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Parent Goals and Verbal Sideline Behavior in
Organized Youth Sport
Travis E. Dorsch
Utah State University
Alan L. Smith
Michigan State University
Steven R. Wilson and Meghan H. McDonough
Purdue University
The present study examined the alignment of goals parents construct for their children
with parent verbal sideline behavior at the earliest stage of youth sport. Semistructured
interviews, parent journals, and in situ observation were employed with 4 parents over
the initial 15 months of their children’s organized sport participation. Parent goals were
categorized within the multiple goals framework (Caughlin, 2010;O’Keefe & Shep-
herd, 1987), verbal sideline behaviors were categorized using Holt, Tamminen, Black,
Sehn, and Wall’s (2008) framework, and case narratives were constructed to offer an
interpretation of the interplay of parent goals and verbal sideline behavior. Parents
largely wanted their children to learn about sport and have fun; however, parents also
reported changing some of their goals over time based on child outcomes and their
evolving perceptions of the youth sport context. Often parent goals did not seem to
align with verbal sideline behaviors. Findings highlight the development of parent goals
over the earliest stage of their children’s organized youth sport participation, multiple
forms of these goals (e.g., personal, conventional, task, ego), and both consistencies and
inconsistencies between these goals and verbal sideline behavior.
Keywords: communication, multiple goals theory, parent sport socialization, sport parenting
More than 44 million children participate in
community-based sports leagues in the United
States (National Council of Youth Sports,
2008). Because parents are the principal provid-
ers of these experiences (Fredricks & Eccles,
2005), youth sport is an important context for
family communication. Parents are in a position
to praise, instruct, and critique their children in
youth sport, and when this occurs during com-
petitive events, such communication is referred
to as parent verbal sideline behavior. There has
been recent empirical interest in parent verbal
sideline behavior (Holt, Tamminen, Black,
Sehn, & Wall, 2008); however, there is a sub-
stantial gap in our understanding of factors that
underlie this form of communication. Because
verbal behavior is typically enacted to achieve
goals (Darling & Steinberg, 1993;Dillard,
1990;Wilson, 2002), one way to address this
gap is to simultaneously consider parent verbal
sideline behavior and the goals parents have for
their children in organized youth sport.
Interpersonal communication researchers de-
fine interaction goals as desired end states that a
person hopes to attain or maintain while inter-
acting with others (see Caughlin, 2010;Wilson,
2002). Within this literature, the multiple goals
perspective specifies three categories of goals
This article was published Online First August 18, 2014.
Travis E. Dorsch, Department of Family, Consumer, and
Human Development, Utah State University; Alan L.
Smith, Department of Kinesiology, Michigan State Univer-
sity; Steven R. Wilson, Brian Lamb School of Communi-
cation, Purdue University; Meghan H. McDonough, Depart-
ment of Health and Kinesiology, Purdue University.
This research was partially supported by a Student Research
Grant through the North American Society for the Psychology
of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA). Additional fund-
ing was provided by a Van Scoyoc Fellowship through the
Purdue Center for Families. This research was completed as
part of Travis E. Dorsch’s PhD degree requirements. We thank
Drs. Cheryl Cooky and Aryn Dotterer for helpful feedback
during the development of this project, and the youth sport
parents who participated in this study.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Travis E. Dorsch, Department of Family, Consumer, and Human
Development, 2905 Old Main Hill, Utah State University, Logan,
UT 84322. E-mail: travis.dorsch@usu.edu
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
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Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology © 2014 American Psychological Association
2015, Vol. 4, No. 1, 19–35 2157-3905/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spy0000025
19
that are relevant to interpersonal communica-
tion: (a) instrumental goals, which are related to
overcoming obstacles or completing a specific
task; (b) identity goals, which are related to
portraying a desired image of the self and sig-
nificant others; and (c) relational goals, which
are associated with the development and main-
tenance of relationships (Caughlin, 2010;
O’Keefe & Shepherd, 1987;Wilson, 2014).
