exclusively focused on the field of psychology exploring the effects of subjective measures, i.e., the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988) the ZIPERS (Zuckerman, 1977) and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) (McNair et al., 1971). ...
... By synthesising and evaluating a wide range of scholarly articles, this review aimed to consolidate the current understanding of measures used (subjective and objectivephysiological and psychological) in determining an approach to assessing the application of mass timber and maximise the benefits from biophilic design treatments. Aligning with previous meta-analysis (Capaldi et al., 2014;McMahan and Estes, 2015;Gaekwad et.al, 2022;Jason et al., 2022;Gaekwad et al., 2023) the evidence from the present study added further authenticity to the 'biophilic effect' in the built environment situations. The effect, subjective or objective measures, indicate that a moderate effect size is possible from biophilic treatments. ...
... Industry can be assured that evidence from the current and other meta-analytic reviews (Capaldi et al., 2014;McMahan and Estes, 2015;Gaekwad et.al, 2022;Jason et al., 2022;Gaekwad et al., 2023) supports the growing anecdotal wellbeing and health benefits from biophilic treatments applied to interiors in the built environment. Indeed, the degree to which the objective and subjective measures support an overall and combined moderate effect is very encouraging. ...
Article
Full-text available
Biophilia refers to the innate human inclination to connect with nature. Mass Timber Construction (MTC) may hold the key to increasing the adoption of biophilic treatments in sustainable architecture through the inherent properties of timber. Existing literature on biophilia has explored its benefits and adoption strategies, however, these studies predominantly emphasise the short-term effects on human health and well-being relying on subjective measures. There exists a research gap in comprehending the long-term and sustained benefits of biophilic environments from a more comprehensive perspective that considers both subjective and objective measures. Utilising the Meta-Essentials tool, the present paper aimed to conduct a meta-analytic review of the literature examining both subjective and objective outcomes from biophilic experimentation not previously examined seeking support for MTC and its potential biophilic effects. A total of 11 studies were considered part of the final review with a combined sample size of 727 participants. The main findings included an overall moderate effect for participants subjected to biophilic environments, including exposure to wood interior treatments. A subgroup analysis of subjective and objective measures also indicated a mild effect in each domain. The findings support previous meta-analysis evidence for the utility of biophilic design and application to internal environments. The outcomes of quantifying biophilic health benefits are crucial for the development of mass timber-constructed buildings for several reasons. Firstly, it can help justify the use of wood and mass timber as sustainable alternatives to traditional building materials, such as concrete and steel, by providing evidence of their positive impact on human health and wellbeing. Secondly, it can inform the design process, enabling architects and designers to create spaces that maximise the biophilic response and optimize occupants' health and wellbeing outcomes. Lastly, it can contribute to the broader goals of sustainable architecture by demonstrating the potential of biophilic design in achieving sustainability targets, such as enhancing productivity, biodiversity, and circularity.
... Converging lines of research have demonstrated the benefits of nature immersion in various domains [11][12][13][14]. These benefits have been observed across different levels of immersion, which refers to how engaged one is with nature, ranging from lower levels such as viewing images of nature [15], to higher levels such as taking a walk in nature [16,17]. ...
... One group found that a day of exposure to nature by both walking and sitting within forested areas improved several physical and self-reported measures of stress compared to that of an urban environment [18]. In addition to reducing stress, a meta-analysis assessing the effect of exposure to nature on emotional well-being found that nature exposure leads to an increase in positive affect, as well as a smaller but consistent decrease in negative affect [13]. This effect has been established via different methods, from actual exposure to natural settings [16,17], to laboratory-based simulated nature exposure using photographs [15] and virtual reality [19]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Immersion in nature has been linked to wide-ranging benefits on mental health and cognitive functions, from reducing stress to enhancing creativity. However, a walk in nature is not always feasible, and whether a proxy for nature immersion via a mental walk in nature can elicit the same benefits as a physical walk remains largely unknown. Accordingly, the current study utilized guided imagery to examine whether a mental walk in nature would improve creativity in general and when compared to a mental walk in an urban environment. We implemented a within-subjects design, wherein participants completed both mental walk conditions (in a nature and urban environment) at least five days apart in counterbalanced order on an online platform. During each session, participants (N = 97) completed two pre-walk tasks assessing convergent (measured by the Remote Associates Test) and divergent creative thinking (measured by the Alternate Uses Test), followed by a mental walk in either a nature or urban environment, then finally the identical two post-walk creativity tasks. After five days, they repeated the same procedure with a mental walk in the other environment. While comparisons of post-walk creativity scores between the nature and urban environment did not significantly differ from each other, the comparisons between the pre- and post-walk creativity scores revealed a significant improvement in convergent creative thinking in the nature environment condition, but not the urban environment condition. Our results suggest that taking a mental walk in nature can enhance at least one aspect of creativity, therefore providing preliminary evidence for the potential to access the creative benefits of mentally immersing ourselves in nature. These findings have important implications for those who wish to enjoy the benefits of nature but are unable to readily access nature physically.
... The health and well-being benefits of appreciation of nature have been discussed in various disciplines (Bratman et al. 2021;Hartig et al. 2014;Keniger et al. 2013;McMahan and Estes 2015;Veenhoven et al. 2023). Empirical studies have demonstrated its positive effects on individuals' psychological and spiritual well-being. ...
... Individuals' cognitive and social abilities may also improve through interaction with nature (Keniger et al. 2013), highlighting the importance of having accessible nature areas. The types of contact with the natural environment generally included physical engagement and perception or appreciation of nature (Bratman et al. 2021), although the former has been more widely adopted than the latter to understand the concept of nature contact (McMahan and Estes 2015). Also, the relationship between perceptual and physical contact with nature has been examined, despite that the interactional effect of both dimensions of contact with nature on individual well-being has not reached a consensus. ...
... These relationships remained once negative hedonic wellbeing was controlled for, suggesting the observed hedonic benefits were independent of any negative hedonic effects. This finding supports key theoretical debates surrounding the connection between positive and negative hedonic wellbeing by demonstrating that hedonic dimensions of wellbeing are not merely two ends of a spectrum as sometimes assumed (McMahan & Estes, 2015). ...
... This issue is particularly important in the development of nature-based wellbeing interventions or nature-based prescriptions aimed at improving wellbeing among groups who may be particularly vulnerable to negative hedonic experiences. Indeed, our findings reinforce the value of considering positive and negative hedonic wellbeing independently rather than merely as two ends of a single spectrum in nature-wellbeing research (McMahan & Estes, 2015). ...
... For several decades, a large body of studies in environmental psychology (e.g., Hartig et al., 2003;Knopf, 1983;Ulrich, 1983) has been concerned with differences in environmental preference between natural and built environments (for review, see Yang et al., 2021) and with various psychological effects associated with contact with the natural environment (for review, see Bowler et al., 2010;Bratman et al., 2012;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Yao et al., 2021). It has been repeatedly confirmed that the natural environment is preferred over built environments, and urban environments with greenery are preferred over urban environments without greenery. ...
... Despite this, a considerable amount of research in environmental psychology has failed to address this dichotomy. Instead, it has tended to use exceptional examples of the natural environment, such as high mountain areas or coastal and marine scenes, to illustrate the natural environment, while other studies have examined the impact of rural landscapes or examples of nature in urban parks or other urban natural settings (for review, see McMahan & Estes, 2015;Yao et al., 2021). It is clear that further research should consider this dichotomy and the meanings that participants ascribe to particular landscapes. ...
Article
Full-text available
The interaction between music and the environment has been widely investigated in various domains; however, the effects of music on the perception of outdoor environments have not been adequately examined. A better understanding of audio-visual interactions between music and the natural environment is important for music psychology, because the field is currently employing natural sounds, yet their pairing remains poorly understood. Furthermore, this understanding is vital for soundscape research, given that individuals are increasingly listening to music on headphones in natural settings. This has practical implications wherever music and the natural environment are paired. This study explored the audio-visual interaction between music and the perception of natural environments. Four types of natural images were presented based on their attractiveness/unattractiveness and visual openness/closedness. At the same time, the participants listened to sad or happy music. Both self-reported assessment data and data obtained through automated software analysis of emotional facial expressions represented in the form of emotional engagement were analyzed. The results showed that, compared to listening to sad music or no music, exposure to happy music resulted in an increase in self-reported environmental preference. However, sad music did not significantly decrease self-reported environmental preference or self-reported pleasant feelings compared to the control no-music condition. Analysis of the engagement in facial emotional expressions showed that sad music decreased engagement compared to the no-music condition in all types of environments; however, when listening to happy music, the participants’ engagement was lower in unattractive environments but not in attractive environments compared to when they did not listen to any music.
... Additionally, engaging in exercise and physical activity outdoors relative to indoors has been associated with a more positive affective response across the lifespan (e.g., Dunton et al., 2015;for review, see Thompson Coon et al., 2011). A meta-analysis suggested that the association of exposure to natural environments with positive affect was stronger with older age (McMahan & Estes, 2015). Hence, older adults might experience more positive affect after engaging in daily physical activity outdoors relative to younger adults. ...
... This finding aligns with a previous study showing that social context is associated with a more positive affective response in middle-aged adults . Despite suggestions that social support might be more beneficial for older adults (McMahan & Estes, 2015;Resnick et al., 2002), we did not see age differences in the impact of social context. We did observe that younger adults (30.1%) were significantly more likely, t(79.63) ...
Article
Full-text available
Many older adults do not meet the physical activity recommendations of the American Heart Association; hence, it is important to understand the factors that can facilitate regular physical activity in older adults. Notably, the role of affective response has been understudied. Mixed findings have been reported in terms of age effects in affective response to daily physical activity. This study aimed to determine age differences in affective response to daily physical activity and whether these differences are associated with overall physical activity levels. Further, the role of contextual factors in age differences in affective response following daily physical activity was examined. Younger (n = 59) and older adults (n = 60) completed 1 week of experience sampling during which they responded to daily prompts about their affect and physical activity. Overall physical activity levels were estimated via actigraphy. In both age groups, daily physical activity was similarly associated with greater high-arousal positive (HAP) affect relative to other activities. Across age groups, participants reported more HAP affect when engaging in daily physical activity in a group compared to alone. Greater duration and enjoyment of daily physical activity were more strongly associated with greater HAP affect in younger adults relative to older adults. Affective responses following bouts of daily physical activity did not predict overall physical activity levels for either age group. Overall, older adults may experience similar positive affective response to younger adults following daily physical activity relative to other activities. These affective responses may have a limited role in physical activity engagement in daily life.
