Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis
... Motor learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from practice [25,26]. To achieve a motor learning effect, the patient needs to go through a set of processes associated with practice leading to a (relative) permanent change in the capacity for skilled actions [26,27]. ...
... Therefore it is only clearly apparent when the trained activity or skill is retained over time. [25][26][27][28] Basically the objective is to acquire motor control over the action and skill. Motor learning is concerned with the acquisition of novel action or movement, but when applied to patients, motor learning is the re-acquisition of previously learned actions in the presence of altered morphology which may be a sensory, motor or cognitive impairment. ...
... Considering more detailed the issues on ICF level for a patient, we need to analyze the task at hand and the required control over the various components to execute the task [23]. A lasting response of the neuromuscular mechanism is considered to be a motor learning effect [25][26][27], which is the key component of the (PNF) philosophy for neuro-rehabilitation [21][22][23]. To perform a task one needs to make a movement to come into the desired position. ...
IIntroduction: The amount of strokes is gradually increasing in the world, for instance in Europe the predictions are an increase of about 27 percent within the next 5 years. This will also increase the costs for society for therapy and rehabilitation. Hemiplegia is the main result of a stroke, hindering the people with a stroke to execute daily activities in a satisfying way. Guidelines for physiotherapy and rehabilitation point besides general therapy to motor learning as a main component of recommended therapy. The question arises what types of motor learning strategies should be considered. Therefore this informative paper is providing an overview and suggestions for possible clinical use. All based upon relevant literature.
Major findings: Motor learning is a process of acquiring the capacity for skilled action, practice and functional task training needs to be part of the provided interventions. Physiotherapist need to use a clinical reasoning approach in regard of ICF categories, activity limitations and underlying impairments. Secondly, biomechanical components need to be considered. These components are described and translated into physiotherapy and rehabilitation approaches with the use of over ten possible strategies. The various principles and strategies addressing motor learning are summarized and the possible effects on reorganization of the nervous system and alterations in neural drive are indicated. Specifically the motor learning approach within the PNF-concept is signalized. Finally two cases are described to illustrate the application of PNF-based motor learning interventions.
Conclusion: a variety of motor learning principles and strategies are based upon evidence in clinical situations. The evidence is a demonstrating neural drive alternations. A sound clinical reasoning is required for physiotherapists. There are indications for the PNF-concept to be within the guidelines for stroke rehabilitation.
... Daily practice significantly improves motor learning performance, enhancing movement accuracy and reducing error rates (Ericsson et al., 1993;Ericsson, 2008;Hardwick et al., 2017;Magill Richard and Anderson, 2021). This improvement has been suggested to be linked to biomechanical adaptations, resulting in more efficient movement patterns and optimized joint torques, particularly in lower limbs during activities like sit-to-stand transitions (Serbest et al., 2015;Schmidt et al., 2018). Practice also leads to behavioral changes, increasing speed, reducing cognitive load, and promoting automaticity (Haith and Krakauer, 2018;Krakauer et al., 2019). ...
... limited the development of speed-related motor skills (Schmidt et al., 2018). This design choice proved effective in enhancing skill development, as participants refined their techniques over time. ...
... Several explanations for the differences in performance between good and bad performers have been laid out. One argument is that good performers have more efficient and stable motor control strategies, which allow them to better adapt to changing task demands during learning in contrast to bad performers (Magill and Hall, 1990;Schmidt et al., 2018). Another possible explanation for the differences in performance between good and bad performers during motor learning tasks is related to differences in movement control and joint kinematics. ...
Introduction
This study investigates the multifaceted nature of motor learning in a complex bimanual task by examining the interplay between mental representation structures, biomechanics, tactile pressure, and performance. We developed a novel maze game requiring participants to maneuver a rolling sphere through a maze, exemplifying complex sequential coordination of vision and haptic control using both hands. A key component of this study is the introduction of cognitive primitives, fundamental units of cognitive and motor actions that represent specific movement patterns and strategies.
Methods
Participants were divided into two groups based on initial performance: poor performers (PPG) and good performers (GPG). The experimental setup employed motion capture and innovative tactile sensors to capture a detailed multimodal picture of the interaction process. Our primary aims were to (1) assess the effects of daily practice on task performance, biomechanics, and tactile pressure, (2) examine the relationship between changes in mental representation structures and skill performance, and (3) explore the interplay between biomechanics, tactile pressure, and cognitive representation in motor learning.
Results
Performance analysis showed that motor skills improved with practice, with the GPG outperforming the PPG in maze navigation efficiency. Biomechanical analysis revealed that the GPG demonstrated superior movement strategies, as indicated by higher peak velocities and fewer velocity peaks during task execution. Tactile feedback analysis showed that GPG participants applied more precise and focused pressure with their right-hand thumb, suggesting enhanced motor control. Cognitively, both groups refined their mental representation structures over time, but the GPG exhibited a more structured and sophisticated cognitive mapping of the task post-practice.
Discussion
The findings highlight the intertwined nature of biomechanical control, tactile feedback, and cognitive processing in motor skill acquisition. The results support established theories, such as the cognitive action architecture approach, emphasizing the role of mental representation in planning and executing motor actions. The integration of cognitive primitives in our analysis provides a theoretical framework that connects observable behaviors to underlying cognitive strategies, enhancing the understanding of motor learning across various contexts. Our study underscores the necessity of a holistic approach to motor learning research, recognizing the complex interaction between cognitive and motor processes in skill acquisition.
... This topic studies the relationship between performance and injury risk based on several parameters, including joint stability, muscle strength, and movement patterns (Enoka, 2008). Additionally, two important subfields of kinesiology that focus on how the brain and nervous system direct and refine movement are motor control and motor learning (Schmidt and Lee, 2014). This knowledge is crucial for creating training and rehabilitation plans that effectively improve motor skills and treat movement deficits. ...
... Motor control, which focuses on how the nervous system controls and coordinates movement, is also studied in relation to human movement. Understanding how the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves interact to generate fluid, precise movements is known as motor control (Schmidt and Lee, 2014). This field of research is crucial to creating successful rehabilitation plans, as it helps determine and treat motor impairments caused by trauma or neurological disorders. ...
... It involves understanding the systems and procedures that allow people to organize, perform and modify their motor movements to achieve particular objectives. Both involuntary actions such as reflexes and voluntary movements such as reaching for an object require motor control (Schmidt & Lee, 2014). The idea of motor planning and execution is fundamental to motor control. ...
... This topic studies the relationship between performance and injury risk based on several parameters, including joint stability, muscle strength, and movement patterns (Enoka, 2008). Additionally, two important subfields of kinesiology that focus on how the brain and nervous system direct and refine movement are motor control and motor learning (Schmidt and Lee, 2014). This knowledge is crucial for creating training and rehabilitation plans that effectively improve motor skills and treat movement deficits. ...
... Motor control, which focuses on how the nervous system controls and coordinates movement, is also studied in relation to human movement. Understanding how the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves interact to generate fluid, precise movements is known as motor control (Schmidt and Lee, 2014). This field of research is crucial to creating successful rehabilitation plans, as it helps determine and treat motor impairments caused by trauma or neurological disorders. ...
... It involves understanding the systems and procedures that allow people to organize, perform and modify their motor movements to achieve particular objectives. Both involuntary actions such as reflexes and voluntary movements such as reaching for an object require motor control (Schmidt & Lee, 2014). The idea of motor planning and execution is fundamental to motor control. ...
... A thorough assessment of upper limb motor impairments that evaluates the ability to make rapid, selective wrist and finger movements (wrist-finger speed), efficiently manipulate small (finger dexterity) and large objects (manual dexterity), maintain arm steadiness, move the arm quickly and accurately to a target (aiming), and move the arm under continuous visual control along a path (tracking) [6,7], is crucial for determining an accurate prognosis, designing individualized rehabilitation plans, and measuring the efficacy of those interventions. In the clinical setting, motor condition is typically assessed using observation-based scales and tests that that evaluate both task completion metrics (e.g., the number of elements grasped, moved, or placed, or the time required to perform these tasks) and motor abilities, often in an ordinal manner [8]. ...
... However, these instruments can also have certain limitations, such as poor sensitivity to subtle changes, potential subjectivity in scoring, and significant time consumption [9]. Additionally, these instruments may lack specificity and fail to provide distinct information on the various motor components contributing to the performance [6]. Kinematic measures obtained from camera-based motion capture systems [10][11][12] or inertial sensors [11,13] can potentially overcome these limitations by providing objective, precise, and detailed information about the quality of movement, such as speed, smoothness, and coordination [14,15]. ...
