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International Journal of Agricultural Research and Review: ISSN-2360-7971 Vol. 3(1): pp 143-151, January, 2015.
Copyright © 2014 Spring Journals
Review
Insects as food and feed: A review
1Anankware PJ, 2Fening KO, 1Osekre E and 3Obeng-Ofori D
1Department of Crop and Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi,
Ghana
2Soil and Irrigation Research Centre, Kpong. School of Agriculture, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana,
P.O. Box LG 68, Accra, Ghana
3 University of Energy and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 214, Sunyani, B/A, Ghana
Corresponding Author’s E-mail: anankware@yahoo.com
Accepted 9th December, 2014
This research reviews the contribution of insects to man in his zeal to improve and widen his sources
of food, feed and nutrition. It critically looks at major edible insects and how flies and other insects
can contribute to the growing demand for cheap protein in the food and feed industry. Priority is also
given to nutrition and some rearing models that have been developed and how these can be improved
to domesticate these insects into mini-livestock.
Keywords: Insects, nutrition, protein, mini-livestock.
INTRODUCTION
The Earth's population is expected to exceed over 9
billion by 2050, and so humanity’s need for food, fuel,
fibre and shelter will need to be met with minimal
ecological footprint (Ramaswany, 2014). Feeding the 9
billion people has implications for how we grow and view
food now and in the future. Insects have served as a
food source for humanity since the first bipedal human
ancestor came down from the trees and started walking
across the Savannahs (Ramaswary, 2014). Interestingly,
however, today insect eating is rare in the western world,
but remains a significant source of food for people in
other cultures. Insects provide food at low environmental
cost, contribute positively to livelihoods, and play a
fundamental role in nature. Some of these benefits are
largely unknown to the general public. Contrary to
popular belief, insects are not merely “famine foods”
eaten in times of food scarcity or when purchasing and
harvesting “conventional foods” becomes difficult; many
people throughout the world eat insects out of choice,
largely because of their palatability and established
place in local food cultures in many regional and national
diets (FAO/WUR, 2012).
Insects have long been used as human food and
animal feed in West Africa (Kenis and Hein, 2014; Riggi
et al., 2014). However, compared to Central and
Southern Africa, only few species are reported as being
traditionally consumed by humans, the most common
being grasshoppers and termites. This is partly due to a
lack of specific studies in West Africa in the past.
Recent investigations focusing on specific regions
however showed that more species are consumed than
previously reported (Kenis and Hein, 2014).
Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that, in general,
entomophagy, the consumption of insects, is less widely
practiced in West Africa than in other regions of Sub-
Saharan Africa (Kenis and Hein, 2014).
It is estimated that 1,900 species of insects are
consumed by over two billion people in about 80
countries across Asia, Africa, and the Americas (van
Huis et al., 2013). Edible species are eaten as immature
(eggs, larvae, pupae, and nymphs) and in some cases
also as adults. Edible insects are obtained by three main
strategies: wild harvesting, semi-domestication of insects
in the wild, and farming. The degree to which each of
these contributes varies regionally. While entomophagy
has decreased in westernized societies, the demand for
edible insects has apparently increased in parts of Asia
in association with increased standards of living (Yen,
2014). Recently, entomophagy is being promoted for
several reasons (van Huis et al., 2013; Ramaswany,
2014). Firstly, insects are healthy and nutritious
alternatives to mainstream staples such as chicken,
144. Int. J. Agric. Res. Rev.
Table 1: Number of edible insect species reported in the world.
Order
Common English name
Number of species
Thysanura
Silverfish
1
Anoplura
Lice
3
Ephemeroptera
Mayflies
19
Odonata
Dragonflies
29
Orthoptera
Grasshoppers, cockroaches,
Crickets
267
Isoptera
Termites
61
Hemiptera
True bugs
102
Homoptera
Cicadas, leafhoppers, mealybugs
78
Neuroptera
Dobson flies
5
Lepidoptera
Butterflies, moths (silkworms)
253
Trichoptera
Caddis flies
10
Diptera
Flies, mosquitoes
34
Coleoptera
Beetles
468
Hymenoptera
Ants, bees, Wasps
351
Total
1,681
Source: Ramos-Elorduy (2005).
pork, beef and even fish because many insects contain
more protein and are lower in fat than traditional meats,
and high in calcium, iron and zinc (van Huis et al., 2013).
