Humanitarian logistics: enhancing the engagement of local populations

Abstract

Purpose
– The purpose of the paper is to identify how local populations, particularly at the municipal and village levels, can enhance their capacity to prepare and respond more effectively and efficiently to the logistic challenges that they face in the aftermath of a natural disaster.

Design/methodology/approach
– Using a phenomenological approach, a qualitative research study was conducted from an interpretative, constructivist perspective. Through a series of semi‐structured interviews the researchers gathered stories about the experiences of local responders at municipal level in the capital city region of the Republic of the Philippines in the aftermath of a specific natural disaster event (Typhoon Ondoy – September 2009). A number of key differences between the espoused strategies expressed in disaster management legislation and the actual experiences of local people on the ground were identified and, as a result, a conceptual model was developed that, if implemented, would enhance the capacity of local populations to prepare and respond in a more efficient and effective manner.

Findings
– Results from the study indicate that the ability of local populations to contribute to the logistic preparation and response processes has been considerably undervalued and underutilised. A revised model is therefore developed that better incorporates their potential contribution to the management of both the demand and supply sides that would lead to swifter, more accurate, and more efficient logistic response mechanisms.

Originality/value
– The developing canon of humanitarian logistic literature has, to date, been relatively silent on the subject of the contribution of the local population to the overall logistic management challenge. The paper provides important insights into the issues on which the government of a developing country could usefully focus attention in their approach to natural disaster preparedness and response, and it offers a conceptual model for future testing and evaluation.

Full text

Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management
Humanitarian logistics: enhancing the engagement of local populations
Allan Sheppard Peter Tatham Ron Fisher Rodney Gapp
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To cite this document:
Allan Sheppard Peter Tatham Ron Fisher Rodney Gapp, (2013),"Humanitarian logistics: enhancing the
engagement of local populations", Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Vol. 3
Iss 1 pp. 22 - 36
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Humanitarian logistics:
enhancing the engagement
of local populations
Allan Sheppard, Peter Tatham, Ron Fisher and Rodney Gapp
Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of the paper is to identify how local populations, particularly at the municipal
and village levels, can enhance their capacity to prepare and respond more effectively and efficiently to
the logistic challenges that they face in the aftermath of a natural disaster.
Design/methodology/approach – Using a phenomenological approach, a qualitative research study
was conducted from an interpretative, constructivist perspective. Through a series of semi-structured
interviews the researchers gathered stories about the experiences of local responders at municipal level
in the capital city region of the Republic of the Philippines in the aftermath of a specific natural disaster
event (Typhoon Ondoy – September 2009). A number of key differences between the espoused strategies
expressed in disaster management legislation and the actual experiences of local people on the ground
were identified and, as a result, a conceptual model was developed that, if implemented, would enhance
the capacity of local populations to prepare and respond in a more efficient and effective manner.
Findings – Results from the study indicate that the ability of local populations to contribute to the
logistic preparation and response processes has been considerably undervalued and underutilised.
A revised model is therefore developed that better incorporates their potential contribution to the
management of both the demand and supply sides that would lead to swifter, more accurate, and more
efficient logistic response mechanisms.
Originality/value – The developing canon of humanitarian logistic literature has, to date, been
relatively silent on the subject of the contribution of the local population to the overall logistic
management challenge. The paper provides important insights into the issues on which the
government of a developing country could usefully focus attention in their approach to natural
disaster preparedness and response, and it offers a conceptual model for future testing and evaluation.