Background
Conventional clinical tools for assessing upper limb motor function often lack the sensitivity and specificity needed to detect subtle changes in motor performance and may be subject to bias. Kinematic assessment offers a potential solution by providing objective, precise, and detailed data on movement quality. However, it is typically associated with high costs, complex equipment, time-consuming procedures, and the need for controlled environments, all of which limit its accessibility and practicality in clinical settings. This study aimed to evaluate the reliability, validity, and sensitivity of a low-cost, touchscreen-based kinematic assessment tool for measuring upper limb function in individuals post-stroke.
Methods
Sixty-four individuals with stroke participated in this study. Participants performed a visually guided reaching task on a large touch screen that consisted in reaching from a central target to five outer targets arranged in a circular pattern, each at a time, and then returning to the central target. Their motor function was assessed using the Fugl-Meyer Assessment for Upper Extremity, the Box and Block Test, and the Nine Hole Peg Test. Kinematic measures of the trajectories performed during the reaching task were extracted and analyzed for reliability, convergent validity with clinical assessments, and sensitivity to impairment severity.
Results
The kinematic measures demonstrated good to excellent test-retest reliability, with intraclass correlation coefficients ranging from moderate to excellent. The convergent validity analysis revealed multiple significant correlations between the kinematic parameters and clinical assessments, particularly in tests requiring higher skill and precision, such as the Coordination and Speed subscale of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment for Upper Extremity and the Nine Hole Peg Test. Additionally, the touchscreen-based assessment was sensitive to the severity of motor impairment, as reflected by notable differences in the kinematic measures among participants with varying levels of upper limb function.
Conclusions
The touchscreen-based kinematic assessment offered an affordable yet reliable, valid, and sensitive alternative for evaluating upper limb kinematics in individuals with stroke, which could complement clinical assessments by offering additional insights into motor performance. Furthermore, its low cost, high speed, and ease of use make it a practical option for widespread clinical adoption.
... Habilidades fechadas geralmente são aprendidas mais rapidamente, porque envolvem menos variabilidade ambiental e menor demanda de ajuste frente à imprevisibilidade (Schmidt;Lee, 1999). Entretanto, mesmo um ambiente controlado como uma piscina poderia ser um desafio, em virtude da complexidade da tarefa. ...
... Habilidades fechadas geralmente são aprendidas mais rapidamente, porque envolvem menos variabilidade ambiental e menor demanda de ajuste frente à imprevisibilidade (Schmidt;Lee, 1999). Entretanto, mesmo um ambiente controlado como uma piscina poderia ser um desafio, em virtude da complexidade da tarefa. ...
... KeywoRds: mental rehearsal, wheelchair, motor learning, self-talk, paralympic sport IntroductIon L'apprentissage d'une habileté motrice est un changement résultant de la pratique qui peut être optimisé par l'utilisation de techniques mentales (Schmidt & Lee, 2005) comme l'imagerie motrice (IM). L'IM, qui peut être définie comme étant un processus cognitif conscient qui consiste à simuler mentalement un mouvement ou un enchaînement d'actions motrices, est très fréquemment utilisée pour améliorer l'apprentissage (Robin & Dominique, 2022), la performance (Simonsmeier et al., 2021) et la réhabilitation (Slimani et al., 2016). ...
... L'objectif de cette étude était d'évaluer l'influence d'une combinaison de discours interne et/ou d'IM, en complément de la pratique réelle, sur la performance de slalom réalisée par des novices en fauteuil roulant parasport. Les résultats de cette étude montrent dans un premier temps que tous les groupes ont amélioré leur performance (diminution du temps de parcours et du nombre de plots touchés), indiquant l'importance de la répétition, qu'elle soit physique ou mentale, lorsqu'il s'agit d'apprendre une nouvelle tâche motrice (Schmidt & Lee, 2005). De plus, les résultats de l'expérience ont également mis en évidence que les participants des groupes IM+DI et IM ayant bénéficié de l'imagerie motrice, en complément de la pratique réelle, avaient fait moins d'erreurs de touche de plots que ceux du groupe Contrôle. ...
Pour favoriser l'apprentissage d'habiletés motrices, il est recommandé en plus de la pratique réelle d'avoir recours à des stratégies comme le discours interne (DI) et l'ima-gerie motrice (IM) qui consiste à simuler mentalement une action. Cette étude avait pour but de tester les effets d'une combinaison de DI et d'IM sur la performance d'un parcours de type slalom réalisé en fauteuil roulant parasport par des novices. Quarante-quatre étudiants volontaires (M age =20,6), aléatoirement répartis en 3 groupes : Contrôle, IM et IM+DI, ont réa-lisé 3 phases expérimentales réparties sur 6 séances. Séance 1 (pré-test), tous les groupes réa-lisaient 2 fois un parcours chronométré. Les séances 2 à 5 (acquisition) comprenaient cha-cune la réalisation de 3 fois le parcours : physiquement après une tâche neutre pour le groupe Contrôle, mentalement puis physiquement pour le groupe IM et mentalement avec discours interne puis physiquement pour le groupe IM+DI. La séance 6 (post-test) était similaire à la séance 1. Les résultats montrent des améliorations supérieures de la vitesse de réalisation du parcours pour le groupe IM+DI et moins d'erreurs de touches de plots pour les groupes IM et IM+DI. L'intérêt de combiner les modalités de pratique, pour améliorer l'apprentissage de l'uti-lisation du fauteuil roulant, est discuté. mots clés : simulation mentale, fauteuil roulant, apprentissage, handisport, dialogue interne. AbstRAct: To promote motor skill learning, it is recommended, in addition to real practice, to use strategies such as internal discourse (ID) and motor imagery (MI) consisting of internally simulating performing an action. The aim of this study was to test the effects of a combination of ID and MI on the performance of a slalom-type course performed in a sport wheelchair by Article en prépublication-Staps 2024 novices. Fourty-four volunteer students (M age =20.6), randomly divided into 3 groups: Control, MI and IM+DI, carried out 3 experimental phases spread over 6 sessions. Session 1 (pre-test), all the groups completed the timed course twice. The following 4 sessions (acquisition) included completing the course 3 times: Physically after a neutral counting back task for the Control group, mentally then physically for the MI group, and mentally with internal discourse then physically for the MI+ID group. Session 6 (post-test): similar to session 1. The results show greater improvements in slalom speed for the MI+ID group and less cone hit errors for both the MI and MI+ID groups. The interest of combining the modalities of practice, to improve the learning of the wheelchair use, is discussed.
... We assessed the within-hand lag and between-hand lag using three timing errors: variable error (VE), which measures intraparticipant variability; absolute error (AE) de ned as the absolute value of deviation from the true lag; and constant error (CE), which quanti es the direction and magnitude of the deviation [33]. Each error type was calculated using the following equations [33]: ...
... We assessed the within-hand lag and between-hand lag using three timing errors: variable error (VE), which measures intraparticipant variability; absolute error (AE) de ned as the absolute value of deviation from the true lag; and constant error (CE), which quanti es the direction and magnitude of the deviation [33]. Each error type was calculated using the following equations [33]: ...
Background
Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) is characterized by cerebrospinal fluid circulation disorders, and presents as gait and balance disturbances similar to those observed in other incurable neurological diseases. Although previous studies have reported deficits in bimanual coordination among patients with iNPH, these potential pathological characteristics have not received much attention to date. This study investigated the temporal characteristics of a bimanual finger-tapping task in patients with iNPH, focusing on within- and between-hand coordination.
Methods
Study participants comprised three groups: patients with iNPH (N = 19, mean age = 76.9 ± 5.6 years), older adults (N = 19, 76.4 ± 5.3 years), and younger adults (N = 13, 32.2 ± 8.5 years). Participants performed a bimanual finger-tapping task under five conditions that manipulated the temporal differences between the two taps.
Results
The iNPH group exhibited significantly greater errors in both within- and between-hand coordination tasks compared to the other two groups.
Conclusion
The observed increase in errors in between-hand coordination in the older group compared to the younger group, suggests that between-hand coordination is susceptible to aging. These findings show that evaluating temporal errors in a bimanual coordination task, particularly for within-hand coordination, is potentially useful for uncovering pathological characteristics specific to iNPH.
... Serial motor skills are neither discrete nor continuous and are a sequence of actions which have been strung together to produce an outcome (i.e. a dance routine, baking a cake). Discrete and continuous motor skills sit at opposite ends of this continuum with serial motor skills situated in the centre (Richard A. Schmidt et al., 2018). ...
... These motor skill classification systems include a variety of proficiencies such as manual dexterity, coordination (e.g. hand-eye or bilateral coordination of the extremities), muscular strength and agility (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005), in addition to motor behaviour and control (Schmidt et al., 2018;Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016), an integral element and rapidly expanding area of research in further understanding the complexity of motor proficiency. Motor proficiency is a key component measured during human development, from infant to adulthood, and early motor proficiency levels have been shown to have a significant impact on subsequent motor skills later in life (Masten & Cicchetti, 2010), and are a key component of physical therapy for individuals with developmental disabilities (Bishop & Pangelinan, 2018;Franki et al., 2012). ...