Secondly, because they are cold-blooded, insects are
very efficient at converting feed into protein. For
example, crickets need 12 times less feed than cattle,
four times less feed than sheep, and half as much feed
as pigs and broiler chickens to produce the same
amount of protein. Insects save a substantial amount of
energy and natural resources by their high metabolic
rates. Thirdly, since insects require less space and food,
the ecological footprint of insects as food is smaller than
that of traditional livestock. Fourthly, insects used as
food emit considerably fewer greenhouse gases (GHGs)
than most livestock (methane, for instance, is produced
by only a few insect groups such as termites and
cockroaches). The ammonia emissions associated with
insect rearing are also far lower than those linked to
conventional livestock, such as pigs (van Huis et al.,
2013). Insect rearing is also not necessarily a land-
based activity and does not require land clearing to
expand production. Furthermore, their reproduction rate
is significantly higher, making them much easier to
produce in large numbers than other livestock. Finally,
economically and socially, entomophagy enhances the
livelihoods of many people. Insect harvesting and
rearing is a low-tech, low-capital investment option that
offers entry even to the poorest sections of society, such
as women and the landless. Mini-livestock production
offers livelihood opportunities for both urban and rural
people.
To promote the use of insects as human food, we
need to understand a number of issues, such as biology
of edible species, biotic and abiotic constraints to insect
livestock production, health and environmental risks,
food safety and regulatory frameworks, human
behaviour and attitudes to consumption of insects,
production challenges, and critical infrastructure needs
(Ramaswany, 2014).
Major Groups of Edible Insect Species Consumed
Worldwide
Globally, the most common insects consumed are
beetles (31%) (van Huis et al., 2013). This is not
surprising given that the group contains about 40% of all
known insect species. The consumption of caterpillars,
which is especially popular in sub-Saharan Africa, is
estimated at 18%. Bees, wasps and ants come in the
third place at 14% and are especially common in Latin
America. Following these are grasshoppers, locusts and
crickets (13%); cicadas, leafhoppers, plant-hoppers,
scale insects and true bugs (10%); termites (3%);
dragonflies (3%); flies (2%); and others (5%) (van Huis
et al., 2013). Lepidoptera are consumed almost entirely
as caterpillars and Hymenoptera are consumed mostly
in their larval or pupal stages. Both adults and larvae of
the Coleoptera order are eaten, while the Orthoptera,
Homoptera, Isoptera and Hemiptera orders are mostly
eaten in the mature stage (Cerritos, 2009). The number
of edible insect species reported worldwide is indicated
in Table 1.
Coleoptera (beetles)
There are many kinds of edible beetles, including
aquatic beetles, wood-boring larvae, and dung beetles.
Ramos Elorduy and co-workers listed 78 edible aquatic
beetle species, mainly belonging to the Dytiscidae,
Gyrinidae and Hydrophilidae families (Ramos et al.,
2009). Typically, only the larvae of these species are
eaten. The most popular edible beetle in the tropics, by
far, is the palm weevil, Rynchophoru spp, a significant
palm pest distributed throughout Africa, southern Asia
and South America (van Huis et al., 2013). The oil palm
weevil R. phoenicis is found in tropical and equatorial
Africa, R. ferrugineus in Asia and R. palmarum in the
tropical Americas. In the Netherlands, the larvae of
mealworm species from the Tenebrionidae family, such
as the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus), the
lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer) and
the superworm (Zophobas morio), are reared as feed for
reptiles, fish and avian pets. They are also considered
particularly fit for human consumption and are offered as
human food in specialized shops.