... Interactions with natural spaces offer a plethora of psychological benefits, including improved emotional states (McMahan & Estes, 2015;Schertz et al., 2021), cognitive restoration (Berman et al., 2008;Stenfors et al., 2019), prosocial behaviors and orientations (Joye & Bolderdijk, 2014;Zhang et al., 2014), connectedness to others and the environment (Schertz et al., 2022(Schertz et al., , 2023, and reduced aggressive behaviors (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001;Wang et al., 2018). In cities, one common form of nature interaction comes in the form of urban parks. ...
... These results are in line with our theory-driven hypotheses. That the models were more predictive for positive outcomes is also consistent with prior research showing that nature benefits are more consistent and have larger effect sizes for positive affective states than negative affective states (McMahan & Estes, 2015). The qualities measured by the Perceived Restoration Scale had notably strong effects, demonstrating the utility of the scale for examining a wide variety of spaces across the built-natural spectrum. ...
Preprint
Although visiting a park is usually considered to be a ‘nature experience’, not all city parks are natural environments. Additionally, parks differ in the affordances they offer in terms of amenities and other characteristics. In this pre-registered, cross-sectional study we asked participants (N = 303, Chicago, USA residents) to visit several city parks over the course of two weeks (N_obs = 1234). While visiting, they rated naturalness, safety, maintenance, and noisiness, and completed the Perceived Restoration Scale. They also reported on their momentary affect, subjective cognitive restoration, and preference for the park. Using both theory-driven and data-driven approaches, we found that all these qualities were related to affective and cognitive outcomes. Additionally, we found that when participants visited a park they had been to before, compatibility between activities they reported wanting to do in the park and the amenities offered by the park predicted preference, but this relationship did not hold when participants visited a park they hadn’t been to before. Overall, this study highlights the need to integrate approaches from both environmental psychology and leisure studies to generate more holistic and comprehensive recommendations for urban greening planning and policy.
... With the development of stress recovery theory [14], attention restoration theory [15], and related frameworks, numerous studies have demonstrated that landscape spaces positively impact psychological and physiological health by reducing stress, improving moods, enhancing air quality, and increasing cognitive functioning and physical activity [16][17][18][19][20][21]. Recent research also revealed a strong link between green spaces and both psychological and physiological health responses [22]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Chinese classical gardens serve as restorative environments that epitomize the essence of Chinese aesthetics. Despite their recognized Outstanding Universal Value, research on the multisensory experiences and associated well-being benefits they offer remains insufficiently explored. This study examines the Humble Administrator’s Garden through a multisensory framework incorporating visual, auditory, and tactile dimensions. By employing a mixed methods approach that integrates questionnaires and physiological measurements, we assessed the psychophysiological responses of 78 participants before and after entering the garden, as well as at distinct landscape points. Key findings reveal the following: (1) the traditional garden environment evoked significant positive perceptual effects; (2) the garden, with its diverse combination of landscape elements—including architecture, water features, rock formations, and plants—was strongly associated with enhanced well-being outcomes. A higher diversity of visual landscapes yielded more pronounced benefits, with water features exerting the most substantial positive influence on health, while rock formations showed a comparatively lesser effect; and (3) physiological and psychological responses of participants varied within the same landscape setting, with tactile experiences eliciting the most profound psychological changes. These findings underscore the pivotal role of multisensory engagement in Chinese classical gardens for fostering well-being, offering valuable health-related benefits beyond their cultural and ecological significance.
... Research exploring the influence of exposure to nature on the human experience has grown exponentially. The field explores the impact of nature on many dimensions of human health and cognition, including but not limited to affect (McMahan & Estes, 2015), immune functioning (Andersen et al., 2021), stress physiology (Cheng et al., 2021;Ideno et al., 2017), and executive functioning (Stevenson et al., 2018). Furthermore, there is growing interest in identifying the neural mechanisms that underlie the cognitive benefits of exposure to nature (e.g., Bratman, Hamilton, et al., 2015;McDonnell & Strayer, 2024a, 2024bSudimac et al., 2022). ...
... Luonnossa ulkoilu lisää monipuolisesti myönteisiä tunteita, esimerkiksi itseluottamusta, tarkkaavaisuutta ja ajattelun selkeyttä (Bowler ym., 2010;Korpela & Ylén, 2009). Luontoympäristöjen on myös havaittu vähentävän kielteisiä tunteita kuten vihaisuutta, surullisuutta ja uupumusta tehokkaammin kuin rakennetun ympäristön (Bowler ym., 2010;McMahan & Estes, 2015). Tutkimuksissa on havaittu, että luonnossa ulkoilu työssä ja vapaa-aikana on myönteisessä yhteydessä muun muassa elinvoimaisuuteen ja luovuuden kokemukseen työssä (Korpela ym., 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Tutkimuksen kehitettiin Luonnosta Virtaa –interventio (LuoVi –ryhmä ja etäohjatut itsenäiset ulkoilijat) työhyvinvoinnin voimavaraksi, ja selvitettiin interventioon osallistuneiden kokemuksia ja tunnetilan muutoksia intervention aikana. Aineistossa oli työssä käyviä työntekijöitä (N=121), joista naisia oli 92 prosenttia, ja keski-ikä oli 47 vuotta. Tutkimus toteutettiin monimenetelmällisellä tutkimusotteella: LuoVi –ryhmän tunnetilan muutoksia (kullakin ryhmän tapaamiskerralla) verrattiin itsenäisten ulkoilijoiden ja kontrolliryhmän tunnetilan muutoksiin varianssianalyysin avulla, ja sen lisäksi LuoVi –ryhmään osallistuneiden kokemuksia LuoVi –ryhmän loppukeskusteluista analysoitiin laadullisesti sisällönanalyysilla. Määrällisten tulosten mukaan LuoVi -ryhmällä oli välittömiä myönteisiä vaikutuksia tunnetilaan jokaisella LuoVi –ryhmän tapaamiskerralla, ja usealla tapaamiskerralla myönteisten tunteiden lisääntyivät ja kielteiset vähenivät enemmän kontrolliryhmän tunnetilan muutoksiin verrattuna. Myös itsenäisellä ulkoilulla oli myönteisiä vaikutuksia tunnetilaan jokaisella interventiokerralla, ja myös heillä vaikutukset erosivat usealla kerralla verrattuna kontrolliryhmän tunnetilan muutoksiin. LuoVi –ryhmän ja itsenäisten ulkoilijoiden välillä ei tunnetilan muutoksissa ollut eroa. Laadullisten tulosten mukaan LuoVi –ryhmän kokemuksissa nousi esille neljä pääluokkaa: kokonaisvaltainen luontokokemus, koetut vaikutukset, LuoVi –ryhmän erityispiirteet ja sosiaalisuuden merkitys. LuoVi –ryhmän avulla luonnon hyvinvointivaikutuksista tultiin enemmän tietoiseksi, ja sen avulla myös häiritsevät kokemukset vähenivät tai poistuivat.
... At its most fundamental level, biophilia is considered "the innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living organisms" (Wilson 1993, 31). However, whereas time spent immersed in nature is known to influence affect (Gaekwad et al. 2022;Klotz et al. 2023;McMahan and Estes 2015;Ulrich 1983), it is less clear if a job post displaying a biophilic designed workspace is sufficient to stimulate the visceral reaction of core affect. Though our contention is bolstered by findings that viewing natural environments versus urban environments devoid of nature elicits high levels of involuntary, automatic, and sustained attention and a more positive emotional state (Ulrich 1983;Ulrich et al. 1991). ...
Article
Full-text available
Contemporary job postings increasingly rely on visual content to attract applicants through social media platforms, calling for scholarly attention to organizational aesthetics in recruitment. This study accordingly examines the signaling function of biophilic workspace design conveyed in job posts. We integrate theorizing on organizational aesthetics and biophilia with signaling theory to posit that biophilic job posts serve a dual signaling role as both a stimulus of signal attention by eliciting a visceral response and as a signaled source of credible information by evoking an evolutionary disposed cognitive interpretation. More specifically, we model pleasure and arousal as an indicator of stimulated attention, organizational attraction and the willingness to trade pay as evaluated responses to the signal, and attributions of communal organizational traits as an intervening interpretation of the signal—consistent with the role of symbolic attributes in prospective applicant evaluation of organizations. Three primary experiments largely support our predictions. Overall, this research extends the function of aesthetic signals to organizational signaling, validates organizational aesthetics as a stimulus of directed evaluation, and expands the scope of biophilic theory in organizational research. Findings also inform the practical question of whether biophilic job posts function as a non‐pecuniary differentiator in recruitment.
... This phenomenon is also supported by the ART and SRT theories, both of which suggest that a balance between openness and enclosure in the environment can meet people's dual needs for safety and comfort, thereby enhancing restorative outcomes (Ulrich et al., 1991;Kaplan, 1995). In addition, some empirical studies have confirmed the SRT perspective, suggesting that brief exposure to natural environments can improve emotions (McMahan and Estes, 2015;Roberts et al., 2019). In our study, natural landscape features such as the sky and trees significantly positively moderated the impact of artificial landscape features (buildings and roads) on emotions. ...