Keywords Natural disasters, Preparedness, Response, Humanitarian logistics, Coordination,
Local populations, Disasters, Distribution management
Paper type Conceptual paper
1. Introduction
The 2004 earthquake and tsunami in Southeast Asia was instrumental in triggering
a significant increase amongst both academics and practitioners in research into
ways in which the management of the logistic preparation and response to natural
disasters could be enhanced and improved (Balcik and Beamon, 2008; Kova
´cs and
Spens, 2007, 2011). The resultant body of literature has highlighted multiple challenges
at strategic, operational and tactical levels including (but not limited to): inter-agency
coordination, training and retention of qualified logistics personnel, use of technology
for information and communications management and performance measurement
systems (Kova
´cs and Spens, 2011; Kunz and Reiner, 2012). However, one area that has
yet to feature within the literature relates to the consideration of how logistic practices
might become more relevant to the needs of local people on the ground at municipal
and village levels in the developing world, and how such populations might engage
in the logistics preparation and response processes and, thereby, improve their
effectiveness and efficiency.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/2042-6747.htm
Received 11 January 2013
Accepted 16 January 2013
Journal of Humanitarian Logistics
and Supply Chain Management
Vol. 3 No. 1, 2013
pp. 22-36
rEmerald Group Publishing Limited
2042-6747
DOI 10.1108/20426741311328493
22
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In particular, it is noted that humanitarian agencies generally suffer from a heavy
turnover of field logistics staff (Van Wassenhove, 2006), and this is reported to be as
high as 80 per cent annually (Thomas, 2003; Thomas and Kopczak, 2005). As a result,
many agencies struggle to maintain sufficient suitably trained and experienced
personnel to be able to respond effectively to natural disasters, and this conceptual
paper argues that this problem could be mitigated by increased involvement of the
local populations. Such a locally focused approach to the delivery of a post-disaster
logistic response requires different ways of working (Ethike Media, 2012), and it is
these new approaches that are explored using a case study of the Republic of the
Philippines (RP) and its response to Typhoon Ondoy (internationally known as
Ketsana) that severely impact the country on 26 September 2009.
The study identifies how local populations can enhance their capacity to respond
effectively to natural disasters, particularly at the municipal and village levels, with
an emphasis on the final logistics stage – the last mile of delivery – when disaster relief
is provided directly to the beneficiaries by local agencies. The research identifies
gaps that exist between the espoused strategies for natural disaster management
developed at national government level (what should be done) and the actual actions
experienced on the ground from the perspective of the local people. As a result, a
theoretical model has been developed to demonstrate how those gaps could be bridged,
and to provide the answers to the research question: how, in developing countries, can
local populations contribute to an effective post-disaster logistic response?
To achieve this aim, the paper will first set the context of humanitarian logistic
response in a developing country and will briefly reflect on some of the key challenges
in achieving improved engagement with local populations. It will then discuss the
theoretical approaches offered within the logistic and supply network management
literature, before offering a conceptual model that has the potential to deliver improved
outcomes for those affected by such natural disasters.
2. Setting the context
The challenge of achieving an efficient and effective humanitarian logistic response
has been increasingly well documented, not least through the medium of the Journal of
Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management. However, in light of the focus
of this paper, it is appropriate to emphasise a number of issues that all have a
considerable impact on the ability of a developing country such as the RP to achieve
improved outcomes and the associated building of an indigenous capacity to prepare
and respond to natural disasters – and, in particular, its logistic component.
Planning and provision of the right kind of assistance, at the right time and in the
right quantities to meet uncertain demand is the main focus of humanitarian
agencies during the post-disaster (or response) phase in natural disasters. Agencies
must deal with issues generated by the type and location of the disaster, emergency
funding, effective coordination, information management, training, performance
measurement and being able to record and apply lessons identified from previous
disasters in their operations.
2.1 Location of the research
Whilst there has been a welcome reduction in the number of natural disasters recorded
world-wide (a total of 302 in 2011 compared with a decade average of 384), the Asian
region experienced some 45 per cent of the 2011 total global disaster count, with
85 per cent of world disaster casualties and 75 per cent of the global economic
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damage – albeit the latter statistics were influenced by the impact of the To
¯hoku
earthquake and tsunami (CRED, 2012). Nevertheless, given that the RP is a developing
country that is particularly vulnerable to a range of natural disasters, including
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and flooding caused by an average of some 20
typhoons each year, it represents an appropriate location to use as the basis for the
research into the potential for improved local logistics capacity building.