The Palm Weevil
The larvae of the palm weevil (Rynchophorous spp.) are
consumed in Asia (R. ferrugineus), Africa (R. phoenicis)
and Latin America (R. palmarum). Their delicious flavour
is credited by some to their elevated fat content
(Fasoranti and Ajiboye, 1993; Cerda et al., 2001). In the
tropics, the insects occur all year-round where hosts are
found. Often these hosts are trees under stress; that is,
trees previously damaged by other insects, notably
rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes spp.) or by the local
traditional tapping for palm wine (Fasoranti and Ajiboye,
1993). Fallen palms can serve as breeding sites and
support hundreds of larvae; for this reason, palms are
often felled intentionally. This is a common practice
among the Akans and Ewes of Ghana (Anankware et al.,
2013). Van Itterbeeck and van Huis (2012) noted that
many indigenous people have excellent ecological
knowledge of the palm weevil and can increase its
availability and predictability through semi-cultivation
practices. Research at Kade and the Jema districts of
Ghana are currently exploring ways of rearing and
producing oil palm weevils (R. phoenicis) in a more
sustainable manner without felling the oil palm trees
(Anankware, personal communication, 2014).
Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths)
Butterflies and moths are typically consumed during their
larval stages (caterpillars), but adult butterflies and
moths are also eaten. Indigenous Australians have been
reported to eat moths of the cutworm Agrotis infusa
(Flood, 1980) and in the Lao People’s Democratic
Republic, people have been observed eating hawkmoths
(Daphnis spp. and Theretra spp.) after removing the
wings and legs (Van Itterbeeck and van Huis, 2012).
The mopane caterpillar (Imbrasia belina) is arguably
the most popular and economically important caterpillar
145. Anankware et al.,
consumed. Endemic to the mopane woodlands in
Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa,
Zambia and Zimbabwe, the caterpillar’s habitat extends
over about 384 000 km2 of forest (FAO, 2003). An
estimated 9.5 billion mopane caterpillars are harvested
annually in southern Africa, a practice worth US$85
million (Ghazoul, 2006). Other caterpillars are also
consumed, but to a lesser extent. Malaisse (1997)
identified 38 different species of caterpillar across the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia and
Zimbabwe. Latham (2003) documented 23 edible
species in the Bas-Congo, a western province of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Hymenoptera (Wasps, Bees and Ants)
Ants are highly sought-after delicacies in many parts of
the world (Del Toro et al., 2012). They also render
important ecological services, including nutrient cycling,
and serve as predators of pests in orchards, although
negative effects are also reported (Del Toro et al., 2012).
The weaver ant (Oecophylla spp.) is used as a biological
control agent on various crops, such as mangoes and
citrus (Van Mele, 2008), and the larvae and pupae of the
reproductive form (queen brood), also called ant eggs,
constitute a popular food in Asia. In Thailand they are
sold in cans. Shen and co-workers reported that the
black weaver ant (Polymachis dives) is widely distributed
in subtropical south-east China, Bangladesh, India,
Malaysia and Sri Lanka (Shen et al., (2006). It is used as
a nutritional ingredient and processed into various tonics
or health foods available on the Chinese market. The
State Food and Drug Administration and State Health
Ministry of China have approved more than 30 ant-
containing health products since 1996.
In Japan, the larvae of yellow jacket wasps (Vespula
and Dolichovespula spp.), are commonly consumed.
During the annual Hebo Festival, food products made
from the larvae of the wasps are popular delicacies
(Nonaka et al., 2008), so much so that the local supply
is insufficient and imports from Australia and Viet Nam
are necessary to keep up with demand (Shono, 2012).
Orthoptera (Locusts, Grasshoppers and Crickets)
About 80 grasshopper species are consumed worldwide,
and the majority of grasshopper species are edible.
Locusts may occur in swarms, which makes them
particularly easy to harvest. In Africa, the desert locust,
the migratory locust, the red locust and the brown locust
are eaten. However, due to their status as agricultural
pests they may be sprayed with insecticides in large-
scale international control programmes or by individual
farmers (van Huis et al., 2013). For example, relatively
high concentrations of residues of organophosphorus
146. Int. J. Agric. Res. Rev.
pesticides were detected in locusts collected for food in
Kuwait (Saeed et al., 1993).
In Niger, it is not uncommon to find grasshoppers on
sale in local markets or sold as snacks on roadsides.
Remarkably, researchers found that grasshoppers
collected in millet fields fetched a higher price in local
markets than those obtained from millet grains (van
Huis, 2003b).
The chapuline is probably the best-known edible
grasshopper in Latin America. This small grasshopper
has been part of local diets for centuries and is still eaten
in several parts of Mexico (Cohen et al., 2009, Durst,
2010).