The aim of this review is to explore the relationship between adaptive behaviour (AB) and motor proficiency (MP). Despite AB being one of the core criteria for the diagnosis of intellectual disability, no review into the relationship between AB and MP exists. Of the 23 final studies, 19 supported a relationship between AB (composite score and/or practical, social or conceptual domains) and MP. Six studies included intellectual functioning variables, all highlighting the importance of considering both AB and intellectual functioning in relation to MP. Overall, there is evidence to support a relationship between AB and MP. More research is required of high methodological quality, in a variety of population samples and including intellectual functioning data.
... In this regard, evidence shows that inner speech improves the academic performance (22)(23)(24). However, the academic environment is different from sports setting, because sports skills rely mainly on the motor and cognitive abilities of performers, while academic skills are mainly cognitive in nature (25). Due to the importance of inner speech in sport (6,7,9), it is necessary to examine its effects on sport performance. ...
... In addition, according to the motor learning principle, instructors are important facilitators of students' motor-skill acquisition and performance (Davids, Button, and Bennett 2008;Hodges and Franks 2004;Schmidt and Wrisberg 2008). Instructors can facilitate learners' skill learning and performance by understanding students' specific needs and tailoring their teaching to meet those needs (Schmidt and Lee 2011). In other words, the role of instructors can be seen as environment architects who design innovative tasks and programs to enhance learners' creativity and their capacity to learn and perform (see Newcombe, Davids, and Roberts 2021). ...
Background
Although studies based on self-determination theory have shown a relation between teachers’ autonomy-supportive teaching behaviors and students’ positive outcomes in physical education (PE), only a few studies have tested the relation between autonomy support and students’ actual game-play performance in a PE context.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine whether physical education (PE) teachers’ autonomy-supportive behaviors would predict high school students’ actual game-play performance in PE activities.
Method
A total of 286 students (Mage = 15.24, SD = 3.99) reported on their perceptions of their teachers’ autonomy-supportive behaviors, their experience of need satisfaction, and their autonomous motivation toward learning PE activities questionnaires. Teachers (N = 7, female = 3, Mage = 38.57) and an expert rater measured students’ actual game-play performance with a comprehensive behavioral assessment tool.
Results
The results revealed that teachers’ autonomy support correlated positively with students’ psychological variables of need satisfaction, and autonomous motivation. Need satisfaction and autonomous motivation positively correlated with game performance either measured by teachers or measured by the expert rater. A path analysis showed that autonomy support positively predicted actual game performance measured by the expert rater (β = .05; p < .05) through need satisfaction and autonomous motivation.
Conclusion
The results suggest that PE teachers’ autonomy-supportive teaching styles promote not only students’ need satisfaction and autonomous motivation in PE activities, but also their actual game-play performance.
... A possible explanation for this is that the previous studies were cross-sectional (55,56), assessing students in a physical education setting, while in our study, children were assessed in an after-school intervention program. Schmidt and Lee (57) suggest that students assess their competency not merely by their performance and what they can accomplish. Given that the after-school program in this study, which included students from kindergarten to 6th grade, participants may have evaluated their achievements relative to their peers, affecting their perceived competence. ...
The study examined the effect of a 5-week Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) on overhand throw skills and perceived motor competence in students from low socio-economic backgrounds. Participants were children recruited from a Title 1 school in the Southwest U.S. Students were assigned to either CSPAP condition (n = 60, 26 boys, 34 girls; Mgrade = 4.27, SD = .43) or a control condition (n = 20, 7 boys, 13 girls; Mgrade = 4.00, SD = .35). Overhand throwing and perceived motor competence were assessed at baseline and post-intervention using the Test of Gross Motor Development—2nd Edition and Perceived Motor Competence for Children (PMC-C). The Analysis of Covariance test showed that students who participated in the CSPAP performed statistically significant improvements in the overhand throw compared to control students in the post-test p < .001, with a moderate effect size. However, there was no significant difference in the PMC-C score after the 5-week intervention between the CSPAP students and control students. CSPAP can improve overhand throwing in students from low-income families, but new strategies are needed to enhance perceived motor competence in after-school contexts.
... In the current study, the BJJST was able to detect variations in athletes' performance based on the time of day, but did not show corresponding differences in RPE. This lack of variation in RPE can be attributed to improvements in technique or efficiency due to familiarity with the test and motor skill adaptation (Schmidt and Lee 2011). Additionally, environmental conditions and test setup might have influenced performance differently at various times of the day (Hammouda et al. 2012), while participants' perceptions of effort remained unchanged (Locke and Latham 2002). ...
This study investigated how the time of day affects physical performance and perceptual responses in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) athletes. Given the significance of circadian rhythms on athletic capabilities, we aimed to determine whether performance variations occur across different times of the day (morning, 10:00–11:00h; afternoon, 14:00–15:00h; and evening, 18:00–19:00h) and if these effects differ by sex. In total, 23 BJJ athletes (9 females, 14 males) participated in this study. The athletes performed physical tests including the maximal isometric handgrip strength test (HGS), Kimono Grip Strength Endurance Test (KGST), and a BJJ-specific test (BJJST) in the morning, afternoon, and evening. Perceptual responses (RPE) were also collected before the BJJST. Results showed enhanced physical performance in the evening for most tests, including increased HGS and superior performance in the KGST and BJJST for both sexes (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in perceptual responses (RPE) or between sexes (p > 0.05). We conclude that BJJ athletes generally perform better in the evening compared to other times of the day, with notable improvements in HSG and specific BJJ tests. The study highlights the importance of aligning training schedules with an athlete’s circadian rhythm to optimize performance, leading to more efficient training sessions and improved long-term performance outcomes.
... nervous systems, as well as motor unit firing, which may result in a decline in muscle reaction speed. Schmidt and Lee (2005) confirmed that repetitions during training create a "motor memory" for the nervous system, making movements faster and more efficient. The authors reported that this learning process allowed athletes to respond faster to a specific motor task. ...
Objective
Wrestling is a complex sport that requires a combination of strength, endurance, and wrestling-specific technical training. Endurance activities, such as running, are commonly performed for rapid weight reduction before competition. However, these activities can severely disrupt recovery and lead to significant declines in performance. This study aimed to examine the acute effects of endurance, strength, and wrestling training sessions on hydration status and performance parameters in young wrestlers, providing insights to guide more effective hydration and recovery strategies.
Method
A total of 14 experienced young wrestlers participated in a crossover design, completing endurance, strength, and wrestling training sessions on separate days. The hydration status was assessed through urine specific gravity (USG) before and after each session. The performance measures included hand grip strength, back and leg strength tests, anaerobic power (vertical and horizontal jumps), respiratory muscle strength (maximal inspiratory pressure, MIP), and reaction time assessments.
Results
The endurance training caused the most significant acute reductions in the hydration (USG increase: 0.016 ± 0.005 g/cm³, p < 0.05) and body mass (BM; −1.89 ± 0.4%, p < 0.05), along with immediate performance decrements in the back strength (−7.02 ± 1.2%, p < 0.001), right-hand grip strength (−8.79 ± 2.1%, p < 0.001), jump height (−7.26 ± 1.8%, p < 0.001), and MIP (−9.01 ± 2.3%, p < 0.001). The hydration levels in the endurance group did not fully recover by the next day (USG post-training vs. before the next day’s training: p < 0.05). In contrast, the strength training improved the reaction time before the next day’s session (+5.6 ± 1.3%, p < 0.05), while the attention remained unaffected across all training types.
Conclusion
Endurance training—commonly used for rapid weight loss—can acutely compromise hydration and reduce key performance measures, with recovery taking more time compared to strength or wrestling sessions. Given these findings, endurance sessions should be strategically scheduled before rest days or low-intensity technical training to minimize their negative effects on subsequent performance. Implementing enhanced hydration strategies during endurance-focused sessions may also help mitigate these acute impacts and optimize recovery and performance in young wrestlers.
... After processing I, these declarative knowledge components, in turn, impact subsequent sensori-motor processes (little blue box) and thereby improve procedural motor knowledge, visible in form of improved javelin throwing performance. The grayed-out box and the thinner arrow in the PS phase of I-PS depict a diminished role of non-verbalizable processes due to the predominance of verbalizable processes, as outlined in the text of motor learning which all have in common that processes of the nervous system produce, through practice and experience, relatively stable and permanent changes in behaviour (Magill, 1989;Schmidt & Lee, 1999, 2005Wiegel & Leukel, 2020). The categorization of movements within the realm of procedural knowledge implies that the acquisition of these movements occurs through automatic and non-verbalizable processes. ...