2.2 The humanitarian logistic actors
Whilst the focus of this research is at the municipal and village level, any proposed
changes must be set in the context of the broad range of actors involved in
humanitarian logistics activities which, as indicated in Table I, includes governments,
international and national donors, aid agencies, international non-government
organisations (INGOs), non-government organisations (NGOs), logistics service
Governments National governments from many
countries provide bi-lateral and
multi-lateral aid funding
Focus on risk reduction, preparation and
response, with donations for bilateral and
multilateral programmes and emergency
appeals often ear-marked
Donors International organisations (UN),
national governments, private
sector organisations, general
public, philanthropic individuals
Donations often ear-marked – often have
their own agendas – assistance delivered
by other agencies, e.g. NGOs
International and
regional
organisations
(Inter-Governmental
(IGO))
UN agencies involved in
humanitarian activities,
International banks and
International organisations
Includes UN agencies such as the World
Food Programme (WFP) and UN High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR);
World Bank; International Federation of
Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
(IFRC)
Non-government
organizations
International/national NGOs Rely on funding from international
organisations, governments and public
donations – some involved in development
as well as disaster response
National police and
armed forces
National police and international
military and armed forces
Mobilised in early post-disaster phase, life
saving and quick response for efficient
communications, medical assistance,
transport – trained logisticians
Media Electronic and print media Can influence level of donations –
coverage can be determined by political
considerations – used by some NGOs
to publicise their own causes
Commercial and
private sector
organisations
International and national
commercial organisations such
as TNT, DHL
International organisations partner with
UN agencies such as WFP – private sector
small and medium enterprises (SMEs) –
local and external – part of corporate
social responsibility (CSR) programmes
Local populations Local military, emergency services
and national police forces,
commercial and private sector
organisations, church
organisations, local government
units (LGUs), general population
First responders, involved in rescue and
evacuation – suffer from lack of resources
particularly in poorer areas
Source: The authors
Tabl e I.
Actors involved
in humanitarian
disaster response
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providers and the national (and, for major disasters, international) police and armed
services (Branczik, 2004; Kova
´cs and Spens, 2007). However, whilst it is accepted that
in many cases the beneficiaries cannot be considered humanitarian logistics actors
per se as they do not directly shape demand (Kova
´cs and Spens, 2008), it is argued
that the local populations that have not been directly affected by a given disaster
event also have a significant, but less well researched, role to play and are, therefore,
key stakeholders in the overall humanitarian logistics process (Newport and Jawahar,
2003; Oloruntoba, 2005; Perry, 2007).
2.3 Coordination
The capacity of local populations to make a more effective response to natural
disasters can be enhanced by ensuring effective coordination systems between these
various actors are put into place. But, with so many actors involved in disaster
response, coordination is seen as a major concern and one of the most pressing
world-wide issues in humanitarian logistics operations (Tomasini and Van
Wassenhove, 2009; Chatterjee et al., 2010; Jahre and Jensen, 2010). In this regard,
and in light of the transient nature of the international relief effort, the local population
is perceived to have a vital role to play as the guardian of the specific knowledge
(in terms of both the demand and supply sides of the logistic challenge) that can be
leveraged to achieve the desired reduction in response times and the maximisation of
the distribution of relief goods.
2.4 The logistic funding system
It is increasingly accepted that an appropriate application of the principles of
commercial agile supply chain management will help to improve the operational
efficiency and effectiveness of humanitarian logistic operations (Christopher and
Tatham, 2011). This is particularly the case at a time when humanitarian agencies
are operating with reduced resources in the aftermath of the global financial crisis and
against the rising demands from both natural disasters and complex emergencies.
Given that logistics (purchasing, transporting, warehousing and delivering material)
accounts for an estimated 60-80 per cent of the income of humanitarian agencies
(Majewski et al., 2010; Tatham and Pettit, 2010), clearly actions that will help reduce
costs and contribute to more successful outcomes are to be welcomed. Unfortunately,
however, the adoption of an agile approach, with its inherent incorporation of
contingency against unforeseen events, implies that donor governments and
organisations must be prepared to pay what is, in effect, an insurance premium
which, like all such premiums, may ultimately seen to have been nugatory expenditure.
Equally unfortunately, the scope of humanitarian activities can be adversely
affected by the funding systems upon which aid agencies depend (Stoddard, 2008).
Indeed the current funding mechanism has been blamed for many of the inefficiencies
in humanitarian operations as they can “directly and indirectly affect the effectiveness
and efficiency of disaster response” (Wakolbinger and Toyasaki, 2011, p. 34). Not least
is the reality that the current practice is, in the main, for donors to provide funding
as and when the disaster occurs, rather than during the pre-disaster phase. This is well
illustrated by Jahre and Heigh (2008) in their case study of the IFRC in which they
clearly demonstrate that relatively little funding is provided by donors for longer term
preparedness programmes compared to high levels of short-term disaster response
funding. A clear outcome of this feast or famine situation is that it often leads to hasty
(and not necessarily economic) purchasing decisions as well as competition among
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agencies for limited resources such as transport or warehousing that, in turn, leads to
higher unit prices. However, appropriate and meaningful engagement with local
communities is unlikely to be effective in the immediate, and frequently chaotic,
aftermath of a disaster. Such activities need to be undertaken when individuals
and organisations are not faced with the pressures of decision making under stress and
uncertainty, but rather when the benefits of alternative approaches can be considered
in a rational and measured way.