Hemiptera: Homoptera (Cicadas, Leafhoppers,
Planthoppers and Scale Insects)
In Malawi, several cicada species (Ioba, Platypleura and
Pycna) are highly esteemed as food. Cicadas can be
found on the trunks of trees and collected using long
reeds (Phragmites mauritianus) or grasses (Pennisetum
purpureum) with a glue-like residue on them, such as
latex from the Ficus natalensis tree. The latex adheres to
the cicadas’ wings, which are removed before
consumption. Some Homoptera produce products
commonly eaten by humans, such as carmine dye (a
bright red pigment also called E120) derived from the
cactus cochineal bug (Dactylopius coccus) often used in
food products (Yen, 2005).
Humans also consume lerp, a crystallized, sugary
secretion produced by the larvae of psyllid insects as a
protective cover (Yen, 2005).
Hemiptera: Heteroptera (True Bugs)
Pentatomid bugs are eaten widely throughout sub-
Saharan Africa, particularly in southern Africa. In the
Republic of Sudan, the pentatomid Agonoscelis
versicolor, a pest of rain-fed sorghum that causes
considerable damage, is eaten roasted. Oil is also
derived from these insects and is used in preparing food
and for treating scab disease in camels (van Huis et al.,
2013). Most pentatomids consumed as food, however,
live in water. The famous Mexican caviar, ahuahutle, is
composed of the eggs of at least seven species of
aquatic Hemiptera (the Corixidae and Notonectidae
families). These insects have been the backbone of
aquatic farming, or aquaculture, in Mexico for centuries.
The semi-cultivation of these species is simple and
inexpensive because it can be undertaken using
traditional local practices (Parsons, 2010). The insects
fetch high prices, particularly during the Semana Santa
(the week preceding Easter). However, the semi-
cultivation of Hemiptera is under threat, as a result of
heavy pollution and dried-up water bodies (Ramos
Elorduy, 2006).
Isoptera (Termites)
The most commonly eaten termite species are the large
Macrotermes species. The winged termites emerge after
the first rains fall at the end of the dry season, from holes
near termite nests. van Huis (2003b) observed that, in
Africa, locals beat the ground around termite hills
(simulating heavy rain) to provoke the termites to
emerge. Syntermes species are the largest termites
eaten in the Amazon. They are gathered by introducing
a palm leaf rib into the galleries of the nest; the soldiers
biting it are then fished out (Paoletti and Dufour, 2005).
Termites are commonly sold at markets in Northern
Ghana, especially in Navrongo and its environs
(Anankware et al., 2013).
Insects as animal feed
According to van Huis et al., (2013), in 2011, combined
world feed production was estimated at 870 million
tonnes, with revenue from global commercial feed
manufacturing generating approximately US$ 350 billion.
Apart from human consumption, insects have been
used as feed for poultry and pigs. Throughout West
Africa, termites are collected in the wild to feed poultry
(Kenis and Hein, 2014). Chippings of termite mounds
are collected and given to poultry on-farm, particularly to
chicks (Kenis and Hein, 2014).
In a traditional Ghanaian home in northern Ghana,
each farmer has several termitaria that are harvested
daily to augment the protein requirements of their poultry
birds. This is harvested very early in the morning (before
sunrise) with cow dung, dried grass and/or corn
cobs/stalk and given to the fowls. This is fed to the fowls
first in the morning before allowing them out of their pen
to forage on their own. This is repeated in the afternoon
and evenings depending on their availability.
(Anankware, 2014). Such a practice not only provides
cheap and good nourishment for the birds but also helps
the farmers to keep their birds in check since the fowls
will always return on time for ‘mid-day lunch and dinner’.
This serves as a security check and also prevents the
fowls from roaming very far from home.
Worldwide, several insect species are used as feed for
animals. These include the black soldier fly, Hermetia
illuscens, the house fly, Musca domestica. In the
Netherlands, the larvae of the mealworm T. molitor, the
lesser mealworm (A. diaperinus) and the superworm (Z.
morio), are reared as feed for reptiles, fish and avian
pets.