These goals do not exist independent of one
another, as individuals typically pursue multiple
goals simultaneously during communication ep-
isodes (Berger, 2005). Thus, even if a parent’s
primary goal is an instrumental outcome, iden-
tity and relational considerations may shape the
communication behavior. This can create di-
lemmas when the act of pursuing an instrumen-
tal outcome threatens the identity of the speaker
and/or recipient, and the relational qualities be-
tween them (Goldsmith, Lindholm, & Bute,
2006).
Applied to organized youth sport, the multi-
ple goals perspective suggests that parent verbal
sideline behavior is shaped by a combination of
instrumental, identity, and relational concerns.
Instrumental goals can vary widely, ranging
from the improvement of an athlete’s perfor-
mance, which might prompt a parent to com-
municate in a controlling fashion from the side-
line, to the enhancement of self-worth, which
might prompt warm and supportive comments
from the parent. Identity goals lead parents to
communicate in ways that create a desirable
image of themselves (e.g., by presenting them-
selves as knowledgeable or respectful) and their
children (e.g., by presenting their child as com-
petent or successful). Finally, relational goals
lead parents to communicate in ways that en-
hance feelings of closeness with individuals for
whom the parent maintains a vested interest
(e.g., athletes, coaches, peers). Beyond offering
a descriptive account of the goals parents hold,
exploring parent goals and communication in
organized youth sport can extend knowledge of
the potential interplay of cognition and behavior
in youth sport parents.
Parent verbal sideline behavior is a signifi-
cant form of communication because it repre-
sents the primary method of parent involvement
during a child’s sporting events. The one-way
nature of this communication affords both sup-
portive and controlling verbal sideline behav-
iors and may offer a window to goals possessed
by the parent. Moreover, because organized
youth sport occurs primarily in a public setting
(Fredricks & Eccles, 2004), parent verbal side-
line behavior is observable, increasing the sa-
lience of identity management to parents. Fi-
nally, families, youth sport organizations, and
broader society are cognizant that the tenor of
parent verbal sideline behavior in youth sport
can impact young athletes. This is evidenced by
numerous books on youth sport parenting
(Smoll & Smith, 2012), media reports of inap-
propriate parenting behavior in organized youth
sport (Nack & Munson, 2000), and policies
designed to limit the proximity of spectators to
athletes during youth sport contests. In light of
these factors, observing parent verbal sideline
behavior is an important undertaking for ad-
vancing scholarship on parent involvement in
organized youth sport.
Multiple observational frameworks have
been created to determine the nature of parent
verbal sideline behavior (Holt et al., 2008;Kid-
man, McKenzie, & McKenzie, 1999). In draw-
ing on the conceptual split of autonomy-
supportive and controlling behaviors offered by
Grolnick and colleagues (Grolnick, Deci, &
Ryan, 1997), Holt and colleagues’ framework is
potentially useful for examining theoretical
connections between parent goals and verbal
sideline behavior. According to Holt and col-
leagues, praise/encouragement refers to general
supportive comments (e.g., “That’s the way
Danielle, good work!”), performance-contin-
gent feedback refers to comments intended to
improve performance (e.g., “Way to deliver the
pass Ben!”), instruction refers to direct com-
mands (e.g., “Shoot the ball Bree!”), striking a
balance refers to finding equilibrium in the pos-
itive and negative valence of a comment (e.g.,
“No, c’mon Jonny...okay, good try!”), neg-
ative comments refers to general negative com-
ments made toward athletes (e.g., “You’re play-
ing too slow Jaime!”), and derogatory
comments refers to belittling and potentially
harmful comments directed toward athletes
(e.g., “That’s pathetic Kevin!”). In viewing spe-
cific parenting practices through a lens of more
global parenting styles, Holt and colleagues
highlight a number of person- and context-
related factors that have the potential to influ-
ence parents’ sideline behaviors (e.g., policy
issues, game criticality, spectator intensity, par-
ents’ perceived knowledge).