Article
Full-text available
Urban parks are the primary places where urban residents reconnect with natural environments. Numerous studies have shown that natural landscape features benefit human mental health and promote perceived restoration. However, few studies have explored the extent to which natural landscape features in urban parks can mitigate or compensate for the negative effects of artificial landscape features on emotions and restoration. This study employed a field survey method, collecting questionnaire data from 599 participants in four urban parks in Hangzhou, China. The DeepLabV3+ semantic segmentation tool was employed to identify and extract landscape features from panoramic images. Data were statistically analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to explore the potential moderating effects of different natural landscape features in various environmental contexts on emotions and restoration. The results from the SEM model indicate that the R² values for emotional state (ES) and perceived restorative scale (PRS) are 0.359 and 0.643, respectively, demonstrating an acceptable level of explanatory power and fit for the model. The results revealed that not all artificial landscape features negatively affect emotions and restoration. Although Pavement showed a significant negative impact on Perceived Restoration (β = −0.155, p = 0.004), their effect on emotions was not significant (β = 0.111, p = 0.115). Additionally, the study demonstrated that certain natural landscape features, such as the sky and trees, had a significant moderating effect in alleviating the negative emotions caused by artificial landscape features. However, for Perceived restoration, the moderating effect of these natural landscape features was not significant and, in some cases, even exhibited a negative moderating effect. These findings specifically explore how different natural landscape features can offset the adverse effects of artificial landscape features and, to varying degrees, enhance positive emotional responses and improve perceived restoration. The results contribute to understanding the complex dynamics between landscape features, emotions, and restoration in urban parks, offering strategic recommendations for planning, management, and design to create healthier and more restorative urban park environments.
... Thus, nature may provide more than temporary relief from stress, serving as a crucial setting for fostering adaptive coping mechanisms. Forest healing activities, a classic example of nature-based interventions, have shown potential for not only managing daily stress but also cultivating key inner resources essential for coping (McMahan and Estes, 2015;Shanahan et al., 2019;Huynh and Torquati, 2019;Mayer et al., 2009;Lee, 2014). ...
Article
Background and objective: This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a Self-compassion-based forest meditation therapy program in reducing daily stress and enhancing coping resources. Based on growing evidence supporting nature-based interventions for mental health, this program was designed to explore the effects of forest meditation therapy on stress, connectedness to nature, and self-compassion.Methods: Thirty participants (2 males, 28 females) recruited as adults (mean age 60 years) living in Seoul and Gyeonggi were assigned to experimental and control groups based on the order of enrollment. Two forest meditation therapy sessions were held between October and November 2023, with a two-week interval between sessions. Data were collected at three time points: before the intervention, after the first session, and after the second session. The primary measures included perceived stress, positive and negative affect, salivary cortisol levels, connectedness to nature, and self-compassion.Results: The experimental group showed significant reductions in perceived stress (F = 6.213, p = .007) and increases in positive affect compared to the control group (F = 3.556, p =.036). While negative affect significantly decreased in the experimental group (F = 5.509, p = .024), no significant difference was observed between the two groups. Cortisol levels significantly decreased in the experimental group post-intervention (z = -2.341, p = .019). Furthermore, the experimental group showed significant improvements in connectedness to nature (F = 6.205, p = .007) and a significant positive trend toward increased self-compassion compared to the control group (F = 4.046, p = .023).Conclusion: The Self-compassion-based Forest Meditation Therapy Program appears to be effective in managing stress and enhancing key coping resources such as connectedness to nature and self-compassion. These findings suggest that forest meditation therapy could serve as a valuable public health intervention for stress reduction. Future research with larger samples and extended follow-up periods is recommended to further explore its long-term benefits.
... Wellbeing in this context refers to positive emotions, high self-esteem, strong social interactions, and healthy behaviors (Berezowitz et al., 2015;Retzlaff-Fürst, 2016). Drawing on the biophilia hypothesis, which suggests that humans have an innate connection to nature (Gaekwad et al., 2022;Kellert & Kellert, 1997;McMahan & Estes, 2015), school gardens provide a space that strengthens this bond, leading to improved emotional health and mental wellbeing. ...
... Despite the rich theoretical foundation, meta-analytic studies on the built environment, emotional response, and preference highlight the difficulty of proposing generalizable findings, due to several factors including the subjectivity of human consciousness and varying definitions of emotional constructs [32,33], methodological inconsistencies and contextual differences among studies [29,34,35], oversight of mediating variables such as cognitive functions and performance [36,37], and differences in sensory connection to tested or simulated environments [38]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Given the increasing prevalence of anxiety and depression, this research aims to identify design features that enhance the sense of restoration, with the goal of supporting mental and behavioral healthcare facility design. This study employed both screen-based and virtual reality (VR) stimuli to evaluate the perceived restorativeness of different interior settings. The key variables analyzed included window view access, view content, materiality, and room geometry. Thirty-five undergraduate and graduate students assessed 16 distinct interior environments. Findings indicate that the VR presentations generally produced higher restorativeness scores compared with screen-based presentations, though this effect varied across stimuli. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed that larger windows consistently correlated with higher restorativeness scores in both presentation modes. Views of water were rated as most restorative, followed by wooded areas. Natural materials were perceived as significantly more restorative than other materials, particularly in VR presentations. Varied ceiling designs, especially vaulted ceilings, were associated with evaluations of higher restorativeness compared with flat ceiling designs, with this effect more pronounced in VR. This research underscores the potential of VR technology to simulate and assess interior design interventions, offering insights into creating more effective and personalized restorative environments in mental health treatment facilities. The findings can inform evidence-based design strategies for healthcare spaces, supporting treatment processes and patient well-being.
... Doğal ortamlardaki fiziksel aktivitenin, inşa edilmiş veya bakımlı dış mekân ortamlarındaki fiziksel aktiviteden daha onarıcı etkilerinin olduğu algısı bulunmaktadır. Ancak bakımlı kentsel yeşil alanların, inşa edilmiş kentsel alanlar kadar onarıcı ve bakımsız doğal ortamlardan daha az onarıcı olduğu bulgusu, deneysel araştırmalardaki genel bulgularla çelişmektedir (McMahan & Estes 2015). Bazı kent sakinleri güvenlik endişeleri nedeniyle geniş ormanlık alanlardan kaçınmaktadır. ...
... Increased vigor as a result of NE is consistent with both attention-restoration theory (ART) 11 and stress reduction theory (SRT) 27 since, according to these theories, NE increases cognitive and emotional energy, respectively 8 . Because NE increases positive emotions 28 and reduces mental fatigue, it is deemed to increase vigor 13,29 . Similarly, the positive relationship between vigor and job well-being is well established in the literature [30][31][32] . ...
Article
Full-text available
Biophilic workplace design has been proposed as an effective strategy to increase employee well-being in open-plan offices. To expand our understanding of why and for whom indoor nature exposure increases well-being, the aim of this study was to evaluate vigor as a mediator and to examine whether nature relatedness is a direct antecedent of nature exposure or a moderator of the relationship between exposure to nature and vigor. Based on longitudinal data obtained from a two-wave panel design with white-collar workers in open-plan offices (Study 1, n = 345; Study 2, n = 291), using a rival model strategy and two dependent variables, i.e., job well-being and overall well-being, this study revealed that nature relatedness is a direct antecedent of nature exposure and that vigor mediates the relationship between nature exposure and the examined outcomes. These results indicate that although natural exposure increases employee well-being, the effects are indirectly driven by employees’ connection with nature. These findings have implications for the implementation of biophilic workplace design.
... Within such a scenario, exposure to green spaces is linked to lower depression levels (10), higher perceived mental health, lower mortality (11), and improved affective states (12), reduced stress and more rapid recovery from it (13,14). ...
Article
Full-text available
The present review critically assesses the nexus between physical activity, nature exposure and health benefits by analysing environmental measures in green exercise research. A Cochrane-inspired review of systematic studies exposes methodological gaps, emphasising the scarcity of long-term research and the lack of rigorous designed studies. It calls for more robust, varied research designs and improved environmental metrics. The findings advocate for longitudinal research to better comprehend the mental and physical health benefits of exposure to nature. Embracing an ecological-dynamic perspective is recommended to advance our understanding of the intricate connections between activity, environment, and well-being.
... Spending time as a family in hospital gardens is proposed to increase satisfaction and well-being as it can act as a buffer against bodily stress and psychological distress commonly associated with hospitalization [4][5][6][7]. Access to nature has been shown to have a positive effect on both physical and affective measures of stress [8][9][10][11] and has been shown to improve mood and satisfaction among child patients [12]. Previous research on the OCR at OUH has also found that affordances provided by nature influence therapeutic work with children [13]. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study explores how children experience two different locations at Oslo University Hospital in terms of their architectural design and emotional potential. The first location includes a conventional modern hospital wing, whereas the other is a uniquely designed cabin in natural surroundings outside the hospital building, the Outdoor care retreat. The research is a psychological study of how various locations activate cognitive schemas and lead to elicitation of different emotional responses and modes of behavior for children. Participants included 17 children aged 7 to 16, whereby 11 children had no previous experience with hospitalization for a serious medical condition and 6 children were undergoing treatment or follow-ups related to a medical condition at the time of data collection. The data material consisted of walking interviews accompanied by a semi-structured interview guide. The qualitative material was analyzed by applying reflexive thematic analysis and categorized into themes. Study findings illustrate that children experience the environments differently in terms of physical and emotional restrictions. Overall, the children prefer architectural spaces with direct contact to nature or design that mimics natural environments, in addition to being exciting, friendly, and intimate. In these environments, children feel less restricted, more relaxed and more free to express themselves and a range of emotions. This study proposes that spending time in such environments will increase resilience and hospitalization satisfaction for children admitted to hospitals for longer periods of time. In turn, this could have important implications for practice if included in the design of future health care facilities.
... Additionally, previous studies have demonstrated that an emotional connection with nature, including feelings of empathy, joy, hope, apathy, fear, awe, and sadness, can motivate conservation actions (Lumber et al., 2017;McMahan & Estes, 2015;O'Halloran & Silver, 2022;Sandifer et al., 2015). The emotion of awe, a sense of vastness that changes the way one understands the world, enhances happiness and feelings of interconnection with nature (Keltner & Haidt, 2003). ...