Learning of motor skills in physical education classes occurs through different instructional approaches: via instructional explanations from the teacher (I), and via self-determined practice (problem-solving; PS). In our study, we explored whether the sequence of PS and I impacts performance enhancement among primary school children learning javelin throwing. Fifty 4th graders participated and were allocated to either I-PS or PS-I or PS-I with additional practice. Across groups, the children demonstrated improvements in executing movement features, yet there was no significant improvement in throwing distance. The temporal order of PS and I did not mediate these improvements. Additional practice did not lead to further improvements in performance. Our results contrast with earlier results in secondary school children in whom PS-I was more effective than I-PS Loibl & Leukel (2023). The lack of a significant advantage for PS-I over I-PS could stem from the primary children’s limited ability to develop declarative knowledge during PS that links to the content of I.
... In the development of the ability to fulfill the task, these repetitive activities should be applied variably with frequent repetition. In other words, motor learning can be realized if the activities and movements are repeated with different combinations and patterns (R. A. Schmidt & Lee, 2011). A rehabilitation program involving rehabilitation robots can provide a much higher number of activity repetitions compared to traditional neurorehabilitation applications. ...
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... Taking differences in skill-specific characteristics into account, Munzert and Lorey (2013) emphasised the differentiation of open and closed skills for the classification of the effects of imagery in sports. Unlike open skills which require the ability to imagine external events and environmental conditions, closed skills differ in the predictability of the environment (Schmidt & Lee 2005). However there are sports that approach both, open and closed skills. ...
This study aimed to examine imagery vividness and different modalities and perspectives in women’s artistic gymnastics. It explored athletes’ imagery use in training practice and how vivid imagery is developed for different motor tasks. Forty-seven female athletes (age 19 ± 3 years), with women’s artistic gymnastics expertise (12 ± 4 years) participated in this study. The Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (Dahm et al., 2019) was used to determine the imagery vividness of the participants for the different imagery modalities and perspectives respectively: external–visual, internal–visual, and kinaesthetic. The ANOVA results showed no differences between the most vivid imagery for age (F[3] = 0.724, p = .54) and expertise (F[4] = 0.091, p = .97). T-test results revealed differences in the imagery vividness of the kinaesthetic imagery depending on the gymnasts’ activity as a coach (F[45] = 5.280, p < .05). To benefit from imagery use in training (e.g. to adjust coaching), the most vivid imagery modality and perspective must be determined individually. These results emphasise the need for skill-specific assessments of imagery modalities and perspectives to benefit from individualised imagery-adapted instructions.
... An element closely related to randomization that has already been widely studied is the concept of Contextual Interference (CI), introduced in the 1960s. To give a definition, according to Schmidt and Lee, in 2005: "Contextual interference is defined as the interference in performance and learning that arises from practicing one task in the context of other tasks". CI resembles randomness in practice, in that it brings variability during the phase of learning or practice. ...
There is little evidence of the acute effect of random practice, performed by solely varying the intensity but not the task itself, as compared to block practice, i.e. when one task is repeated in a constant manner. This study aimed to examine the acute neuromuscular effects of physical exercise consisting of repeated jumps of randomized length. Fifteen healthy young participants completed 2 separate sessions of 90 minutes. They did 20 minutes of fatiguing exercise, consisting of 100 repeated standing long jumps (SLJ), in two different manners: one session with targeted jump length kept constant (CO), and one with targeted jump length being varied and unpredictable (RA). Pre- and post-tests were conducted before and immediately after, including measurements of Countermovement Jump (CMJ), SLJ, leg extension maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MViC), EMG activities of leg muscles and patellar tendon reflex amplitude (T-reflex: strike force and evoked force). Results showed that performances decreased after the repeated SLJs, independently of the condition (MViC decreased from 448 ± 118 N to 399 ± 122 N; CMJ decreased from 36.7 ± 7.2 cm to 34.6 ± 6.6 cm). EMG during MViC decreased by 21 ± 28 % from pre- to post-intervention. T-reflex decreased after both conditions ([Force/Strike] ratio decreased by 38 ± 69 % from pre to post). Subjective measures showed a greater sense of personal performance and enjoyment after the RA session. Results suggest that a randomly organized intensity of effort led to a similar decrease in physical performance compared to constant intensity when the session loads were matched. It also led to similar fatigue of the neuromuscular system as shown by T-reflexes and EMG measures. Nonetheless, random practice presents the benefit of being markedly more appreciated by participants.
... It is well recognised that performance can be improved by augmented feedback (feedback from an external source provided as knowledge of performance or result) [22,23]. This type of feedback is often used during resistance training to enhance acute physical performance and has shown promise as a method for improving chronic physical adaptation [24][25][26][27]. ...
Purpose
A wealth of research exists for the Nordic hamstring exercise and several devices provide real-time feedback on torque profiling. However, none currently offer feedback on technique execution. This study investigated the effect of verbal and software feedback on Nordic exercise kinetic and kinematic metrics.
Methods
24 recreational participants completed two sets of three bilateral repetitions on a hamstring testing device. In a crossover design, one set was performed with verbal feedback, while the other set used software-based feedback. Hamstring strain injury risk metrics (peak torque, break-torque angle, and bilateral limb percentage difference) and exercise technique metrics (relative trunk-to-thigh angle and angular velocity of the knee) were recorded for analysis.
Results
The feedback type significantly affected eccentric knee flexor peak torque, by a mean decrease of 7.1 Nm when performed with software feedback (Cohen’s d = 0.238, p < 0.01). Altering feedback had no significant effect on bilateral limb difference percentage (Cohen’s d = 0.068, p = 0.578) or break-torque angle (Cohen’s d = 0.159, p = 0.115). Software feedback significantly decreased the mean of both the relative-trunk-to-thigh angle at peak torque by 5.7° (Cohen’s d = 0.514, p < 0.01) and the angular velocity of the knee at peak torque by 8.7 deg·s⁻¹.
Conclusions
An integrated software feedback system significantly improves acute Nordic exercise technique, benefitting individuals initially exhibiting poorer technique the most.
... This enhanced peripheral object recognition contributes to more precise and timely responses in competitive settings. Notably, the shotgunmounting reaction time in specialized testing environments proved significantly shorter than the response time in RT, influenced by the slower nerve transmission speeds and distances from the central nervous system (Schmidt and Lee, 1982), and compensated by predictive abilities (Kesting and Treiber, 2006). Athletes familiar with their sporting environment often exhibit shorter reaction times, benefiting from anticipatory skills (Günay et al., 2019;Hülsdünker et al., 2021). ...
Introduction
Vision serves as a critical channel for athletes to acquire information during competitions and constitutes a vital component of their competitive ability. Through scientifically designed sports visual training, specific visual skills can be enhanced, thereby assisting athletes in achieving optimal performance in competitive settings. This study aim to explore the visuomotor abilities and shooting performance of skeet shooters through Sports Vision Training (SVT).
Methods
Twenty elite skeet shooters were recruited and randomly assigned to an experimental group (EXP, n = 10) and a control group (CON, n = 10). The EXP underwent 6-week of SVT on Senaptec Seneory Station, twice a week, while the CON completed an equivalent workload of target-tracking training.
Result
Visuomotor skills testing showed significant improvements in Near- Far Quickness, Perception Span, and Eye-hand Coordination in the EXP (p < 0.05), with no changes in the CON. Comparative post-test results between the two groups showed significant differences in N/F Q, Target Capture, Perception Span, Eye-hand Coordination, and Go/ No Go (p < 0.05). In shooting performance indicators, EXP shooters showed a highly significant improvement in hit accuracy (p < 0.01), with a similar difference compared to the CON. Additionally, they exhibited a highly significant improvement in shotgun-mounting reaction time (p < 0.01). Kinematic indicators of shotgun movement during the firing process for shot 2 showed significant differences in peak velocity (p < 0.01), X-axis (p = 0.033) and Y-axis (p = 0.001) displacement.
Conclusion
SVT can enhance visuomotor abilities in skeet shooters and has a positive impact on their shooting technique. This is primarily manifested in shorter shotgun-mounting reaction time and improved efficiency in action at shot 2, effectively improving their shooting accuracy.
... [2][3][4] Health care professionals, such as physical and occupational therapists, support patients to acquire or relearn a broad range of different motor skills, for example, walking or reaching, to help them regain independence in activities of daily living (ADLs). [1][2][3][4] Certain general principles of skill training, like the frequency and specificity of practice and number of repetitions, are now widely recognized as being crucial to effective rehabilitation. In the last 2 decades, evidence has accumulated to suggest that how skills are taught may also be of relevance, 5,6 and guidelines now recommend incorporating motor learning strategies into treatment approaches to improve rehabilitation success. ...
Objective
To provide a broad overview of the current state of research regarding the effects of 7 commonly used motor learning strategies to improve functional tasks within older neurologic and geriatric populations.
Data Sources
PubMed, CINAHL, and Embase were searched.
Study Selection
A systematic mapping review of randomized controlled trials was conducted regarding the effectiveness of 7 motor learning strategies—errorless learning, analogy learning, observational learning, trial-and-error learning, dual-task learning, discovery learning, and movement imagery—within the geriatric and neurologic population.