3. Theoretical underpinnings
As outlined above, the logistic preparation and response to uncertain future events
such as rapid onset natural disasters can be considered as an extreme example of the
need for an agile (Christopher, 2011) or fully flexible (Gattorna, 2010) supply network.
Thus, Christopher and Holweg (2012), drawing on many of the underpinning
concepts of Teece’s dynamic capabilities model (Teece and Pisano, 1994), argue that
the necessary structural flexibility to be able to combat the uncertainties of a turbulent
business environment includes: dual sourcing, asset sharing, postponement and
outsourcing.
In practice, and as demonstrated by the Jahre and Heigh (2008) IFRC case study, the
development of postponement and speculation strategies and other broader ways in
which the management of the flows of material, information and human resources
can be improved, are already topics that are under consideration by academics and
practitioners alike. Thus, Jahre and Heigh (2008) advocate the pre-positioning of
generic relief goods in regional stores close to vulnerable areas in order to help to
ensure their availability for timely delivery. Such pre-positioning of basic relief goods
can also address the issue of uncertainty or limitations of local supply which often
occur in emergency situations ( Jahre and Heigh, 2008; GHD, 2012). Self-evidently, such
regional warehouses should be located as close to vulnerable locations as possible,
whilst maintaining a safe distance to avoid them being adversely impacted by
a disaster event (Balcik and Beamon, 2008). However, taking this one stage further,
and as will be explained in greater detail below, the authors of this paper suggest that
such warehouses could also accommodate the regional emergency headquarters
and operational control facilities for local disaster management coordination, as well
as providing a centre for disaster management training at the regional level. This
co-location of activities will help to ensure both the security and serviceability of the
relief goods as well as provide opportunities to logistics and response teams more
generally to become familiar with their handling and operation.
Building on the work of Jahre and Heigh (2008) and integrating it with the
theoretical work of Bowersox and Closs (1996), it is suggested that a standard selection
of generic relief supplies could be pre-positioned (speculation) with logistic (i.e. last
mile distribution) action held off (postponed) until the occurrence of a disaster event.
Thus, assembly and storage of standard family kits and other key requirements
can be carried out in the preparedness phase, ready for post-disaster distribution.
Final packaging and labelling (form) would be completed once the demand is clearly
identified (time) from the findings of the beneficiary needs assessment activities.
Transportation can then provided for distribution and delivery of relief goods to the
beneficiaries’ locations (place).
As demonstrated by Everywhere Humanitarian Response and Logistic Services
et al. (2011), and contrary to much of the prevailing literature, it is possible to use
traditional methods from commercial literature to forecast with reasonable accuracy
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the demands for non-food items (NFI) in the aftermath of a disaster. As a result,
a standard selection of relief goods could include pre-packaged units of generic NFI
such as shelter materials, tarpaulins, blankets and sealed medical kits, together with
non-perishable food items including canned goods (Bozkurt and Duran, 2012).
Perishable items such as fresh food and water and other medical supplies could be
provided from donations or through locally contracted purchasing arrangements in the
response phase once demand has crystallised. However, as indicated above, it is
strongly argued that the development of such a dynamic and flexible logistic response
would greatly benefit from close engagement with the local population who will be able
to provide situational specific advice and expertise. This, in turn, would lead to more
effective outcomes such an increased speed of supply and distribution from local
storage warehouses, and a reduction of lead times and transportation costs. Involving
local populations in these activities would also avoid the need for international
agencies to provide relatively expensive and less timely management through
expatriates for the duration of the disaster event as well as helping the indigenous
teams improve their own expertise by “learning through doing”.
4. A changing approach to preparedness and response
According to Dr Randolph Kent (2012), the current approach to natural disaster
response in which the international humanitarian community assumes that it has
exclusive expertise and capacity for disaster response, is no longer appropriate
and should be seen as “old time thinking” (Kent and Burke, 2011). Furthermore the
concept that “west is best” will become increasingly invalid as national authorities
in developing countries continue to move towards the rejection of western solutions
to the prevention of, preparation for and response to future catastrophes in
favour of locally developed models (Kent, 2012). However, in order for such an
approach to become effective, local populations will have to be provided with the
necessary support to enable them to manage disaster preparedness and response
in their own right.