Black soldier flies
Black soldier flies, (Hermetia illucens Linnaeus) (Diptera:
Stratiomyidae) are found in abundance and naturally
occur around the manure piles of large poultry, pigs and
cattle. For this reason, they are known as latrine larvae
(van Huis et al., 2013). The larvae also occur in very
dense populations on organic wastes such as coffee
bean pulp, vegetables, distillers’ waste and fish offal (fish
processing by-products). They can be used
commercially to solve a number of environmental
problems associated with manure and other organic
waste, such as reducing manure mass, moisture content
and offensive odours. At the same time they provide
high-value feedstuff for cattle, pig, poultry and fish
(Newton et al., 2005). The adult black soldier fly,
moreover, is not attracted to human habitats or foods
and for that reason is not considered a nuisance. The
high crude fat content of black soldier flies can be
converted to biodiesel: 1 000 larvae growing on 1 kg of
cattle manure, pig manure and chicken manure produce
36 g, 58 g and 91 g, respectively, of biodiesel (Li et al.,
2011).
Common housefly larvae
Maggots, the larvae of the common housefly, M
domestica develop predominantly in tropical
environments. Maggots are important sources of animal
proteins for poultry: they have a dry matter of 30% of
their total wet larval mass, 54% of which is crude protein
(van Huis et al., 2013). Maggots can be offered fresh,
but for intensive farming they are more convenient as a
dry product in terms of storage and for transport. Studies
have shown that maggot meal could replace fish meal in
the production of broiler chickens (Hwangbo et al.,
2009). At the same time, maggot production can
contribute to manure decomposition.
Termites
Termites caught in the wild can be used to catch fish and
birds. Silow (1983) reported from Zambia the use of
snouted termites (Trinervitermes spp.) as fish bait in
conical reed traps and as bait to attract insectivorous
birds (such as guinea fowl, francolins, quails and
thrushes). The birds were caught by setting a snare
across the broken top of a termite mound, where
soldiers mass for hours (van Huis et al., 2013). However,
rearing termites is very difficult and should not be
recommended, also bearing in mind their high emissions
of methane (Hackstein and Stumm, 1994).
147. Anankware et al.,
Mealworms
Mealworms (such as T. molitor) are already raised on an
industrial scale. They can be grown on low-nutritive
waste products and fed to broiler chickens. Ramos
Elorduy et al. (2002) reared T. molitor larvae on several
dried waste materials of different origin. They used three
levels of larvae (0, 5 and 10% dry weight) in a 19%
protein content sorghum–soybean meal basal diet to
evaluate feed intake, weight gain and feed efficiency.
After 15 days there were no significant differences
between treatments. Mealworms are promising
alternatives to conventional protein sources, particularly
soybean meal (van Huis et al., 2013).
Semi-Cultivation and Farming of Edible Insects
Global enthusiasm for insect farming is growing as its
diverse range of potential commercial and environmental
benefits become well recognized (Devic et al., 2014).
One key issue in realizing the potential of edible insects
in improving food security, sustainable food production,
and biodiversity conservation, is assuring an adequate
supply of the edible insect resource in a sustainable
way. This can be achieved by semi-cultivation and
farming edible insects (Van Itterbeeck, 2014).
Research has been carried out to semi-cultivate and
farm other edible insects and to optimize existing
techniques, e.g. bamboo worm (Omphisa fuscidentalis),
Mopane worm (I. belina), termites, palm weevil larvae
(e.g. R. palmarum and R. ferrugineus), cricket (Acheta
domesticus), and the Asian weaver ant (Oecophylla
smaragdina Fab.).
Maggots of flies can be cultured on various organic
wastes or by-products such as manures, food leftovers,
etc. hence reducing volumes, odours and alternative
disposal costs. Products include a high quality protein
source (maggots) that can be fed to livestock and fish in
nutrient deficit areas, as well as nutrient rich biofertilisers
(residues) (Devic et al., 2014). Devic and co-workers
have described the iterative learning-process involved in
the development of a pilot-scale production system in
Ghana, the first of its kind in West Africa. They have
demonstrated the feasibility of producing a local, low-
cost and high quality source of nutrients that could be
used in aquaculture. This is because fish farming is
growing fast in Ghana though constrained by availability
of quality feed ingredients. Starting from a green-field
site, production was progressively scaled-up to a
medium-scale demonstration pilot for two fly species
(Hermetia illucens and M. domestica) producing several
kilograms of maggots per week (Devic et al., 2014).