Article
Full-text available
In the context of recent anthropogenic climate change and the alarming loss of biodiversity, urgent action is required to safeguard our life‐sustaining ecosystems and implement effective sustainable conservation behavior change strategies. To attend to this concern, the present study explores the efficacy of the evidence‐based Tiny Habits® method in fostering behavior change for sustainability. To this end, a case–control pilot project was conducted with a small cohort of adults randomly divided into two groups: cases and controls. Both groups engaged in a 5‐day online program, selecting and practicing three Tiny Habits recipes daily. The conservation Tiny Habits group focused on sustainable actions, while the control group engaged in non‐conservation activities such as relaxation. The results revealed that practicing the Tiny Habits method resulted in an immediate and sustained increase in conservation actions, with lasting changes (up to 1 month) in the participants' behavior. The mean scores for the intervention group at baseline significantly differed from those immediately and at 1 month after the intervention (p = .0092 and p = .0033). These findings suggest that the Tiny Habits method can be a viable opportunity to cultivate sustainable habits in the long term.
... species richness) of the country, and significantly negatively correlated with the proportion of urban areas in European countries at least (Richardson et al., 2022). Numerous experimental and interventional studies further show that physical contact with nature causally increases human-nature connectedness, especially when individuals focus their attention on the present moment and environment through mindfulness (Barragan-Jason et al., 2021;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Zhang et al., 2014). Contact with nature also has a direct, significant positive impact on human health (Barragan-Jason et al., 2023;Buxton et al., 2021;Yao et al., 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
To achieve sustainable targets, international panels call for a transformative change in human–nature interactions to foster human well‐being and promote pro‐environmental behaviour. The extent to which people considered themselves as part of nature—known as human–nature connectedness—has been shown to be a key societal trait for achieving such a transformative change. Human–nature connectedness is linked to improved human welfare and actions for nature conservation and can be increased by direct contact with natural environments in adults living in the Global North. It has not been shown whether these relations are true across lifetimes and in the Global South, making it difficult to generalise about the effects of human–nature connectedness globally. Here, we conducted a cross‐sectional study to examine and compare human–nature connectedness across ages in 1858 participants aged 3–87 years from two countries: France (N = 1059) and Colombia (N = 799). We also investigated the links between human–nature connectedness, pro‐environmental behaviours, well‐being and two indicators of opportunity to experience nature (i.e. degree of urbanisation and forest cover around the participants' municipality of residence). Results show that human–nature connectedness is positively related to well‐being and pro‐environmental behaviours in both countries. Analyses revealed an age‐related pattern of human–nature connectedness with a significant decline from childhood to the mid‐teens in both countries. Overall, Colombian participants have a higher human–nature connectedness than French participants and individuals' human–nature connectedness was negatively linked to the urbanisation's indices in both countries. Here, we show that human–nature connectedness is linked to sustainable outcomes in a Global South country, just as it is in the Global North. Our study also suggests that increasing contact with nature during formative teenage years could mitigate the observed decline in human–nature connectedness. Future studies are warranted combining qualitative and quantitative measures related to human–nature connectedness, nature experiences, values and practices in relation to nature, in multiple countries from the global South. Our study indicates that enhancing human–nature connectedness could provide an additional tool for achieving sustainable targets globally, not just in highly developed northern‐hemisphere countries. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... Regular physical activity enhances brain function by boosting blood flow, promoting neuroplasticity, and supporting neuronal growth [23], which in turn improves cognitive abilities, including memory and executive function, and decreases the risk of neurodegenerative diseases [24]. Moreover, engaging in active transportation often exposes individuals to nature, which has been shown to enhance mood, reduce mental fatigue, and improve overall well-being [25,26]. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
The climate crisis and the human brain are intricately connected. Climate change impacts neurocognitive health, while climate actions both shape and are shaped by the brain. However, research examining these connections remains scarce. This review highlights how neuroscience can deepen the understanding of the reciprocal relationship between climate action and the brain. First, we discuss how both individual and collective climate action can directly and indirectly benefit our brain health, mental health and cognitive functioning and how emphasising this holds the potential of harvesting self-interest as a driving force for change. Second, we explore the role of the brain’s emotional and decision-making systems in motivating climate action. We also highlight neuroscience’s potential to predict population- level behaviours and aid in the systematic development of interventions. By addressing current knowledge gaps, we identify the next steps for deepening our understanding of the interwoven connections between climate action and the brain.
... For simplicity, when the term 'nature' is used in this systematic review, this will refer to 'greenspace'. In the adult population, nature exposure has been associated with increased positive affect and decreased negative affect (McMahan & Estes, 2015), improved mood (Berman et al., 2012), increased physical activity (Kaczynski & Henderson, 2007), and stress recovery (Ulrich et al., 1991). As positive wellbeing effects have been associated with nature exposure, the next section will present some of the key theoretical perspectives on the human-nature connection. ...
Article
Full-text available
Promoting children’s and adolescents’ mental, physical, and social wellbeing is highly important to help them learn, create social connections, and stay healthy. Nature has the potential to restore cognition, reduce stress and mental fatigue, and improve wellbeing, all factors that are conducive to learning. There is growing interest in understanding the effects of nature on the wellbeing of children and adolescents, particularly in the school context. This paper presents a PRISMA-guided systematic review of the literature examining the effects of school-led nature interventions on the mental, physical, and social wellbeing of school children and adolescents aged 5 to 19 years. Examples of school-led nature interventions include outdoor learning, walks in nature and green schoolyards. Experimental and quasi-experimental studies employing quantitative measures were selected, yielding 19 studies from 17 papers. Included studies were rated as being of high (n = 6) and moderate quality (n = 13). The results provide some evidence that nature exposure in the school context can improve the wellbeing of children and adolescents, particularly their positive affect, physical activity, and social relationships/interactions. The wellbeing effects of school-led nature interventions were also examined according to age and gender, with results indicating a gender effect, but inconclusive findings for age. Findings from this review support the integration of nature in schools to enhance the mental, physical and social wellbeing of children and adolescents.
... The EEG signal is comprised of oscillations that reflect the synchronized activity of large groups of neurons in the brain. Using various signal-processing techniques, these oscillations can be separated into different frequency bands (e.g., delta [2][3][4], theta [4][5][6][7][8], alpha [8][9][10][11][12], beta [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30], gamma ) that are each involved in different cognitive processes 25 . We specifically focus on power in the frontal midline theta (FMθ) frequency band, which refers to theta oscillations (4-8 Hz) recorded from scalp electrodes placed over the frontal cortex. ...
Article
Full-text available
Behavioral studies suggest that immersion in nature improves affect and executive attention. However, the neural mechanisms underlying these benefits remain unclear. This randomized controlled trial (N = 92) explored differences in self-reported affect and in frontal midline theta (FMθ), a neural oscillation linked to executive attention, between a 40-min, low-intensity nature walk and an urban walk of comparable time and distance—controlling for ambient temperature, humidity, elevation change, walking pace, heart rate, calories burned, and moving time between the two groups. While affect improved for both groups, the nature walkers showed a significantly greater boost in positive affect than the urban walkers. Electroencephalography (EEG) data revealed significantly greater FMθ activity following the urban walk compared to the nature walk, suggesting that the urban walk placed higher demands on executive attention. In contrast, the nature walk allowed executive attention to rest, as indicated by the lower FMθ activity observed after the walk. This study suggests that changes in FMθ may be a potential neural mechanism underlying the attentional strain of urban environments in contrast to the attentional rest in nature.
... Moreover, woody plants constitute wildlife habitats and food sources for animals, especially insects, birds, and small mammals (such as squirrels), which promotes observations of nature. These therapeutic aspects are highly significant, and numerous research studies have confirmed that close contact with nature and observations of animal life improve mental health (Barker & Wolen, 2008;Keniger, 2013;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Meuwese et al., 2021). The following criteria were considered to determine the studied sites' suitability for nature observations and their health-promoting properties: -presence of places conducive to observations of nature (such as quiet arbours, paths, and squares with benches); -presence of feeders, breeding boxes, bird baths, bug boxes, and beehives; -presence of bodies of water (ponds, fountain jets, fountains); -presence of old trees, vines, hedges, fruit and melliferous trees that are a food base and an advantage for pollinators. ...
Article
Full-text available
Motives: Climate and socio-economic changes exert a negative influence on human health, both physical and psychological. Therefore, various solutions are needed to address this problem, and the spaces surrounding religious sites should be analysed to determine whether they can improve health. Can plant and garden arrangements accompanying parish churches have health-promoting properties?Aim: The aim of this work was to answer the above questions by analysing selected parish churches of the Lublin Archdiocese.Results: An analysis of the compositional structure of vegetation and the functional-spatial arrangement of religious sites revealed that these spaces have vast, albeit not fully utilised potential. Despite the fact that these spaces are addressed predominantly to believers, their unique features can promote recreation and even improve health, regardless of one’s religious beliefs and practices.
... This information could be important for future research and interventions aimed at improving mental health and well-being. This aligns more with the findings from outdoor nature research than with simulated nature research (McMahan and Estes 2015;Neill, Gerard, and Arbuthnott 2019). Minimal variation in PA after a simulated natural encounter can be attributed to factors such as boredom or disconnection when viewing pictures or videos of environments (Brooks et al. 2017;Kjellgren and Buhrkall 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction Substance abuse is a widespread problem, with high rates of treatment dropout. Stress plays a crucial role in this problem, so innovative interventions with stressed patients can assist them in completing treatment. Methods This study is a randomized controlled trial with 60 participants who have substance abuse disorder undergoing detoxification at a residency facility in Tehran, Iran. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: watching a 360° video of nature, a 360° video of a city environment, or no virtual experience. The intervention was performed only for one session. Psychological stress was measured using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and Perceived Stress Scale before and after the intervention. Physiological stress was assessed through respiratory rate, skin conductance, and heart rate recordings during the virtual reality (VR) experience. Data analysis was performed using R software (version 4.2). Results Paired t‐test results indicated significant psychological differences before and after virtual nature experiences, but not in the control and city groups. The repeated measure ANOVA showed a significant reduction in skin conductance (p < 0.01) and respiratory rate (p < 0.01) scores in the nature group. Conclusion The findings suggest that VR relaxation could be a potentially beneficial intervention for reducing stress in patients during detoxification.