In practice, much of this support can come from within the ranks of the local
populations themselves through their engagement with the commercial sector which,
as demonstrated earlier, is well placed to provide expertise to support and enhance the
logistic preparation and response. In addition, international humanitarian institutions
would continue to provide support through pooling their knowledge and expertise
although, unlike the current situation where there is a considerable degree of
inter-agency competition, the development of communities of practice would be
indicated as a much more efficient and effective approach (Wenger and Snyder, 2000;
Wenger, 2006). From a purely financial perspective, investment in the local
populations’ capacity to manage disaster preparedness and response for themselves
would have a number of beneficial outcomes including the achievement of a swifter
and more efficient response (Ethike Media, 2012). The necessary funding could be,
at least in part, delivered through savings on expatriate fares, transportation, the
provision of specialist equipment, etc.
One further solution to the lack of indigenous capacity could well lie in greater
involvement of the local private sector organisations in the preparedness phase
and between disasters as recommended by Tomasini and Van Wassenhove (2009). In
areas such as the RP that are frequently beset by a significant number and range of
natural disasters, a semi-permanent response supply network could be established,
with private sector organisations being involved as partners in donating money,
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goods and expertise to the local population both in improving levels of preparedness as
well as during the actual response phase. In this respect, the private sector has a clear
interest in staying in business and surviving during and after natural disasters such as
typhoons, which do not discriminate but impact all levels of society including the
commercial organisations themselves. Hence, greater involvement of private sector
organisations, particularly in the preparedness phase, would be of significant mutual
benefit (Van Wassenhove et al., 2007; APEC, 2010).
However, for such a revised approach to be implemented successfully, national
governments need support to improve their preparedness and response processes –
especially in the vital area of logistics – and the associated training and development
programmes that build on their pre-existing knowledge and skills. It is the authors’
contention that it is time to pass the baton of responsibility for the preparation
and response to natural disasters from the international humanitarian community
providers to the local populations and, thereby, to empower them to develop and
implement an effective, sustained and sustainable response. The next section will offer
a high-level blueprint of how this might be achieved in the logistic domain.
5. Putting the theory into action
As indicated in the introduction to this paper, the conceptual model that will be
exposed in this section has been developed in the light of lengthy field research that
took place in the area affected by Typhoon Ondoy. From the analysis of the accounts of
the research participants, a clear picture of considerable shortfalls in preparedness
(particularly at the municipal level) has been identified, but which can be remedied
through implementation of the proposed model. The proposed approach has drawn
heavily on that currently in place within a regional neighbour (Australia) that is also
beset by multiple natural disasters including severe flooding, bush fires, cyclones and
extremely high temperatures.
The proposed model has, in particular, been designed to take into account the
requirements of the 2010 Philippine Disaster Management Act (PDMA) which was
enacted in the aftermath of Typhoon Ondoy. Where appropriate, the current
arrangements under the act have been retained, whilst the change proposals are
designed to deliver an enhanced approach to logistic preparedness and delivery. The
major change proposed is that the operational decision making and control is moved
from the central strategic levels of management to a physical and conceptual location
nearer to where the operations are carried out – i.e. at the municipal or city level. Under
such an approach, the National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council
(NDRRMC) would retain its existing role as the central authority responsible for
implementing the requirements of the act, but the actual operational control would
be devolved. By the same token, the roles and responsibilities of the Regional
Disaster Risk Reduction Management Councils would be retained with some
suggested additions.
It should be noted that the proposed approach has been developed using the
National Capital Region of Manila as an example. As a result, the provincial level
(which is incorporated in the national structure laid out in the PDMA) is not included
in the model – indeed, in reality, it is suggested that the inclusion of the provincial level
simply adds another reporting level, which can, in fact, complicate the operational
interaction between the national, regional and municipal/city levels. The resultant
structure is shown in Figure 1 which includes a summary of the functions associated
with each organisational level.
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5.1 The NDRRMC
As required by the PDMA, the NDRRMC is directly responsible to the RP Government
and is in overall control of the response to a disaster. The NDRRMC also provides a
liaison point with international agencies such as UN humanitarian organisations.