148. Int. J. Agric. Res. Rev.
Figure1. Feed conversion from flies (Courtesy: Kenis, 2014)
The shea caterpillar, Cirina forda (Westwood), is
considered a delicacy in the south-west Burkina Faso,
but neglected in other regions. Caterpillars can now be
conserved in sterile packages and methods are
presently being developed to transform the caterpillars
into enriched protein powder or sauce that can be used
as food supplement, in particular for pregnant women,
babies and young children, and thereby combat
malnutrition (Kenis and Hein, 2014).
Current and Future Research Needs
Currently, over 90% of the protein required for livestock
rearing in Ghana is imported, thus making it
unsustainable. Meat consumption has dramatically
increased in recent years (Kenis, 2014). Animal feed
needs a substantial amount of proteins such as soybean
and fish meal. Insects provide a more sustainable
source of protein for animal feed (Figure 1.) and human
food. Although many insects also need agricultural
products to feed on (grasshoppers, mealworms, etc.),
certain insects such as flies and their maggots can be
produced on organic waste products.
Taxonomic identities and details of the life cycles of
many edible insects as well as protein rich insects are
unavailable. Hence there is an urgent concerted need to
conduct research on the identification, distribution,
conservation and economic potential of neglected and
underutilized insect species in Africa to enable us
identify and modernize this readily available and
accessible alternative food and feed to help solve the
problem of food insecurity and malnutrition on the
continent. Issues that need to be resolved include
efficient production methods, transformation and
inclusion in animal feed, quality and safety and
acceptability to consumers.
Very little has been done in the area of entomophagy
in Ghana. Fortunately, Anankware and co-workers are
currently conducting a nationwide survey in an attempt
to identify the major edible insects in Ghana. Rearing
modules for the black soldier fly, H. illuscens and the
house fly, M. domestica have been successfully carried
out in Ghana in conjunction with other European
partners (CABI, ProtINSECT, Devic Emilie and Maciel-
Vergara Gabriela). Successful rearing of the oil palm
weevil is also on-going in three regions (Eastern, Ashanti
and Brong-Ahafo) of Ghana by an international
organization (Aspire Food Group) with Anankware P. J.
as its Country Director. Further research is underway
evaluating how the resulting maggots can substitute for
conventional sources of proteins (fishmeal, soybean
meal, etc.) in poultry or aqua feeds or be used to
supplement nutrient-deficient diets (Devic et al., 2014).
Protein
Bukkens (1997) showed that the mopane caterpillar had
lower protein content when dry-roasted than when dried
(48 and 57 percent, respectively). The same was true for
termites: protein content was 20 percent in raw termites
and 32 percent and 37 percent of fresh weight when
fried and smoked, respectively (the difference due to
varying water content).
Amino acids
Cereal proteins that are key staples in diets around the
world are often low in lysine and, in some cases, lack the
amino acids tryptophan (e.g. maize) and threonine. In
some insect species, these amino acids are very well
represented (Bukkens, 2005). For example, several
caterpillars of the Saturniidae family, palm weevil larvae
Figure1. Feed conversion from flies (Courtesy: Kenis, 2014)
and aquatic insects have amino acid scores for lysine
higher than 100 mg amino acid per 100 g crude protein.
Likewise, people in Papua New Guinea eat tubers that
are poor in lysine and leucine but compensate for this
nutritional gap by eating palm weevil larvae. The tubers
provide tryptophan and aromatic amino acids, which are
limited in palm weevils (Bukkens, 2005).
Fat content
Edible insects are a considerable source of fat.
According to van Huis et al., (2013), Womeni and co-
workers investigated the content and composition of oils
extracted from several insects. Their oils are rich in
polyunsaturated fatty acids and frequently contain the
essential linoleic and α-linolenic acids. The nutritional
importance of these two essential fatty acids is well
recognized, mainly for the healthy development of
children and infants (Michaelsen et al., 2009).
Micronutrients
Micronutrients – including minerals and vitamins – play
an important role in the nutritional value of food.
Micronutrient deficiencies, which are commonplace in
many developing countries, can have major adverse
health consequences, contributing to impairments in
growth, immune function, mental and physical
development and reproductive outcomes that cannot
always be reversed by nutrition interventions (FAO,
2011c).