... There is a school of thought that conceptually separates wellbeing into two 'types', eudaimonic and hedonic (Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, and King 2008). Broadly, and simply, eudaimonic well-being tends to be defined as concerning the experience of meaning and purpose in our lives, whereas hedonic well-being is widely accepted as representing pleasure and happiness (McMahan and Estes 2015). There is debate as to the extent to which these are fully separable (Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, and King 2008). ...
Article
Full-text available
Some research has shown that spending time with dogs improves human well-being. However, findings regarding the impact of dogs on human well-being and the underpinning explanatory mechanisms have been inconsistent. There is potential to support existing theoretical mechanisms, modify existing ideas, and discover new ones by using participant's own descriptions and beliefs regarding their relationships with their dogs. This study utilises a thematic analysis to examine semi-structured interviews of eight undergraduate students who had experienced dog ownership. Five themes were identified that suggest routes to well-being via dog ownership: the benefits of the care routine, the mood boosting effect of dogs, the facilitation of human-human bonds, the provision of unconditional love, and that any negative experiences are ultimately worth it. This study provides a valuable insight into how dog owners make sense of their relationship with their dogs, via everyday realities, contextualising this through the lens of human well-being.
... Lahart et al. (2019) compared outdoor green exercise with indoor virtual green exercise across five studies, in which no significant differences were found in energy, calmness, tension, fatigue, attention, and heart rate, but outdoor green exercise was significantly superior to indoor green exercise on the enjoyment score. Another article explained the moderating effect of the type of exposure to nature (actual vs. digital nature) on mood effects, and the results showed that actual nature had a more significant impact on positive mood (McMahan and Estes, 2015). Browning et al. (2020b) compared the differences between digital and actual nature on positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) effects, showing that actual nature performed better on PA but that there was no significant difference between interventions in the two conditions on NA (Browning et al., 2020b). ...
Article
Full-text available
Objectives The study aims to conduct a systematic literature review and meta-analysis to assess the effects of digital nature and actual nature on stress reduction. Methods In August 2023, Web of Science, Scopus, ProQuest, PubMed, and EBSCOhost databases were used, and ten articles were in the analysis, with a total sample size of 886 participants. Studies within- or between-subjects design conducted in either a randomized controlled trial or a quasi-experimental design were included. No restriction was put on the year of publication or geographical region. Conference papers and dissertations were also included whereas, book chapters were excluded. Participants included those who were exposed to at least one form of digital nature exposure, such as static images, videos, 360° pictures, and 360° videos. The risk of bias determined through Review Manager 5.4 was used to assess the quality of the studies. STATA software package version 16 was used for visual analysis of funnel plots. For the assessment of potential publication bias, Egger's test was implemented. Results Digital natural environments had the same level of stress recovery compared to actual environmental exposures with the same intervention content (SMD = −0.01; 95% CI: −0.15, 0.12). Subgroup analyses and meta-regression indicated that subjective or physiological stress measures, level of immersion, and data extraction method were not associated with pooled effect stress recovery. All subgroups showed comparable stress levels in both conditions. In addition, all included studies had different levels of risk of bias (low, moderate, and high). Conclusions The present study concludes that previous research has generally shown that stress levels are reduced in both digital and actual natural environments. The results of the meta-analysis support this conclusion with no significant differences between the two modes of stress recovery through nature viewing.
... Urban green spaces (UGSs) are important places for residents to be close to and experience nature and are widely recognized as an important part of the urban environment, with a positive impact on public health [3]. These environments have a positive effect on fostering positive emotions [4], relieving anxiety and stress [5], enhancing cognitive abilities [6], and reducing morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases [7]. Among all green spaces, greenways are particularly prominent [8]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Greenways are important natural environment places in cities, which have a great restorative effect on human physiological and mental health. The restoration effect of urban greenways on the physical and mental health of urban residents is affected by the type of greenway space. In order to reveal the restorative effects of different types of urban waterfront greenway spaces on the human body and explore restorative environmental factors, this paper firstly used the expert survey method to construct an AHP (analytic hierarchy process) model, which yielded three types of criterion-level indicators and eight types of sub-indicators. Second, taking Nanxun Avenue Greenway in Wenjiang District, Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, China, as an example, it was divided into three types of greenway spaces—waterfront space, underwood space, and lawn space—on the basis of field surveys. A total of 30 subjects participated in this outdoor experience and collected their physiological and psychological data. The results of the experiment showed that all three types of spaces in the Nanxun Avenue Greenway had a restorative effect on human physical and mental health, and all of them were effective in lowering blood pressure and heart rate, as well as eliminating negative emotions and increasing positive emotions for most of the participants. The waterfront space had the best restorative effect, followed by the underwood space and the lawn space. The main restorative environmental factors differed among each of the three types of spaces. This paper provides insights and examples for exploring the restorative benefits of urban greenways.
... For instance, moderately short walks in nature as opposed to urban settings significantly improved mood (Mayer et al., 2009;Nisbet & Zelenski, 2011). This is further supported by a meta-analysis of 32 randomised controlled studies involving more than 2,000 people, which revealed that nature exposure leads to significant increases in positive affect and a small but significant decline in negative affect (McMahan & Estes, 2015). Technologically mediated or virtual exposure to nature has also been associated with increased hedonic wellbeing (Velarde et al., 2007). ...
Article
Children and young people (CYP) with long-term health conditions (LTC) are at higher risk of developing mental health difficulties. Research suggests nature-based therapeutic interventions (NBTIs) may benefit CYP’s wellbeing, but less is known about the impact on CYP with LTC. This study’s objective was to explore how CYP with LTC and associated psychological difficulties experienced a NBTI and the impact on their wellbeing. Ten participants aged 10–13 attended a NBTI and took part in semi-structured interviews that explored how they made sense of their journey through the intervention, its impact on mental, physical wellbeing and sense of self. An interpretative phenomenological analysis of the interview data yielded four group experiential themes: ‘Overcoming Illness-Identity’, ‘Freedom to Choose’, ‘Sense of Connection’ and ‘A Mindful Presence’. Participants reported improved self-esteem, a deepened sense of belonging with peers and nature, and enhanced emotion regulation. Clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Article
Full-text available
This study aims to examine the multidimensional effects of outdoor recreation on individuals' psychological, social, and physical well-being. The impacts of nature-based activities on stress, social connectedness, and physical health were evaluated through a comparative analysis between experimental and control groups. In the study, the experimental group participated in an outdoor recreation program that included nature walks, yoga, and low-intensity aerobic exercises three times a week for eight weeks. No intervention was applied to the control group. Data were collected using the Warwick- Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale, the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and the Physical Well-being Scale. The findings revealed a significant reduction in psychological stress levels, an increase in perceived social support, and improvements in physical health among individuals in the experimental group. No such changes were observed in the control group. This research underscores the positive effects of nature- based activities on individuals’ multidimensional health, highlighting their potential to enhance both individual and societal well-being.
Article
Full-text available
As the primary setting for students’ daily life and learning, university campuses are facing a growing concern about the impact of increased stress on students’ emotional well-being. The sound environment plays a critical role in affecting students’ mental health, learning efficiency, and overall well-being. However, research on the influence of campus soundscapes on students’ emotions is limited, and the mechanisms behind these effects remain to be explored. This study, using the Qishan Campus of Fuzhou University as a case, investigates the impact of campus soundscapes on students’ emotional perception and restorative effects. Four typical functional areas (academic zone (ACZ), residential zone (RDZ), recreational zone (RCZ), and administrative zone (ADZ)) were selected to analyze the effects of natural and artificial sounds on students’ emotions and physiological states. Based on EEG, eye tracking, sound level measurements, and questionnaire surveys, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to assess students’ emotional arousal, valence, and physiological restoration under different soundscape conditions. The results showed that natural sounds, such as the sound of wind-blown leaves and flowing water, significantly improved students’ emotions and restorative effects, while artificial noises like construction sounds and traffic noise had negative impacts. Additionally, subjective perceptions of soundscape restoration were positively correlated with arousal, valence, and acoustic comfort, and negatively correlated with gaze frequency and pupil size. The findings provide a theoretical foundation for optimizing campus soundscape design and highlight the importance of natural sounds in enhancing students’ mental health and academic environment.
Article
Objective Contact with nature (CWN) is a key mental health promoting lifestyle. We developed the GREEN model, which comprises five factors – group, reflection, empowerment, emotion, and nature, to assess the mental health benefits from CWN. In this study, we intended to investigate whether the GREEN model can serve as a framework for CWN. Methods In this study, we included 112 study participants of students aged 19–28 years taking classes between March and May 2023 at one of two Taiwanese universities. Assessments were done using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) questionnaire and the Inclusion of Nature in Self (INS) scale. Results On the basis of the AHP survey results, we found that the following weights were assigned to the GREEN model factors: group, 0.13; reflection, 0.21; empowerment, 0.22; emotion, 0.31; and nature, 0.14. We also found that in a subset of study participants with a consistency ratio of < 0.1 in the AHP, the weights to the model factors were as follows: group, 0.12; reflection, 0.22; empowerment, 0.20; emotion, 0.34; and nature, 0.12. All five factors had a weight of > 0.1, indicating that they had good CWN. The weights for the GREEN model factors differed between the low- and high-INS groups. Emotional calmness was emerged as the most crucial factor for effective CWN programs. Conclusion The results of this study suggest that the GREEN model is useful for CWN-related interventions.
Article
Full-text available
The decline in traditional institutional religion has paralleled the rise of New Age and new spiritualities, which seek to reconnect individuals with nature through holistic practices for physical, emotional, and spiritual healing. This article examines how holistic therapists and consultants in the Los Lagos region of Chile conceptualize nature. This region, a gateway to Chilean Patagonia, is noted for its biodiversity and striking landscapes, making it an ideal setting for the emergence of new spiritualities. A qualitative study of descriptive-interpretative scope was carried out, following a multiple case study design, involving 34 local holistic informants (14 therapists and 20 consultants). Semi-structured individual interviews were the primary data collection method, analyzed with Atlas. ti software. Six categories emerged: nature as a healing agent, a protective source/mother, a harmonic whole, a refuge for introspection, a source of wisdom, and a home/habitat. The study discusses the implications of these views on nature in the search for spirituality, life meaning, and moral guidance. It also addresses the idealization and moralization of nature, highlighting potential risks, including the cultural appropriation of local indigenous beliefs.