The NDRRMC also manages a 24-hour operations centre which provides
overall coordination of disaster response as well as direct communication with
appropriate authorities to facilitate early warning or notification of an impending or
Source: The authors
Central control
Liaise with RP government
NDRRMC strategy and policy
Review LDRRMPs
Liaise with UN/OCHA/WFP
Overall coordination of DRRMC
Operations centre (24 x 7) (NDRRMOC)
National Disaster Risk Reduction & Management Fund
Centre of Excellence in Training
National warehouse
National early warning and emergency alert system
Disaster risk reduction and MIS/GIS
Administer national HELIOS IT system – help desk
Liaise with NDRRMC /national cluster
Liaise/coordinate region members
Administration/oversight of municipal/city RRMCs
Manage operations centre (RDRRMOC) (as required)
Regional DMC Regional training centre
Regional warehouse
Regional emergency response team headquarters
Supervise operations of LRRMC in the region
Administer regional HELIOS IT
Decentralised control
Liaise with RDRRMC
Liaise/coordinate region cluster members
HQ municipal cluster
Operations centre (24 x 7 as needed)
Municipal/city DMC Municipal training centre
Municipal warehouse
Municipal emergency response team headquarters
Security
Administer local HELIOS system
LDRRMO/BDRRMC
Barangay NGOs Barangay Barangay disaster management group
Barangay emergency response team headquarters
NDRRMC
Functions
Office/authority
LDRRMCs
Figure 1.
A theoretical model to
enhance preparedness
and response to natural
disasters in the
national capital region
of the Republic of the
Philippines
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approaching emergency situation to regional and municipal authorities and to the
general public.
5.2 Local disaster risk reduction management councils (LDRRMC)
At the regional level, it is proposed that the LDRRMC would develop and operate
a logistics cluster with the membership (in line with the requirements of the PDMA)
including representatives from appropriate local governmental organisations, NGOs,
utility suppliers, emergency services and others. In order to avoid duplication and
inefficiency, specific functions would be allocated to cluster members based on their
particular areas of expertise. Thus, for example, local representatives of the RP Red
Cross might accept the responsibility to provide tracking and tracing services
and administration of evacuation centres, in conjunction with the appropriate
government departmental representatives (such as education where schools are used
for evacuation centres).
5.3 Centre of excellence in disaster management training
Given the importance of developing the necessary skills and expertise in both general
disaster management and, specifically, in logistics, it is proposed that a National Centre
for Excellence in Training for Disaster Management be established and co-located
with the National Disaster Management Operations Centre. This centre of excellence
could be also act as a hub for Southeast Asia so that neighbouring countries might
send their staff to attend high-level disaster management training. In this way, methods
and approaches that are appropriate to the SE Asian (as distinct from, say, the USA,
UK or EU) context can be developed and implemented on a regional basis. The content
of the certificate-level training programmes would reflect the strategic approaches to
disaster management developed by the NDRRMC, and be presented by accredited
tertiary providers such as the Ateneo de Manila, or the University of the Philippines
with the target audience being high-ranking executives and senior managers from
governmental and commercial organisations. The work of the training centre would
be supported by a Community of Practice made up of invited national and
international experts in disaster management and logistics that would assist in, and
complement, the design and delivery of the high-level education programmes.
5.4 Regional training centres
Paralleling the national structure, Regional Training Centres could be developed and
co-located with Regional Disaster Management Operations Centres in order to provide
bespoke courses for attendees from local government units (LGUs), NGOs and the
private sector. Such programmes would include courses such as the Certification
in Humanitarian Logistics (CHL) offered by the Logistics Learning Alliance in
conjunction with Fritz Institute. Although the CHL is currently taught in distance
learning mode, it could be relatively easily adapted to enable provision in a classroom
or seminar situation. Importantly, it is argued that the audience for these programmes
would be appropriate individuals who, in addition to their primary operational role
at the regional level could, in turn, conduct training of municipal/city disaster
management teams – i.e. making use of the “train the trainer” concept.
5.5 Municipal/city training centres
In the same way as at the national and regional levels, it is proposed that municipal/
city training centres be co-located with the municipal/city disaster operations centres.