Minerals
The mopane caterpillar – like many edible insects – is an
excellent source of iron. Most edible insects boast equal
or higher iron contents than beef (Bukkens, 2005). Beef
has an iron content of 6 mg per 100 g of dry weight,
while the iron content of the mopane capterpillar, for
example, is 31–77 mg per 100 g. The iron content of
locusts (Locusta migratoria) varies between 8 and 20 mg
per 100 g of dry weight, depending on their diet (Oonincx
et al., 2010).
Edible insects are undeniably rich sources of iron and
their inclusion in the daily diet could improve iron status
and help prevent anaemia in developing countries. WHO
has flagged iron deficiency as the world’s most common
and widespread nutritional disorder. In developing
countries, one in two pregnant women and about 40
percent of preschool children are believed to be
anaemic. Health consequences include poor pregnancy
outcomes, impaired physical and cognitive development,
increased risk of morbidity in children and reduced work
149. Anankware et al.,
productivity in adults. Anaemia is a preventable
deficiency but contributes to 20 percent of all maternal
deaths. Given the high iron content of several insect
species, further evaluation of more edible insect species
is warranted (FAO/WHO, 2001b).
Vitamins
Bukkens (2005) showed for a whole range of insects that
thiamine (also known as vitamin B1, an essential vitamin
that acts principally as a co-enzyme to metabolize
carbohydrate into energy) ranged from 0.1 mg to 4 mg
per 100 g of dry matter. Riboflavin (also known as
vitamin B2, whose principle function is metabolism)
ranged from 0.11 to 8.9 mg per 100 mg. By comparison,
wholemeal bread provides 0.16 mg and 0.19 mg per 100
g of B1 and B2, respectively. Vitamin B12 occurs only in
food of animal origin and is well represented in
mealworm larvae, Tenebrio molitor (0.47 μg per 100 g)
and house crickets, Acheta domesticus (5.4 μg per 100
g in adults and 8.7 μg per 100 g in nymphs).
Nevertheless, many species have very low levels of
vitamin B12, which is why more research is needed to
identify edible insects rich in B vitamins (Bukkens, 2005;
Finke, 2002).
Fibre content
Insects contain significant amounts of fibre, as measured
by crude fibre, acid detergent fibre and neutral detergent
fibre. The most common form of fibre in insects is chitin,
an insoluble fibre derived from the exoskeleton. A
significant amount of data is available on the fibre
content of insects, but it has been produced by various
methods and is not easily comparable (H. Klunder,
2012). Finke (2007) estimated the chitin content of insect
species raised commercially as food for insectivores,
and found it to range from 2.7 mg to 49.8 mg per kg
(fresh) and from 11.6 mg to 137.2 mg per kg (dry
matter).
CONCLUSION
Insects are sustainable source of protein for use in
animal feed and for human consumption. Entomophagy
is an age-old phenomenon dating back to pre-historic
era and has served man for several millennia. However,
a lot still needs to be done and many issues ought to be
resolved in elaborating normative frameworks and
adjusting for insect-inclusive food laws. Scientists,
industry and regulators need to collaborate proactively
and contribute to self-regulation in the sector. An
analysis of existing policies and regulations on food and
150. Int. J. Agric. Res. Rev.
feed ingredients is necessary and can be achieved by
communicating with the relevant regulatory bodies and
their key contact persons; identifying impediments and
finding out where the existing framework needs to be
improved. The development of new policies is inevitable.
It will be necessary to listen to regulators to determine
what is expected, to be sensitive to consumers who
might demand specific regulations, and to collaborate
with retailers. Promotion of private and public
standardization at the national and international levels
for insects as food and feed, accompanied by a
premarket safety evaluation (under Codex Alimentarius,
among other standard-setting organizations) is crucial.
We need to promote the establishment of appropriate
international and national standards and legal
frameworks to facilitate the use of insects as food and
feed and the development and formalization of the
sector. Finally, the potential effects of insect production
and rearing on the environment, and the environmental
and trade implications of the international movement of
insects, when drafting and implementing regulatory
frameworks for insect production and use must be
considered. This would oblige regulators to pay attention
to a broad range of regulatory areas, including
phytosanitary legislation, biodiversity, disease control
and environmental protection.
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