Article
People use social media to gratify various needs, one of which is the need to affiliate with mediated nature. By combining the uses and gratifications approach and the biophilia hypothesis, this study coins this gratification as biophilia gratification. We computationally analyzed three million Facebook posts to test whether user reactions (likes, shares, loves, and cares) reflect biophilia gratification derived from human-created nature on social media, that is, mediated nature. Ten percent of posts that are image-based (approximately 170,000) were also randomly selected and analyzed. The results showed that social media users were more likely to react to most posts (particularly image-based posts) of mediated nature compared with nonmediated nature posts. These findings may imply that user reactions on social media may serve as indicators of biophilia gratification fulfilled through engagement with mediated nature.
Article
Exposure to natural environments or to their audiovisual representations has a restorative effect on attention and short-term memory. However, higher-level cognitive processes, such as decision making, have been overlooked. Additionally, studies have generally compared natural environments perceived to be restorative, such as woods, with built environments perceived to be nonrestorative, such as roads with traffic, paying less attention to built environments that could be restorative, such as libraries. We examined whether exposure to potentially restorative natural or built environments (vs. nonrestorative built environments) would improve the ability to apply decision rules to multiattribute choices, an important aspect of decision-making competence. Fatigued participants completed parallel versions of the Applying Decision Rules task before and after being exposed to audiovisual representations of these environments. Performance improved after exposure to restorative natural environments, remained unchanged after exposure to restorative built environments, and deteriorated after exposure to nonrestorative built environments. Restorative effects were partially mediated by self-reported fatigue, but not mediated by changes in attention control, emotional state, or motivation. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our findings.
Article
Introduction: Guided contact with nature has positive effects on well-being. Little is known about the effectiveness of adding nature-based interventions to inpatient treatment for depression. Therefore, we evaluated a mindfulness- and relaxation-based nature intervention for depressed patients in psychosomatic rehabilitation treatment. Method: Psychosomatic rehabilitation inpatients with depression were allocated to either a Greencare mindfulness- and relaxation-based nature intervention (n = 116) or to treatment as usual plus waitlist control group (TAU+WL) (n = 111) in two centres. All patients received questionnaires on admission (T1) and discharge (T2). Greencare patients received follow-up questionnaires three months after the intervention (T3). Main outcome was mood, assessed by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Secondary outcomes were depression, mindfulness, state self-compassion, and contact with nature. Data were analysed as intent-to-treat using mixed models for repeated measures, adjusted for propensity score and centre. Patients’ ratings of the effectiveness of the sessions and their well-being, and situational aspects of each session, were recorded. Results: We found significant interactions of time*group for PANAS, showing greater positive affect (Cohen’s d at T2 = 0.48) and lower negative affect (Cohen’s d at T2 = 0.52) in the Greencare group compared to the TAU+WL group at T2. At follow-up (T3), the effects in the Greencare group decreased, but remained significant compared to T1. Significant results for self-compassion and non-significant effects for depression and mindfulness were found. The groups did not differ in the amount of contact with nature. Sensitivity analyses revealed more favourable follow-up effects for patients with higher levels of depression. Patients reported high ratings of effectiveness and well-being for each session, and these ratings were not related to the weather conditions. No adverse events were reported. Discussion: Depressed inpatients benefitted from a Greencare mindfulness- and relaxation-based nature intervention by improving positive and negative affect. The effects were slightly reduced after three months, but less in patients with higher levels of depression on admission. Results show that the intervention is feasible and effective even for patients with higher symptom burden. Trial Registration: German Clinical Trials Register (trial registration number: DRKS00023369, universal trial registration number: U1111-1260-7305) Keywords: depression; inpatients; nature-based intervention; mindfulness; relaxation; controlled clinical trial
Article
Nature-based interventions (NBIs) are becoming a common mental health care referral option; however, little is known about the barriers to participation. Research reveals a concentration of evidence on the practical barriers with a paucity of guidance on the personal barriers as experienced by service users. This review explores what is known on the psychological, psychosocial and physical barriers as disclosed by adult mental health service users and the various stakeholders involved in NBI. Nine of the 104 articles screened met the inclusion criteria. The review identified a total of 47 barriers in which the majority were standalone barriers unique to the individual article or participant that generated them. However, other barriers suggest a level of universality with the greatest array of barriers identified in the psychosocial category. The review highlights an urgent need for further research on the psychological, psychosocial and physical barriers to NBI participation.
Chapter
Population ageing and urbanisation are two global demographic trends with significant public health implications, including increased rates of cognitive decline and neurogenerative disorders, as well as diminished quality of life. It is known that the neighbourhood urban environment impacts on lifestyle behaviours and physical health in older adults; however, little is known about how key features of the urban environment support cognitive health in late life. The main objective of this chapter is to critically review the current evidence on how physical features of the neighbourhood urban environment impact cognitive health in ageing populations. In particular, we apply a working ecological model of cognitive health that postulates that urban design and its by-products affect cognitive health via behavioural and biological pathways. In accordance with the model, the evidence provided in this chapter demonstrates that neighbourhood physical environments have the potential to promote cognitively healthy ageing and, thus, the creation of urban physical environments that preserve cognitive health is considered a feasible large-scale and sustainable solution. We further highlight the importance to recognise the complexity and diversity of urban design features and their multidimensional interactions with cognitive health in older adults. High-quality empirical studies that adopt ecological models of cognitive health are needed to inform the creation of age-friendly urban environments.
Article
Full-text available
An evolved module for fear elicitation and fear learning with 4 characteristics is proposed. (a) The fear module is preferentially activated in aversive contexts by stimuli that are fear relevant in an evolutionary perspective. (b) Its activation to such stimuli is automatic. (c) It is relatively impenetrable to cognitive control. (d) It originates in a dedicated neural circuitry, centered on the amygdala. Evidence supporting these propositions is reviewed from conditioning studies, both in humans and in monkeys; illusory correlation studies; studies using unreportable stimuli; and studies from animal neuroscience. The fear module is assumed to mediate an emotional level of fear learning that is relatively independent and dissociable from cognitive learning of stimulus relationships.
Article
Full-text available
With the rapid advancements in technology, researchers are seeking new ways to incorporate modern high-tech solutions such as Virtual Reality (VR) into treatment paradigms for stress. The current experiment explores the beneficial effects of immersing an individual into VR after a stressful encounter. The potential restorative effects of three unique immersive VR environments were examined by inducing stress and negative affect in 69 participants, and then randomly assigning them to freely explore one of three environments (a virtual nature setting, a virtual urban cityscape, or a neutral environment composed of solid geometric shapes) for 10 min. Participants who explored the nature environment were found to have significantly improved affect (as measured by a standardized questionnaire), and significantly lower stress levels (as measured by self-report and skin conductance levels) compared to those who explored the urban and geometric environments. The results suggest that virtual nature has restorative properties similar to real nature, and that simply immersing participants into a virtual nature setting can reduce stress. These results also suggest that the content of the VR experience (i.e., whether it contains nature) is important in promoting restoration, and that in the absence of nature, stress levels remain unchanged.
Article
Full-text available
The findings suggest that stressed individuals feel significantly better after exposure to nature scenes rather than to American urban scenes lacking nature elements. Compared to the influences of the urban scenes, the salient effect of the nature exposures was to increase Positive Affect — including feelings of affection friendliness, playfulness, and elation. The increase in positive affect produced by the nature scenes is consistent with the finding that the nature exposures also significantly reduced Fear Arousal. According to psychological theories, a reduction in arousal or activation produces pleasurable feelings if an individual is experiencing stress or excessive arousal (Berlyne, 1971, pp. 81–82). In contrast to the nature scenes, the urban views tended to work against emotional well‐being. The major effect of the urban scenes was to significantly increase Sadness. There was also a consistent but non‐significant tendency for the urban scenes to‐aggravate feelings of Anger/Aggression, and for the nature scenes to reduce such feelings. The urban exposures also held the attention of subjects somewhat less effectively than the nature exposures. These findings were stable across sexes, and applied to subjects who had grown up in either rural or urban environments.
Article
Full-text available
Wilderness should provide opportunities for stress reduction and restoration of mental fatigue. Visitors, surveyed as they exited wilderness trailheads, were asked for self-assessments of stress reduction and mental rejuvenation and the extent to which they experienced various restorative components of the environment—attributes deemed by attention restorative theory to be conducive to restoration. Day and overnight hikers on both very high use and moderate use trails were studied. Most respondents reported substantial stress reduction and mental rejuvenation and most experienced the environment in ways considered conducive to restoration. At the moderate to high use levels we studied, psychological restoration did not vary significantly with level of congestion, suggesting that concern about restorative experiences is not a valid rationale for limiting use on wilderness trails. Day trips reduced stress and allowed for mental rejuvenation to the same degree that overnight trips did. However, several of the restorative components of environment were experienced to a significantly greater degree as length of trip increased.
Article
Full-text available
Research has shown that people typically give high aesthetic preference ratings to trees with spreading canopies, similar to those found on the African savanna. If the savanna hypothesis is correct, people likely will have strong emotional responses to such trees as well. In this study, preferences and emotional responses of 206 participants to viewing scenes with different tree forms and urban elements were examined. Slide images of spreading, rounded, or columnar trees, or inanimate objects in two urban scenes were created. As expected, participants found scenes with trees more attractive than scenes with inanimate objects, and they rated spreading trees more attractive than rounded or columnar trees. Participants reported more positive emotions when viewing trees compared to inanimate objects, and they were happier when viewing spreading trees compared with other tree forms. These results are consistent with the savanna hypothesis, with emotional responses relating to preferences for trees with spreading forms.