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Trainers from the regional levels would cascade the training down to the municipal/
city level where the content would have an operational logistics focus related to the
“nuts and bolts” of disaster response in their particular location. This would include
key elements of the overall logistics process such as beneficiary needs assessment,
warehouse operation (including inventory management), transport and distribution,
management of evacuation centres and ethical procurement processes including
sourcing of relief goods at local level. Importantly, although the syllabus for these
courses would be standardised, the intention would be to tailor these to take account
of local conditions and practices. Thus, an appropriate balance would be achieved
between cascading the programme from national through regional to municipality/city
level (thereby helping to ensure the consistency of the approach and message)
whilst, at the same time, accepting a degree of “tolerable variation” to take account of
local circumstances.
5.6 Storage and distribution of disaster relief supplies
5.6.1 National warehouses. As discussed above, the development of pre-packaged
units of relief goods is perceived, from both a theoretical and practical perspective, to
be a key element in the improvement of the logistic support for disaster preparedness
programmes. Thus, it is proposed that three national warehouses be established
in strategic locations such as Subic Bay Management Authority (SBMA), Cebu, and
Davao. The choice of these locations reflects the fact that each has access to a seaport
and an international/domestic airport within a reasonable flying time to Manila whilst,
in the case of SBMA, there is also good highway access to the capital. Furthermore, the
nomination of three such locations is designed to provide a contingency to ensure
that, in the event of an emergency which may affect one or more of the warehouses,
then continuity of supply can be provided by either or both of the others – in
other words, an example, of the dual-sourcing approach suggested by the agile
logistics theory.
Disaster relief goods that could sensibly be stored in the national warehouses would
include bulk supplies of standard items such as shelter materials, tarpaulins, blankets
and tents, together with sealed food items with relatively long shelf life such as
high-energy biscuits. Other NFIs could include non-perishable medical and hygiene
supplies. The national warehouses would provide the buffer stock to replenish regional
warehouses as necessary whilst also helping to ensure the ready access to the core
stock items without having to resort to costly and risky last minute procurement
and transport into the country.
5.6.2 Regional warehouses. In a similar way, it is proposed that a network of regional
warehouses be established at strategic locations close to vulnerable areas, although at
a safe distance to avoid the warehouse being rendered inoperative by the emergency.
Regional warehouses can be used to pre-position bulk supplies of standard NFI to
complement the supplies available in the municipal/city warehouses. Clearly the actual
number and location of such warehouses will require further research which would
take into account both the specific threats (e.g. vulnerability to typhoons, earthquakes,
flooding, etc.), as well as the existing road, sea and air links. However, in practice,
many examples of the resolution of such location problems exist – for example through
the analysis of researchers such as Balcik and Beamon (2008).
5.6.3 Municipal/city warehouses. Existing warehouses that are established in
municipalities and/or cities could be utilised as centres to supply humanitarian
agencies with disaster relief goods. In this respect, it is strongly argued that, not least
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in order to prevent competition between agencies for scarce resources, all disaster relief
goods should be pooled and that each of the agencies engaged in relief goods
acquisition and distribution should use this as their primary source. Allocation of relief
goods would be made based on the results of a fully coordinated and shared needs
assessment carried out by members of the municipal/city LDRRMC, operating as a
local cluster as discussed below. Inventory for such warehouses would be replenished
from the regional/national level as required. When agencies receive specific donations
from their own sources, such as in church groups who receive donations from
parishioners, these can be utilised at the discretion of that agency and would not
necessarily be included in the pool stock. However, as a general rule, individual and/or
group donors would be encouraged to provide donations direct to the municipal/city
warehouse rather than to the individual agency.
5.7 Emergency response teams
One of the critical requirements of an effective emergency response is the availability of
teams of well-trained and suitably equipped personnel who can move into action at short
notice or in response to early warnings according to the location and type of the disaster
event. The analysis of the research data identified that there was a shortage of such
trained personnel and that the early post-disaster response was frequently carried out by
untrained volunteers from the local population. In addition to the training structure
discussed above, it is therefore proposed that an emergency response structure be created.
This approach draws heavily on the highly successful model of the State Emergency
Service in Queensland, Australia (SES Queensland, 2012) with strategic regional control
at the RDRRMO and local operational responsibility residing at municipal/city level.