Data Extraction
Two thousand and ninety-nine articles were identified. After screening, 87 articles were included for further analysis. Two reviewers extracted descriptive data regarding the population, type of motor learning strategy/intervention, frequency and total duration intervention, task trained, movement performance measures, assessment time points, and between-group effects of the included studies. The risk of bias 2 tool was used to assess bias; additionally, papers underwent screening for sample size justification.
Data Synthesis
Identified articles regarding the effects of the targeted motor learning strategies started around the year 2000 and mainly emerged in 2010. Eight populations were included, for example, Parkinson's and stroke. Included studies were not equally balanced: analogy learning (n=2), errorless learning and trial-and-error learning (n=5), mental practice (n=19), observational learning (n=11), discovery learning (n=0), and dual-tasking (n=50). Overall studies showed a moderate-to-high risk of bias. Four studies were deemed sufficiently reliable to interpret effects. Positive trends regarding the effects were observed for dual-tasking, observational learning, and movement imagery.
Conclusions
Findings show a skewed distribution of studies across motor learning interventions, especially toward dual-tasking. Methodological shortcomings make it difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding the effectiveness of motor learning strategies to improve functional studies. Future researchers are strongly advised to follow guidelines that aid in maintaining methodological quality. Moreover, alternative designs fitting the complex practice situation should be considered.
... Implicit learning methods aim to minimize declarative (explicit) knowledge about movement execution during learning. 57 For this purpose, implicit learning can be induced by providing external focus instructions or analogies rather than explicit instructions during motor skill acquisition. 32 Implicit learning reduces the reliance on the working memory for movement coordination, freeing up those resources for sport engagement. ...
The 11+ is a structured warm-up program designed to prevent injuries in soccer players, but has proven efficacy in many populations, settings and sports. It consists of 15 exercises that target the most common injury sites, such as the knee, ankle, and groin. However, the implementation and adherence of the 11+ remain suboptimal, and recent compelling data indicates underlying mechanisms of injury risk related to neural control of movement may not be adequately targeted. Updates to the 11+ considering practical implications of neurocognitive and ecological motor learning may be warranted for coaches and practitioners. We review the evidence on how an updated 11+ may influence the cognitive and perceptual processes involved in motor control and learning, such as attention, anticipation, decision making, and feedback. How the 11+ can be adapted to the ecological constraints and affordances of the football (soccer) environment is also discussed, including the task, the individual, and the context. By considering these factors, the 11+ can be more effective, engaging, and enjoyable for the players, and thus improve its adoption and compliance. The 11+ has the capability to not only a physical warm-up, but also a neurocognitive and ecological preparation for the game. Therefore, the purpose of this manuscript is to describe the conceptual design of a new ecological neurocognitively enriched 11+, that builds on the strong foundation of the original intervention with considerations for the newly discovered potential neural control of movement risk factors.
... Intrinsic FB represents sensory information that individuals obtain from their own movement, whereas extrinsic FB represents information provided externally as instructions about movement results, such as knowledge of results (KR) and knowledge of performance (KP) [7] . Extrinsic FB includes various FB strategies, such as the timing and frequency of FB provision. ...
Hand dexterity impairments in patients with stroke reduce activities of daily living (ADL) and quality of life. Visuospatial ability is associated with motor learning, but this has not previously been reported in patients with subacute stroke. We aimed to investigate whether visual terminal feedback (FB) affected motor learning of hand dexterity and the relationship among visuospatial ability. Overall, 17 subacute stroke patients (age: 66.1 ± 13.8 years) with mild upper limb motor impairment were included. The experimental task was the grasping force control task. The visuospatial task was the Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCFT). The experimental protocol was conducted in 2 consecutive days: day 1 consisted of a pre-test (PRE), practice, and short-term retention test (SRT), and day 2 consisted of a long-term retention test (LRT) and the ROCFT. Grasping errors were significantly decreased in the SRT and LRT than in the PRE. Furthermore, ROCFT scores (copy and recall) and LRT grasping errors were moderately negatively correlated (ρ = -0.51 and − 0.53). In conclusion, visuospatial ability is an important factor associated with motor learning in subacute stroke patients. Future studies should use visual terminal FB, and training programs for visuospatial ability should be considered in stroke rehabilitation.
... The foundational theories in this field -Closed-loop Motor Learning (Adams, 1971(Adams, , 1987 and Schema Theory (Schmidt, 1975;Schmidt & Lee, 2005) -agree that action and evaluation are two key elements in motor learning. These inform the memory trace and perceptual trace respectively in Adams' theory, and the recall schema and recognition schema in Schmidt's. ...
For good production in L2 pronunciation, learners have to be able to form new sounds in many syllabic contexts and at speed, so pronouncing an L2 requires learning new motor skills. The basic unit of motor skill development is the action-perception cycle, within which there is a need for the learners’ attempts at a target to be evaluated, by themselves or by an expert. We present a theoretical framework based upon how learning/teaching paradigms meet the need for such evaluation. This yields a taxonomy of seven paradigms.
... The field of motor control and learning is rich with theories attempting to quantify how the central nervous system controls and learns new movements (e.g., Schmidt et al., 2018). Motor tasks with redundancy-tasks with multiple ways to achieve success-have potential to offer insights into how people generalize and retain new vocal motor behaviors (Müller & Sternad, 2009). ...
Purpose
Floating ball voice therapy (FBVT) is a voice-controlled virtual environment based on a common treatment component across multiple evidence-based therapies: improved vocal efficiency (target) via practicing voicing with modified resonance and airflow (ingredient). This study preliminarily tested FBVT's effects on outcomes and the potential for its novel variability metrics to predict individual patient generalization.
Method
Ten patients with nonphonotraumatic vocal hyperfunction (NPVH) practiced FBVT for 10 days. Outcomes were assessed by a vocal efficiency ratio, a validated NPVH index, the patient-reported Voice-Related Quality of Life (V-RQOL), and forced-choice auditory judgments of overall severity. Exploration in early practice (Day 1) was estimated by how the patient's two-dimensional variability (mean airflow and intensity) related to error (difference between the patient-produced and normative vocal efficiency ratio). Generalization from the game to spontaneous speech was evaluated using the validated NPVH index.
Results
Ten days of FBVT were associated with improved vocal efficiency (Cohen's d = 1.3), NPVH index (d = −1.1), V-RQOL total score (d = 0.9), and overall severity (odds ratio = 2.5). Patients who generalized on Day 10 exhibited airflow/intensity exploration that was more aligned with the error gradient on Day 1 (d = 0.6–1.2).
Conclusions
A relatively small dosage of FBVT (i.e., 10 practice sessions) was associated with multiple improved voice therapy outcomes. The FBVT variability metrics on Practice Day 1 demonstrated strong potential to predict which patients generalized to connected speech. Future work can more thoroughly evaluate effects on outcomes and characterizing the quality of vocal exploration with a larger patient population.
Supplemental Material
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.27040873
... Refleksler, duyusal bir uyarana verilen cevaptır. Emme ve kavrama refleksi, dokunma duyusuna; moro refleksi ise vestibüler duyuya verilen tepkidir (Schmidt & Lee, 2014) ...
... At first blush, the brain seems an obvious choice. The traditional approach to motor control assumes a central control system: the central nervous system (Schmidt & Lee, 2011). Likewise, the traditional approach to robotics and artificial intelligence assumes a primary driver: the algorithms in the software (Russell & Norvig, 2010). ...
In reviewing work on motor development, we aim to interest readers from every area of developmental science. How so? Rather than writing a boutique chapter geared toward researchers who specialize in motor development, we use research on motor development to address central concepts and methodological issues that have challenged developmental scientists for centuries. We argue that the study of motor development can yield fresh insights into processes of learning and development. Motor behavior can take the lead in developmental research and partner with work in seemingly disparate domains by considering developmental phenomena as embodied in the reality of children’s growing bodies, embedded in the prac- tical exigencies of a physical environment, intimately involved in social interactions, and reflective of cultural influences.
Our strategy is to focus on 10 general developmental issues that are broadly relevant to developmental science and aptly illustrated with examples drawn from research on motor development. The issues are loosely organized into framing sections on embodied movement, embedded action, and enculturated interaction.
... Highly variable speech acts therefore all provide rich opportunities for such sound changes. Our data especially so since they show how extreme variability in one segment (NAE rhotics) can induce changes in the structure and size of whole "chunks" (Schmidt & Lee 2011, Segawa, et al. 2019) of speech: for example, a rhotic vowel in the center of a /VrVrV/ sequence has an influence on the production of every sound in the sequence, which might lead to idiosyncratic tap/flap realization for words like 'Saturday' relative to other words with similar sequences. ...