Article
Full-text available
This article examines four domains of variables to assess their relative merit in explaining environmental preference. Within each of the domains, between three and seven specific attributes were measured, for a total of 20 predictor variables. The study site includes small forested areas, agricultural land, and fields, with little topographic variation. Preference ratings of 59 scenes representing the area serve as the dependent variable. Taken together, the 20 attributes accounted for 83 percent of the preference variance. Taken separately, the Physical Attributes lacked predictive power. Of the Informational variables, Mystery was the only significant contributor. The Land Cover types proved effective, with Weedy Fields, Scrubland, and Agriculture all significant negative predictors. Finally, the Perception-based variables were most powerful, with Openness and Smoothness particularly useful predictors. The results point to the importance of using different predictor domains, rather than relying exclusively on any one, since their role in different environmental contexts is likely to vary.
Article
Full-text available
Depending on what is in the view, looking out the window may provide numerous opportunities for restoration. Unlike other restorative opportunities, however, window viewing is more frequent and for brief moments at a time. The setting is also experienced from afar rather than while being in it. A study conducted at six low-rise apartment communities, using a survey with both verbal and visual material, provides considerable support for the premise that having natural elements or settings in the view from the window contributes substantially to residents’ satisfaction with their neighborhood and with diverse aspects of their sense of well-being. Views of built elements, by contrast, affected satisfaction but not well-being. Views of the sky and weather did not have a substantial effect on either outcome. The potential of nature content in the view from home to contribute so significantly to satisfaction and well-being suggests clear action mandates.
Article
Full-text available
Identifying mechanisms that buffer children from life's stress and adversity is an important empirical and practical concern. This study focuses on nature as a buffer of life stress among rural children. To examine whether vegetation near the residential environment might buffer or moderate the impact of stressful life events on children's psychological well-being, data were collected from 337 rural children in Grades 3 through 5 (mean age=9.2 years). Dependent variables include a standard parent-reported measure of children's psychological distress and children's own ratings of global self-worth. In a rural setting, levels of nearby nature moderate the impact of stressful life events on the psychological well-being of children. Specifically, the impact of life stress was lower among children with high levels of nearby nature than among those with little nearby nature. Implications of these finding are discussed with respect to our understanding of resilience and protective mechanisms.
Article
Full-text available
Three studies examine the effects of exposure to nature on positive affect and ability to reflect on a life problem. Participants spent 15 min walking in a natural setting (Studies 1, 2, & 3), an urban setting (Study 1), or watching videos of natural and urban settings (Studies 2 & 3). In all three studies, exposure to nature increased connectedness to nature, attentional capacity, positive emotions, and ability to reflect on a life problem; these effects are more dramatic for actual nature than for virtual nature. Mediational analyses indicate that the positive effects of exposure to nature are partially mediated by increases in connectedness to nature and are not mediated by increases in attentional capacity. The discussion focuses on the mechanisms that underlie the exposure to nature/well-being effects.
Article
Full-text available
In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Recent findings on subjective well-being (SWB) are presented, and I describe the important questions for future research that these raise. Worldwide predictors of SWB such as social support and fulfillment of basic needs have been uncovered, and there are large differences in SWB between societies. A number of culture-specific predictors of SWB have also been found. Research on social comparison suggests that a world standard for a desirable income has developed. New findings on adaptation indicate that habituation to conditions is not always complete and that circumstances in some cases can have a large and lasting effect on SWB. An important finding is that high SWB benefits health, longevity, citizenship, and social relationships. Because of the benefits of SWB as well as the strong effects societal conditions can have on it, I proposed national accounts of SWB, which are now being seriously considered by nations. Finally, I review advances in methodology that are needed to move beyond conclusions based on simple cross-sectional correlations based on global self-report scales. Each of the findings raises new and important questions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Article
Full-text available
Conducted 3 studies in which a self-study program, designed to increase felt personal happiness and life satisfaction, was developed. The program was based on the literature of happiness, and it was hypothesized that normal community college students (total N = 338) could become happier if they could modify their behaviors and attitudes to approximate more closely the characteristics of happier people. In the 1st study, 2 of 3 pilot programs produced statistically significant happiness boosts compared to a placebo control. A single program was then designed that combined the best aspects of the pilot programs. In the 2nd study, an experimental group receiving this combined program showed significant boosts in happiness compared to a placebo control. In the 3rd study, the combined program was presented to Ss on a take-it-or-leave-it basis—those applying it showing significant boosts in happiness compared to those who did not. The studies suggest that the resulting self-study program may be helpful to individuals wishing to increase the emotional satisfaction they derive from living. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
The question of how affect arises and what affect indicates is examined from a feedback-based viewpoint on self-regulation. Using the analogy of action control as the attempt to diminish distance to a goal, a second feedback system is postulated that senses and regulates the rate at which the action-guiding system is functioning. This second system is seen as responsible for affect. Implications of these assertions and issues that arise from them are addressed in the remainder of the article. Several issues relate to the emotion model itself; others concern the relation between negative emotion and disengagement from goals. Relations to 3 other emotion theories are also addressed. The authors conclude that this view on affect is a useful supplement to other theories and that the concept of emotion is easily assimilated to feedback models of self-regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
There are 2 families of statistical procedures in meta-analysis: fixed- and random-effects procedures. They were developed for somewhat different inference goals: making inferences about the effect parameters in the studies that have been observed versus making inferences about the distribution of effect parameters in a population of studies from a random sample of studies. The authors evaluate the performance of confidence intervals and hypothesis tests when each type of statistical procedure is used for each type of inference and confirm that each procedure is best for making the kind of inference for which it was designed. Conditionally random-effects procedures (a hybrid type) are shown to have properties in between those of fixed- and random-effects procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
This article describes what should typically be included in the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections of a meta-analytic review. Method sections include information on literature searches, criteria for inclusion of studies, and a listing of the characteristics recorded for each study. Results sections include information describing the distribution of obtained effect sizes, central tendencies, variability, tests of significance, confidence intervals, tests for heterogeneity, and contrasts (univariate or multivariate). The interpretation of meta-analytic results is often facilitated by the inclusion of the binomial effect size display procedure, the coefficient of robustness, file drawer analysis, and, where overall results are not significant, the counternull value of the obtained effect size and power analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Full-text available
Background: We aimed to assess moderation of affective and cognitive effects of a brisk walk by urban environmental characteristics and the immediate social context. Methods: We conducted a field experiment with time (pre-walk, post-walk), type of environment (park, street), and social context (alone, with a friend) as within-subjects factors. Twenty university students reported on affective states and completed a symbol-substitution test before and after each of two 40-minute walks in each environment. The routes differed in amount of greenery, proximity to water, and presence of traffic, buildings, and other people. Results: On average, walking per se increased positive affect and reduced negative affect. Feelings of time pressure declined to a greater extent with the park walk than the street walk. Revitalisation increased during the park walks to a greater degree when alone, but it increased more during the walk along streets when with a friend. We found an inconclusive pattern of results for performance on the symbol-substitution test. Conclusions: Some psychological benefits of a brisk walk depend on the influence of the immediate social context and features of the outdoor urban environment, including natural features such as greenery and water.
Chapter
Full-text available
In this chapter we consider how experiences of nature can affect human health and well-being. We first address the matter of 'what has been'; that is, we sketch the development of theory and research concerned with health benefits of natural environments, from ancient times to the current situation. This shows the current research to be a recent expression of a number of long-running, inter-twined, social and cultural processes. We then discuss 'where we are now'; that is, we overview current theories and related research concerning processes through which nature experience might provide health benefits. These processes concern environmental preferences, psychological restoration, and learning and personal development. Finally, we consider 'where we are going'; that is, we consider some additional directions for research and we identify some issues that research will have to address in the foreseeable future.
Article
Full-text available
There is evidence that contact with the natural environment and green space promotes good health. It is also well known that participation in regular physical activity generates physical and psychological health benefits. The authors have hypothesised that 'green exercise' will improve health and psychological well-being, yet few studies have quantified these effects. This study measured the effects of 10 green exercise case studies (including walking, cycling, horse-riding, fishing, canal-boating and conservation activities) in four regions of the UK on 263 participants. Even though these participants were generally an active and healthy group, it was found that green exercise led to a significant improvement in self-esteem and total mood disturbance (with anger-hostility, confusion-bewilderment, depression-dejection and tension-anxiety all improving post-activity). Self-esteem and mood were found not to be affected by the type, intensity or duration of the green exercise, as the results were similar for all 10 case studies. Thus all these activities generated mental health benefits, indicating the potential for a wider health and well-being dividend from green exercise. Green exercise thus has important implications for public and environmental health, and for a wide range of policy sectors.
Article
Full-text available
ABSTRACT—This article asserts that the theory of emerging adulthood is a useful way of conceptualizing the lives of people from their late teens to their mid- to late 20s in industrialized societies. The place of emerging adulthood within the adult life course is discussed. The weaknesses of previous terms for this age period are examined, and emerging adulthood is argued to be preferable as a new term for a new phenomenon. With respect to the question of whether emerging adulthood is experienced positively or negatively by most people, it is argued that it is positive for most people but entails developmental challenges that may be difficult and there is great heterogeneity, with some emerging adults experiencing serious problems. With respect to the question of whether or not emerging adulthood is good for society, it is argued that claims of the dangers of emerging adulthood are overblown, but emerging adulthood is probably a mixed blessing for society.
Article
Full-text available
This study aimed to explore whether walking in nature may be beneficial for individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD). Healthy adults demonstrate significant cognitive gains after nature walks, but it was unclear whether those same benefits would be achieved in a depressed sample as walking alone in nature might induce rumination, thereby worsening memory and mood. Twenty individuals diagnosed with MDD participated in this study. At baseline, mood and short term memory span were assessed using the PANAS and the backwards digit span (BDS) task, respectively. Participants were then asked to think about an unresolved negative autobiographical event to prime rumination, prior to taking a 50-min walk in either a natural or urban setting. After the walk, mood and short-term memory span were reassessed. The following week, participants returned to the lab and repeated the entire procedure, but walked in the location not visited in the first session (i.e., a counterbalanced within-subjects design). Participants exhibited significant increases in memory span after the nature walk relative to the urban walk, p<.001, η(p)(2)=.53 (a large effect-size). Participants also showed increases in mood, but the mood effects did not correlate with the memory effects, suggesting separable mechanisms and replicating previous work. Sample size and participants' motivation. These findings extend earlier work demonstrating the cognitive and affective benefits of interacting with nature to individuals with MDD. Therefore, interacting with nature may be useful clinically as a supplement to existing treatments for MDD.