5.7.1 Municipal emergency response teams (MERT). The model calls for the
establishment of a MERT, comprising trained volunteers and based in each municipal
or city emergency headquarters. Recruits for the MERT would be sought from each of
the townships under the jurisdiction of the municipal or city authority, thereby helping
to ensure that local knowledge and expertise is retained and shared. MERT members
would be given full training in preparedness and response to a number of emergency
situations, including typhoons, floods, storms, earthquakes, landslides and in
supporting other emergency services, with a specific focus on the logistic-related
elements of their role. In order to ensure continuity of competence, it is suggested that
there is likely to be a need for MERTs to meet on a regular basis for training, say on
weekends, in a similar manner to armed forces reservists.
MERT members would be equipped with personal protective clothing and equipment
such as safetyglasses, hard hat and gloves. Each member of the team would be supplied
with a SMART phone as a means of disseminating operational information and to
facilitate emergency call outs. Each MERT would manage and maintain its own
equipment such as trucks and boats, and could be co-located with, for example, the local
fire department headquarters. Training in equipment maintenance could be provided
locally with the cooperation of private sector transport companies or commercial vehicle
service stations. MERTmembers would be afforded full state recognition, and employers
would be expected to release the volunteers on full pay from the normal workplace to
attend emergency and training situations as part of the team response.
5.8 Logistics management information systems (MIS)
As is clear from both the theoretical literature supporting the concept of logistic
agility, as well as from practical experience in the commercial world following the
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development of data capture systems such as supermarket checkout data scanners,
the provision of an integrated logistics MIS is a fundamental requirement for both the
preparedness and response phases of natural disaster management. Not least of all,
the adoption of a single software application (such as the HELIOS system that is being
pioneered by a consortium of international NGOs) (Blansjaar and van der Merwe, 2011)
has the added benefit of helping to drive commonality of logistic processes. Whilst this
requirement might be relatively easily met across the government controlled elements
of the overall NDRRMC system, the planned use of common municipality/city
warehouses implies that the whole spectrum of responding agencies (such as
nationally and locally based NGOs) should use a common system in order to facilitate
the integrated exchange of information, such as shared needs assessments, damages
reports, relief goods pipeline tracking availability of pooled resources, etc. In short, the
use of such a system is designed to facilitate the development and implementation of
a common humanitarian logistic picture (CHLP) such as was first attempted by the US
forces in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake (Vohr, 2011).
6. Summary
Throughout this paper it is argued that, in order to improve the logistics (and indeed
broader) preparedness and response to natural disasters, a greater involvement of local
populations would lead to greater efficiency and effectiveness. This is particularly true
of developing countries where a significant resource exists that remains relatively
untapped, and yet which is both willing and able to make a major contribution to
improvements in current practice. However, such a major engagement with the local
population implies a significant change to existing practice in which the involvement
of international (western) “experts” is the norm in any major disaster. Thus, enabling
national governments and the local people to manage the preparedness and response
activities for themselves, requires a systemic change in relation to funding, training
and command and control across the whole spectrum of logistic functions.
Nevertheless, a new approach of this nature would recognise and acknowledge the
abilities of local populations in developing countries to provide for and manage their
own disaster responses, rather than assume that expatriate humanitarian agencies are
the best or, indeed, the only, answer. The proposed conceptual model, which has been
developed in the wake of extensive field work, offers a high-level vision of how such a
new paradigm might be implemented in a country such as RP. In particular, it is
designed to bring together the skills and capacities of the local population through
strategic coordination at the executive level and operational coordination at the
municipal level.
Decentralising operational decision-making closer to the location of the natural
disaster event would enable a more timely and effective response, whilst pooling of
resources such as relief goods would reduce the level of competition between
humanitarian agencies for resources, facilitating greater financial efficiency and
helping to ensure improved value for money for the donors. The implementation
of the CHLP concept which captures and displays the results of joint and integrated
needs and damage assessments, consequential estimates of levels and locations
of demand, current stock location and incoming supplies, is a key component that
would help to reduce the imbalances between supply and demand. Whilst a more
coordinated effort to provide standardised and tailored training, and the provision
of the emergency response teams, would enable resources to be used more efficiently
and effectively.
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In conclusion, it is strongly argued that implementing the proposed model would
enhance the capacity of the local populations to provide a vastly improved logistic
response to natural disasters. The desire and willingness for local governments to
reduce their dependence on international response would also be well served, through
a well-resourced and well-coordinated response provided through the increased
capacity of the local population.
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Corresponding author
Allan Sheppard can be contacted at: a.sheppard@griffith.edu.au
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