North American English (NAE) flaps/taps and rhotic vowels have been shown to exhibit extreme variability that can be categorized into subphonemic variants. This variability provides known mechanical benefits in NAE speech production. However, we also know languages reuse gestures for maximum efficiency during speech production; this uniformity of behavior reduces gestural variability. Here we test two conflicting hypotheses: Under a uniformity hypothesis in which extreme variability is inherent to rhotic vowels only, that variability can still transfer to flaps/ taps and non-rhotic vowels due to adaptation across similar speech contexts. But because of the underlying reliance on extreme variability from rhotic vowels, this uniformity hypothesis does not predict extreme variability in flaps/taps within non-rhotic English dialects. Under a mechanical hypothesis in which extreme variability is inherent to all segments where it would provide mechanical advantage, including flaps/taps, such variability would appear across all English dialects with flaps/taps, affecting adjacent non-rhotic vowels through coarticulation whenever doing so would provide mechanical advantage. We test these two hypotheses by comparing speech-rate-varying NAE sequences with and without rhotic vowels to sequences from New Zealand English (NZE), which has flaps/taps, but no rhotic vowels at all. We find that NZE speakers all use similar tongue-tip motion patterns for flaps/taps across both slow and fast speech, unlike NAE speakers who sometimes use two different stable patterns, one for slow and another fast speech. Results show extreme variability is not inherent to flaps/taps across English dialects, supporting the uniformity hypothesis.
Objective
To examine the temporal dynamics of kinesthetic responses and accompanying physiological changes during imagery training.
Methods
Three athletes- a cricket batsman, a rowing-single scull rower and a football midfielder- participated in individualised motivational-specific and cognitive-specific imagery intervention that matched the requirements of their particular sports. The researchers recorded the timing of the kinesthetic responses and the accompanying heart rate (HR) and respiration rate (RR).
Results
During motivation-specific imagery (MS), kinaesthetic responses occurred between 4:00 to 6:59 min in the cricketer, (HR range=72–82 beats/min; RR range=13–14 breaths/min) and between 1:00 to 1:59 min in the rower, (HR range=92–104 beats/min; RR range=11–15 breaths/min) and between 0:01 to 1:59 min in the footballer (HR range=68–74 beats/min; RR range=12–16 breaths/min). During cognitive-specific imagery (CS), kinesthetic responses occurred between 2:00 to 5:59 min in the cricketer, (HR range=78–86 beats/min; RR range= 09–16 breaths/min); between 1:00 to 1:59 min in the rower, (HR range=79–80 beats/min; RR range=13–14 breaths/min) and between 1:00 to 1:59 minutes in the footballer (HR range=78–82 beats/min; RR = 17 breaths/min).
Conclusion
The kinesthetic responses observed during imagery training suggest how the neural networks are activated similar to the actual performance. The temporal dynamics and physiological responses differed depending on the task of their sports. The findings suggest incorporating imagery training in coaching can strengthen neural connections and facilitate effective task executions.
Safe and effective navigation of the world's oceans and waterways relies on maritime education and training. This involves the learning of motor, procedural and verbal components of complex skills. Motor learning theory evaluates training variables, such as instructions, feedback and scheduling, to determine best practices for long-term retention of such skills. Motor learning theory has come a long way from focusing primarily on underlying cognitive processes to now including individual and contextual characteristics in making predictions about instructional strategies and their role in performance and learning. A remaining challenge in applying recent motor learning theory to maritime education and training is a lack of empirical testing of complex vocational skills, such as simulation scenarios, with delayed retention and transfer tests. Incorporating theory-based understanding of beneficial instructional practices, through both cognitive approaches and those considering context and environment, task complexity and learner characteristics is a fruitful way forward in advancing maritime education and training.
Introduction
Fine motor skill (FMS) development during childhood is essential to many learning processes, especially in school. FMS impairment can have a major impact on children’s quality of life. Developing effective and engaging rehabilitation solutions to train FMS that engage children in the abundant practice required for motor learning can be challenging. Virtual reality (VR) is a promising intervention option offering engaging FMS training tasks and environments that align with evidence-based motor learning principles. Other potential advantages of VR for rehabilitation include accessibility for home-based use and adaptability to individual needs. The objective of this scoping review is to map the extent, range and nature of VR applications focused on FMS training in paediatric rehabilitation, including hardware, software and interventional parameters.
Methods and analysis
We are following methodological guidelines for scoping review conduct and reporting from the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Manual for Evidence Synthesis and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for scoping reviews recommendations. We will search four databases (Pubmed, Web of Science, PsycInfo and Scopus) for articles that meet inclusion criteria defined by the Population, Concept, Context method; specifically studies focused on development or evaluation of immersive or non-immersive VR applications to deliver FMS training in paediatric rehabilitation. Different populations of children with FMS impairments will be included (such as children with cerebral palsy, children with developmental coordination disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). The first search took place in December 2023, and a second is planned for February 2025. One reviewer will complete title, abstract and full paper screening, with consultation by a second reviewer in case of uncertainty. A data extraction framework will be tested by two reviewers on five randomly selected studies to ensure inter-rater reliability, and one reviewer will complete data extraction. Quantitative and qualitative extraction will follow JBI guideline recommendations. Results will be presented in a descriptive and tabular format, including a narrative summary. Results will enhance understanding of the potential of FMS training in VR and inform subsequent directions for research and clinical practice.
Ethics and dissemination
Data for this review will be collected from the published literature. Ethical approval is not required. We will present our findings at scientific conferences and submit this review to a peer-reviewed journal for publication.
Penilaian psikomotorik merupakan elemen kunci dalam pendidikan yang bertujuan untuk mengukur keterampilan praktis dan perilaku siswa. Artikel ini berfokus pada pengembangan alat penilaian psikomotorik yang valid dan andal, khususnya untuk mata pelajaran yang menuntut keterampilan praktis. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan analisis kebutuhan, pengembangan instrumen, dan pengujian pada sampel siswa. Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa instrumen yang dirancang memiliki validitas dan reliabilitas tinggi, serta mampu memberikan gambaran yang jelas mengenai kemampuan psikomotorik siswa. Instrumen ini diharapkan dapat menjadi sarana efektif bagi pendidik dalam menilai dan meningkatkan keterampilan siswa, sekaligus berkontribusi pada peningkatan kualitas pembelajaran. Selain itu, penelitian ini menekankan pentingnya integrasi penilaian psikomotorik dalam kurikulum pendidikan yang lebih komprehensif. Kata kunci : Penilaian Psikomotorik
Improvement balance by exercise interventions in older adults has great importance. The purpose of
this study was to investigate the effect of dual task attention instruction on the static and dynamic
balance older adults in Ahvaz.
Materials & Methods:
This quasi-experimental applied research recruited men of over 60 years old living in Salehin residency
of Ahvaz. Twenty individuals who met the inclusion criteria were selected by convenience sampling
method and participated voluntarily after signing written consent. A week after the pretest, the training
sessions started and lasted for three consecutive sessions. The dual task attention group were instructed
to perform a secondary cognitive assignment (countdown) during the execution of the static and
dynamic balance task. The control group did not perform any cognitive dual task. A post-test was
performed after the end of the training sessions. To compare the two groups, ANCOVA test was used
(p <0.05).
Results:
The results revealed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the static
balance (P = 0. 001) and dynamic balance (P = 0.001). Using dual tasks improved static balance (p
<0.05), but had a weakened effect on the dynamic balance of older adults (p <0.05).
Conclusion:
The results of this study showed that a period of dual task attention instruction improves the static
balance in older adults, but has a weakened effect on the dynamic balance of older adults. Therefore, it
is suggested that dual task be used to improve static balance in older adults.
The GreenTick Guideline is a comprehensive document developed as part of the Erasmus+ Sport project. This guideline emphasizes fostering critical thinking among young audiences while addressing misinformation in the digital space. This guideline serves as a tool to empower individuals and organizations in creating a safer, more informed online environment.. Additionaly, the guideline provides a structured framework for implementing the GreenTick verification system, which aims to enhance media literacy and promote reliable digital content related to health, diet, and sports. Designed for young users, educators, practitioners, youth workers, and digital content creators, this resource outlines key principles, methodologies, and best practices for evaluating and certifying trustworthy online content.
Neuromyths, defined as misconceptions about the functioning of the brain, exert
a significant influence on educational practice, including physical education, music
education, and any discipline related to movement. It is useful to examine the
relationship between neuromyths and movement, and to consider the implications
for teaching and learning. These ideas, which are frequently based on
oversimplifications or misinterpretations of neuroscience, have the potential to
influence pedagogical practices and compromise the effectiveness of student
development. The eradication of neuromyths and the optimisation of learning
outcomes require the establishment of a coherent interdisciplinary framework that
integrates neuroscience with other disciplines. The integration of music, dance, drama
and physical education, underpinned by neuroscience, has the potential to enrich
learning experiences and facilitate the development of each student's full potential.