Article
There are 2 families of statistical procedures in meta-analysis: fixed- and random-effects procedures. They were developed for somewhat different inference goals: making inferences about the effect parameters in the studies that have been observed versus making inferences about the distribution of effect parameters in a population of studies from a random sample of studies. The authors evaluate the performance of confidence intervals and hypothesis tests when each type of statistical procedure is used for each type of inference and confirm that each procedure is best for making the kind of inference for which it was designed. Conditionally random-effects procedures (a hybrid type) are shown to have properties in between those of fixed- and random-effects procedures.
Article
Conducted 3 studies in which a self-study program, designed to increase felt personal happiness and life satisfaction, was developed. The program was based on the literature of happiness, and it was hypothesized that normal community college students (total N = 338) could become happier if they could modify their behaviors and attitudes to approximate more closely the characteristics of happier people. In the 1st study, 2 of 3 pilot programs produced statistically significant happiness boosts compared to a placebo control. A single program was then designed that combined the best aspects of the pilot programs. In the 2nd study, an experimental group receiving this combined program showed significant boosts in happiness compared to a placebo control. In the 3rd study, the combined program was presented to Ss on a take-it-or-leave-it basis--those applying it showing significant boosts in happiness compared to those who did not. The studies suggest that the resulting self-study program may be helpful to individuals wishing to increase the emotional satisfaction they derive from living. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Article
The science of subjective well-being (SWB) has grown dramatically in the last three decades, moving beyond the early cross-sectional surveys of the demographic correlates of SWB. Stronger methods are frequently used to study a broader set of psychological phenomena, such as the effects on SWB of adaptation, culture, personality, and genetics. One important new research finding is that SWB has beneficial effects on health and longevity, social relationships, and productivity. National accounts of SWB are being created to provide information to policy makers about the psychological well-being of citizens. The SWB accounts represent an opportunity for psychologists to demonstrate the positive effects their interventions can produce in societies. © The Author(s) 2013.
Article
IntroductionIndividual studiesThe summary effectHeterogeneity of effect sizesSummary points
Article
Publication bias is the tendency to decide to publish a study based on the results of the study, rather than on the basis of its theoretical or methodological quality. It can arise from selective publication of favorable results, or of statistically significant results. This threatens the validity of conclusions drawn from reviews of published scientific research. Meta-analysis is now used in numerous scientific disciplines, summarizing quantitative evidence from multiple studies. If the literature being synthesised has been affected by publication bias, this in turn biases the meta-analytic results, potentially producing overstated conclusions. Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis examines the different types of publication bias, and presents the methods for estimating and reducing publication bias, or eliminating it altogether. Written by leading experts, adopting a practical and multidisciplinary approach. Provides comprehensive coverage of the topic including: • Different types of publication bias, • Mechanisms that may induce them, • Empirical evidence for their existence, • Statistical methods to address them, • Ways in which they can be avoided. • Features worked examples and common data sets throughout. • Explains and compares all available software used for analysing and reducing publication bias. • Accompanied by a website featuring software, data sets and further material. Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis adopts an inter-disciplinary approach and will make an excellent reference volume for any researchers and graduate students who conduct systematic reviews or meta-analyses. University and medical libraries, as well as pharmaceutical companies and government regulatory agencies, will also find this invaluable.
Article
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
Book
Amsterdamse Bos, Bois de Boulogne, Epping Forest, Grunewald, Zoniënwoud; throughout history, cities in Europe and elsewhere have developed close relationships with nearby woodland areas. In some cases, cities have even developed - and in some cases are promoting - a distinct 'forest identity'. This book introduces the rich heritage of these city forests as cultural landscapes, and shows that cities and forests can be mutually beneficial. Essential reading for students and researchers interested in urban sustainability and urban forestry, this book also has much wider appeal. For with city forests playing an increasingly important role in local government sustainability programs, it provides an important reference for those involved in urban planning and decision making, public affairs and administration, and even public health. From providers of livelihoods to healthy recreational environments, and from places of inspiration and learning to a source of conflict, the book presents examples of city forests from around the world. These cases clearly illustrate how the social and cultural development of towns and forests has often gone hand in hand. They also reveal how better understanding of city forests as distinct cultural and social phenomena can help to strengthen synergies both between cities and forests, and between urban society and nature.
Article
In the future, virtual reality technology will allow people to experience nature in a simulated environment—virtual nature. This article examines the implications of the availability of virtual nature experiences in three research studies. The first study showed that people would be interested in owning a virtual nature system and have a variety of expected uses for it. The second study showed that the commercial media’s presentation of nature tends to cause people to devalue their emotional experience of local natural areas. The third study showed that one of the effects of simulated nature experiences is to increase support for the preservation of national parks and forests, but it decreases support for the acquisition and preservation of local natural areas. Overall, these results suggest some of the dangers of the increasing use of information technology to simulate environments for people to experience. Widespread use of virtual nature could reduce support for the preservation of local natural environments, and these environments play a key role in the global ecology.
Article
Two studies explored cognitive and affective reactions to vegetation in urban settings. In Study 1, subjects viewed a line drawing of an urban street with or without the presence of vegetation (trees & shrubs). The addition of vegetation affected subjects' cognitions about the quality of life in the area as well as about the land-use of the area. Subjects also reported higher levels of positive affect when they viewed a tree-lined city street. In Study 2, subjects viewed slides taken before or after vegetation was added along a thoroughfare in a suburb of a large metropolitan area. Again vegetation affected perceptions of the quality of life in the area, the local land-use, and self-reported emotional responses to the setting. The results suggest that the impacts of vegetation are largely affective, but cognitions, particularly about the quality of life in an area are also influenced by its presence. This pattern of results did not enable us to ascertain the evolutionary or cultural origins of people's responses.
Article
The utility of different theoretical models of restorative experience was explored in a quasi-experimental field study and a true experiment. The former included wilderness backpacking and nonwilderness vacation conditions, as well as a control condition in which participants continued with their daily routines. The latter had urban environment, natural environment, and passive relaxation conditions. Multimethod assessments of restoration consisted of self-reports of affective states, cognitive performance, and, in the latter study, physiological measures. Convergent self-report and performance results obtained in both studies offer evidence of greater restorative effects arising from experiences in nature. Implications for theory, methodology, and design are discussed.
Article
Three experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that exposure to restorative environments facilitates recovery from mental fatigue. To this end, participants were first mentally fatigued by performing a sustained attention test; then they viewed photographs of restorative environments, nonrestorative environments or geometrical patterns; and finally they performed the sustained attention test again. Only participants exposed to the restorative environments improved their performance on the final attention test, and this improvement occurred whether they viewed the scenes in the standardized time condition or in the self-paced time condition. Results are in agreement with Kaplan's [(1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182] attention restoration theory, and support the idea that restorative environments help maintain and restore the capacity to direct attention.
Article
Recent advances in statistical methods for meta-analysis help reviewers to identify systematic variation in research results.
Article
Growing attention has been paid to the health-enhancing or therapeutic effects of natural environments, such as forests, and the requirement for an evidence-based approach has been pressing. However, there is a lack of evidence-based research in this field. In this study, the restorative effects of viewing real forest landscapes were examined through field experiments by comparing the effects of urban landscapes. Twelve Japanese male subjects in their twenties participated in a 3 day field experiment. The subjects were instructed to visit forest and urban environments randomly and to view each real landscape. Physiological and psychological data on each subject were collected four times a day. Significant differences between the responses of the subjects in forest compared with those in the urban environment were found. Forest environments had significantly lower values than urban environments after viewing in (1) salivary cortisol concentration (an index of stress response), (2) diastolic blood pressure, and (3) pulse rate. Further, subjects felt more comfortable, soothed and refreshed when viewing a forest landscape than an urban one. These findings support the idea that real forest landscapes may ameliorate stress, aid autonomic nervous system relaxation and increase positive emotion, and provide important scientific evidence of forest-guided health benefits.
Article
My goal in this final chapter is to provide a commentary on the previous chapters, making connections across chapters and presenting an overview of what the field of emerging adulthood looks like in its present form. First, I present some thoughts about each chapter (J. J. Arnett, see record 2005-16266-001; J. L. Tanner, see record 2005-16266-002; G. Labouvie-Vief, see record 2005-16266-003; J. E. Côté, see record 2005-16266-004; J. S. Phinney, see record 2005-16266-005; J. E. Schulenberg and N. R. Zarrett, see record 2005-16266-006; A. S. Masten, J. Obradović and K. B. Burt, see record 2005-16266-007; W. S. Aquilino, see record 2005-16266-008; A. Collins and M. van Dulmen, see record 2005-16266-009; E. S. Lefkowitz and M. M. Gillen, see record 2005-16266-010; S. F. Hamilton and M. A. Hamilton, see record 2005-16266-011; and J. D. Brown, see record 2005-16266-012). My discussion of the chapters follows the organizational structure of the book: first theory, then individual factors, and finally contexts. Then I comment on what remains to be known about emerging adulthood. I wish to draw attention to two additional research issues: the potential of research on emerging adulthood around the world and the fruitfulness of using qualitative methods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
The pursuit of happiness is an important goal for many people. However, surprisingly little scientific research has focused on the question of how happiness can be increased and then sustained, probably because of pessimism engendered by the concepts of genetic determinism and hedonic adaptation. Nevertheless, emerging sources of optimism exist regarding the possibility of permanent increases in happiness. Drawing on the past well-being literature, the authors propose that a person's chronic happiness level is governed by 3 major factors: a genetically determined set point for happiness, happiness-relevant circumstantial factors, and happiness-relevant activities and practices. The authors then consider adaptation and dynamic processes to show why the activity category offers the best opportunities for sustainably increasing happiness. Finally, existing research is discussed in support of the model, including 2 preliminary happiness-increasing interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)