Romero-Naranjo (2024) has already published a preliminary article on this topic,
entitled 'Neuromyths about movement and the brain: Debunking misconceptions'.
This article builds upon that research by providing further examples of neuromyths
related to movement.
The objective of this research is to challenge the findings of scientific studies that
have perpetuated certain misconceptions about movement. In this case, the focus is
on the following neuromyths:
- The benefits of physical exercise are only applicable to the body.
- Repetitive practice is the sole method for enhancing motor coordination.
- Motor learning is a phenomenon that occurs exclusively during childhood.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the intermittent adaptation to pelvis perturbation load enhances retention of improved weight transfer and generalization of motor skills from treadmill to overground walking, compared with effects of the continuous adaptation. Fifteen individuals with incomplete SCI participated in two experimental sessions. Each session consisted of (1) perturbed treadmill walking with either intermittent (i.e., interspersed 3 intervals of no perturbation) or continuous (no interval) adaptation to novel walking patterns induced by external pelvis perturbation and (2) instrumented treadmill walking and overground walking before, immediately, and 10-min post perturbed treadmill walking. The external pulling force was applied to the pelvis towards the lateral side while the leg touched the treadmill belt. Participants showed a retention of improved mediolateral weight transfer (P = 0.002) and of enhanced activation of hip abductor (P = 0.016) and calf muscles (P < 0.05) in the intermittent condition, whereas the continuous condition did not (P ≥ 0.05). After the perturbed treadmill walking practice, participants exhibited increased mediolateral weight transfer during overground walking (P = 0.04) and enhanced propulsion (P = 0.047) during the instrumented treadmill walking for the intermittent condition, whereas the continuous condition did not show significant changes (P ≥ 0.13). Further, the intermittent condition induced a greater increase in overground walking speed than the continuous condition did (P = 0.002). In conclusion, intermittent adaptation to the pelvis perturbation load during treadmill walking can promote retention and generalization of motor learning for improving walking and balance in people with incomplete SCI.
Introduction: With advancements in technology, computer games have opened new possibilities in the field of children's physical activity. One of these important areas is improving motivation and motor skills. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of virtual reality exercises and traditional exercises on children's motivation and motor skills. Materials and Methods: The statistical population of this semi-experimental research was 10 to 12-year-old male students of elementary schools in Lorestan province, Iran. Based on the pre-test scores, 45 children were divided into three groups of 15 participants each: the virtual reality exercises group, the traditional exercises group, and the control group. Each child in the experimental groups participated in a training program consisting of two sessions per week for eight weeks, totaling 16 sessions. Results: Our study revealed that virtual reality exercises had a significant effect on improving all subtests of children's motivation. Furthermore, this type of training had a significant effect on improving all manipulation sub-skills and some locomotor sub-skills. In addition, traditional exercises caused a significant improvement in some subtests of children's motivation. This type of training caused a significant improvement in some manipulation sub-skills and some locomotor sub-skills. Comparisons between the two types of exercises revealed that virtual reality exercises enhanced intrinsic motivation more effectively than traditional exercises, whereas traditional exercises were more effective in boosting extrinsic motivation compared to virtual reality exercises. In the field of manipulation sub-skills, virtual reality exercises had a significantly greater effect than traditional exercises. However, no significant differences were observed between the two types of training in the field of sub-skills of locomotor. Conclusion: Based on our findings, it is recommended to utilize virtual reality games to effectively boost both motivation and motor skills in children.
Background
Human growth and development involve significant changes in bodily dimensions, yet motor learning appears to remain stable throughout life. This study investigates whether adjustments in motor velocity take place as individuals age by examining the latency of transcranial motor-evoked potentials (TcMEPs) across different age groups.
Methods
Data were collected from 100 patients who underwent surgery with intraoperative neuromonitoring at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, between January 1, 2019, and January 1, 2020. TcMEP recordings were analyzed for 7 commonly monitored muscles across 7 distinct age groups: under 10 years, 10-19 years, 20-29 years, 30-39 years, 40-49 years, 50-59 years, and over 60 years.
Results
The analysis revealed no significant differences in motor-evoked potential (MEP) latency across the age groups, indicating that motor response latency remains stable despite the physical changes that occur with aging.
Conclusion
These findings enhance our understanding of motor learning, suggesting that motor response latency does not necessitate changes with age, highlighting the consistency of motor function over the human lifespan.
Background
Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) is characterized by cerebrospinal fluid circulation disorders, and presents as gait and balance disturbances similar to those observed in other incurable neurological diseases. Although previous studies have reported deficits in bimanual coordination among patients with iNPH, these potential pathological characteristics have not received much attention to date. This study investigated the temporal characteristics of a bimanual finger-tapping task in patients with iNPH, focusing on within- and between-hand coordination.
Methods
Study participants comprised three groups: patients with iNPH (N = 19, mean age = 76.9 ± 5.6 years), older adults (N = 19, 76.4 ± 5.3 years), and younger adults (N = 13, 32.2 ± 8.5 years). Participants performed a bimanual finger-tapping task under five conditions that manipulated the temporal differences between the two taps.
Results
The iNPH group exhibited significantly greater errors in both within- and between-hand coordination tasks compared to the other two groups.
Conclusion
These results suggest that assessing temporal errors in bimanual coordination tasks, particularly within-hand coordination, may be useful for uncovering pathological characteristics specific to iNPH.
Abstract: The presented contribution deals with the analysis of the used aids and the organization of sports disciplines applied in work with students with mental disabilities. The main goal is to optimize sports activities so that they better meet the individual needs of these students, while at the same time supporting their active participation and a positive emotional experience. The results indicate that the adequate selection and systematic categorization of aids, combined with the effective organization of sports disciplines, can significantly contribute to the improvement of motor skills and the overall psycho-social development of pupils with mental disabilities. The text is a partial output of the KEGA project No. 007/-4/2024.
Con frecuencia los entrenadores refieren lentitud y baja eficacia en las soluciones tácticas en los jugadores adolescentes. El reto de fomentar la creatividad en jugadores de baloncesto ha sido constante, y mantiene el mismo denominador en común entre todos los jóvenes del mundo, sin distinción entre diferentes nacionalidades. El presente estudio intenta aporta sobre el campo de la toma de decisiones tácticas, proponiendo un experimento educativo y formativo, el cual contribuye al desarrollo del pensamiento táctico en jóvenes deportistas de baloncesto. El objetivo era demostrar que un entrenamiento táctico perceptual (ETP) es capaz de favorecer en la mejora de la percepción táctica significativa, en las soluciones tácticas y el rendimiento en situación real de juego. Las conclusiones que se sacaron de dicho estudio fue que es posible afirmar que después del ETP los jugadores de baloncesto mejoraron significativamente su percepción táctica significativa (PTS), ya que fueron más precisos y rápidos al seleccionar las señales significativas y desestimar lo innecesario y también que el ETP capacita al jugador de baloncesto para desarrollar percepciones y soluciones tácticas mejores y, lo más importante, a poner en juego su imaginación creativa para encontrar respuestas en las que el contrario no pueda anticiparse a su toma de decisiones. Palabras clave: Baloncesto, creatividad, táctica, percepción, toma de decisiones Abstract. It is a fact that coaches often report slow and ineffective tactical solutions among young players. The challenge of encouraging creativity in basketball players has been a constant, and this is a common denominator for all young people in the world, no matter their nationality. The present study attempts to contribute to the field of tactical decision-making process by proposing an educational and formative experiment, which contributes to the development of tactical thinking in young basketball sportsmen. The aim is to demonstrate that perceptual tactical training (PTT) can contribute to the improvement of meaningful tactical perception, tactical solutions, and performance in real game situations. The conclusions drawn from this study are that it is possible to affirm that after the PTT, basketball players improved substantially their significant tactical perception (STP), as they were more accurate and quicker in perceiving the significant signals and disregarding the unnecessary ones, and also that the PTT enables basketball players to develop better tactical perceptions and solutions and, most importantly, to bring into play their creative imagination to make decisions to which the opponent cannot anticipate. Keywords: Basketball, creativity, tactics, perception, decision making
Introduction
Wearables have emerged as a transformative rehabilitation tool to provide self-directed training in the home. Objective. In this study, we examined the efficacy of a novel wearable device, “Smart Reminder” (SR), to provide home-based telerehabilitation for hemiparetic upper limb (UL) training in persons with stroke.
Methods
Forty stroke survivors from community support groups were randomized (stratified by the period after stroke onset and impairment severity) to either the SR group or the sham device group. Participants received either 20 hours of telerehabilitation using the SR device or training with pictorial handouts and a sham device over 4 weeks. In addition, all participants wore a standard accelerometer for 3 hours each day, 5 times a week, outside the prescribed training. Participants were assessed by a masked assessor at baseline, post-intervention (week 4), and follow-up (week 8). The outcome measures included Fugl-Meyer Assessment for Upper Extremity (FMA-UE), Action Research Arm Test, Motor Activity Log, muscle strength, active range of motion and amount of movement of the UL, and compliance rate of training.
Results
The SR group improved substantially in their FMA-UE scores after treatment (mean difference = 2.05, P = .036) compared to the sham group. Also, adherence to the training using the SR device was significantly higher, 97%, than the sham group, 82.3% ( P = .038).
Conclusion
The 4-week telerehabilitation program using a “SR” device demonstrated potential efficacy in improving FMA-UE scores of the hemiparetic upper limb. However, it did not significantly enhance the performance of the affected limb in daily activities. The trial was registered on ClinicalTrial.gov (URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov ) with the identifier NCT05877183.
Öz: Bu araştırma sporcu öz yeterliğinin psikolojik sağlamlık ve hedef bağlılığı üzerindeki yordayıcı etkisini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Çalışma nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden biri olan korelasyonel araştırma modeli benimsenerek tasarlanmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında sporcu öz yeterlik ölçeği, kısa psikolojik sağlamlık ölçeği ile hedef bağlılığı ölçeği veri toplama aracı olarak kullanılmıştır. Araştırma grubunu 168’i erkek ve 128’i kadın olmak üzere toplam 296 sporcu oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada cinsiyet değişkeni ile psikolojik sağlamlık, hedef bağlılığı ve sporcu öz yeterliği arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı fark tespit edilememiştir. Diğer yandan sporcuların ilgilendikleri spor türü değişkeni ile sporcu öz yeterlik ölçeği alt boyutlarında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı fark tespit edilmiştir. Sporcu öz yeterliğinin hedef bağlılığı ve psikolojik sağlamlık üzerinde önemli ve anlamlı bir yordayıcı etkisinin olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Background & Purpose: The acquisition of motor skills in mentally retarded children is slow. Therefore, it is important to identify efficient and effective methods for teaching motor skills to these people in order to acquire and improve the implementation of motor skills. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of variable training with different arrangements on the consolidation (based on improvement) of the motor memory of mentally retarded children.
Materials and Methods: For this purpose, 56 mentally retarded girls were placed in four groups of fixed training and variable training with blocked, random, and blocked-random arrangements based on the pre-test scores. On the first day, the subjects practiced the basketball pass in 3 blocks of 12 attempts based on the training method of their group. At the end of the training session, the subjects immediately participated in the acquisition test, consisting of a block of 12 target throwing attempts. In the morning of the second day, after a night's sleep, a memory test similar to the acquisition test was performed. For data analysis, a mixed analysis of variance (2x4), a dependent t test, and a one-way analysis of variance were used.
Results: The results of the present study showed that before and after night sleep, there is a statistically significant difference in the passing accuracy scores of the two groups of random variable training and blocked-random variable training. However, no difference was seen between the performance of the two groups of random and blocked-random training after night sleep.
Conclusion: Therefore, in mentally retarded children, the method of variable training with random and blocked-random arrangements can be used to improve the consolidation of motor memory.
Introdução: O serviço centrado na família é caracterizado pela parceria colaborativa entre familiares e profissionais de saúde e inclui o envolvimento ativo das famílias na definição de metas e no processo de intervenção. Este é um dos princípios do TREINI®, um programa de intervenção interdisciplinar e centrado na família desenvolvido para crianças com Paralisia Cerebral (PC), Síndrome de Down e Mielomeningocele. Objetivo: Investigar a percepção dos pais sobre os efeitos do programa TREINI® no desempenho e na satisfação de metas funcionais em crianças com PC; avaliar se o programa TREINI® incorpora aspectos de colaboração família-profissional e a satisfação dos pais a intervenção. Métodos: Realizou-se um estudo quase-experimental de grupo único envolvendo 114 crianças com PC (idade=7,31±3,24 anos). A Medida Canadense de Desempenho Ocupacional (COPM) e um Questionário de Experiência foram utilizados como medidas de desfecho. O protocolo de intervenção teve a duração de 3 meses, 5x por semana, durante 3-4hs por dia e envolveu o treinamento de tarefas funcionais em ambiente naturalista associado ao uso de uma veste terapêutica. Resultados: Aproximadamente 63% (n=72) dos participantes demonstraram melhorias no desempenho e na satisfação, variando de 1 a 9 pontos na COPM. O programa TREINI® resultou em melhorias significativas no desempenho e na satisfação das metas funcionais (p<0,05). A maioria dos pais (87%, n=99) relatou que a intervenção incorporou a colaboração família-profissional, e 93% (n=106) expressaram satisfação com a intervenção. Conclusão: Na percepção dos pais, o desempenho e a satisfação com as metas funcionais melhoraram após as crianças receberem o programa TREINI®. Estudos futuros mais rigorosos são necessários para que esses achados, bem como outros relacionados, possam ser devidamente verificados. Palavras-chaves: Paralisia cerebral; criança; reabilitação; equipe interdisciplinar de saúde.
Adolescents and young adults with childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) present with persistent speech and language difficulties (Lewis & Ekelman, 2004; Lewis et al., 2007; Preston et al, 2013). These deficits can be a serious barrier to academic and social success (Lewis et al., 2007; Ruben, 2000). Existing models of speech-motor learning focus on active, online practice and the protracted development of the movement component of the speech-motor representation; however, specific elements of the speech-motor representation may be subject to offline learning processes (van Zelst & Earle, 2021). As such, thoughtful timing of speech-motor practice relative to wakeful rest or nocturnal sleep may promote memory consolidation of new speech-motor representations. The aim of this research is to track these learning time courses in adolescents and young adults with and without CAS as they learn a new speech-motor representation. Learning a new speech-motor representation is thought to involve learning both movement-specific (the how of moving) and goal-based information (the why or the reason for moving) (Cohen et al., 2005). These mechanisms can be dissociated and are thought to occur through a division of labor between the procedural and the declarative memory systems (Cohen et al., 2005; Song, 2009; van Zelst & Earle, 2021). Adolescents and young adults with CAS may have deficits in procedural learning (Iuzzini-Seigel, 2021) and thus may have a different division of labor for speech-motor learning relative to those without CAS. The first goal of this project is to investigate the time course of learning the movement (i.e., motor, procedural learning) and goal-based (i.e., linguistic, declarative learning) constituents of a new speech-motor representation in adolescents with (CAS) and without (TD) CAS. Second, these time courses are examined relative to procedural and declarative memory. This work is the first step in a programmatic line of research to optimize the treatment of long-standing CAS in adolescents and young adults.
Bu çalışma, kompleks motor hareketler ve exergame oyunlarının ortaokul çocuklarının dikkat, hiperaktivite, dürtüsellik, zamanlama durumlarına etkisinin incelenmesi amacı ile yapılmıştır. Araştırma, nicel bir araştırma yöntemi olup ön test ve son testler uygulanarak deneysel araştırma yapılmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini 2023-2024 eğitim ve öğretim yılında Millî Eğitim Bakanlığına bağlı okullarda eğitim gören 5. sınıf erkek öğrenciler oluştururken örneklem grubu ise İstanbul ili Ataşehir ilçesinde bulunan Şehit Haşim Usta İmam Hatip Ortaokulunda eğitim gören 5. sınıf öğrencilerinden 38 erkek çocuk dâhil olmuştur. Araştırmanın yapılabilmesi için İstanbul Valiliği İl Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğünden gerekli araştırma izin belgeleri alınmıştır. Çalışma grupları olan 38 öğrenci, deney grubu (18 kişi) ve kontrol grubu (20 kişi) olarak ayrılmıştır ve deney grubu 12 hafta boyunca haftada bir gün şeklinde 6 ders süresi boyunca kompleks motor hareketler, 6 ders süresince de exergame oyunları oynamışlardır. Uygulama öncesinde ve sonrasında deney ve kontrol gruplarına MOXO dikkat testi ve Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGDM-3) testleri ön test- son test olarak uygulanmıştır. Ölçüm sonuçlarının grup içi ve gruplar arası zaman ilişkisinin değerlendirilmesi için karışık düzen ANOVA yöntemi kullanılmıştır, analizlerde ana etkilerin karşılaştırılmasında Bonferroni düzeltmesi yapılmış olup p<0,05 değeri istatistiksel olarak önemli kabul edilmiştir. Tanımlayıcı istatistikler birim sayısı (n), yüzde (%), ortalama ± standart sapma değerleri olarak verilmiştir. Yapılan analiz sonuçlarında deney grubu ve kontrol grubu arasında dikkat ve zamanlama arasında istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamıştır (p>0,05). Dürtüsellik ve hiperaktivite alt boyutlarına bakıldığında, deney ve kontrol grupları arasında istatistiksel anlamda farklılık olup, deney grubu lehine anlamlı sonuç elde edilmiştir (p<0,05).
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