20 DORSCH, SMITH, WILSON, AND MCDONOUGH
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Beyond the need to examine observable be-
haviors in physical activity settings (Smith,
Dorsch, & Monsma, 2012;Watson & Shannon,
2010), it is important to address factors that
might underlie such behaviors. Communication
scholars have urged investigators to address the
connection between goals and interpersonal
communication behavior (see Goldsmith &
Fitch, 1997;Keck & Samp, 2007). Targeting
parent goals is potentially valuable because
goals are (a) inherent in multiple facets of in-
terpersonal relationships (Berger, 2005), (b) re-
lated to how others make judgments about an
individual’s behavior (Caughlin, 2010), and (c)
constructed in a variety of institutional and cul-
tural contexts (Wilson, 2014). Describing par-
ent goals, verbal sideline behavior, and the pos-
sible tie between the two can advance
knowledge of parent– child relationships as well
as the norms and expectations experienced by
parents in organized youth sport. In light of this
potential and calls for greater attention to youth
sport parenting (Dorsch, Smith, & McDonough,
2009;Fredricks & Eccles, 2004), the purposes
of the present study were to (a) document the
goals four parents constructed for their children
at the earliest stage of youth sport involvement,
(b) document the verbal sideline behavior these
parents displayed at their children’s events, and
(c) interpret how parents’ goals may align with
their verbal sideline behavior.
Method
Design and Methodology
A longitudinal, collective case study design
(Stake, 2005) was employed to capture parent
goals and verbal sideline behaviors over the
initial 15 months of organized youth sport par-
ticipation. This research was conducted as part
of a larger study of youth sport parenting
(Dorsch, Smith, & McDonough, 2015). To ad-
dress the research aims, an interpretive ap-
proach was adopted, grounding the research in
the belief that knowledge is constructed over
time through social interaction and is unique to
the individuals who construct it (Schmidt,
2007). In the present study, parents’ goals for
their children’s participation were constructed
based on personal experiences and their percep-
tions of the expectations of others (i.e., group
norms). The research team interpreted parents’
stated goals, the recorded verbal sideline behav-
iors, and potential links between the two.
Participants
Participants were four first-time youth sport
parents (two mothers, two fathers) from four
families in the Midwest United States. Upon
institutional review board approval, parents
were recruited from a large youth soccer league.
Parents were specifically targeted who had chil-
dren participating for the first time in youth
sport and who expected their children to con-
tinue over multiple seasons. The participants
had a range of sport backgrounds, from no
formal playing experience through college-level
experience. Participant ages ranged from 30 to
43 years. They were White, lived in suburban or
rural locales, reported upper-middle class fam-
ily incomes, held college degrees, and were
married. Participants were parents of two male
children and two female children. Of the four
children, two participated in five youth sport
seasons (spanning 4 to 12 weeks each) over the
15-month study period while one took part in
four seasons and one took part in two seasons.
Three of the children were 5 years old and one
was 6 years old at the onset of the study. Further
information on the respective participants is
available in Dorsch and colleagues (2015). The
participants, as well as family members and
coaches, have been assigned pseudonyms in the
present report.
Data Collection
Three forms of qualitative data (semistruc-
tured interviews, parent journals, and in situ
observations) were collected over a period last-
ing 15 months. Prior to the first game of the
child’s initial sport season, and again subse-
quent to each season of participation, semistruc-
tured interviews containing open-ended ques-
tions (e.g., “Tell me about your decision to sign
Alex up for soccer this season.”) and follow-up
probes (e.g., “What did you hope he would gain
from the experience?”) were conducted with
parent participants to facilitate discussion of
participants’ experiences as youth sport parents.
In discussing their broader experiences, parents
communicated their hopes, expectations, and
desires for their children’s participation. Over
the course of the project, participants took part
in 19 interviews lasting in total approximately
21PARENT GOALS AND BEHAVIOR
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12 hours. As a second data collection strategy,
parents completed journals about their sport
parenting experiences. Parents were prompted
to write freely about their experiences as youth
sport parents and asked to describe observa-
tions, experiences, thoughts, or emotions linked
to their children’s sport participation. Over the
course of the project, participants returned 72
parent journals, ranging in length from 1/4 of a
page to two typed pages. As a final data collec-
tion strategy, in situ audio recordings of each
parent were obtained via embedded digital re-
corder. Obtaining data in this fashion was con-
sidered the best method for attaining an ecolog-
ically valid depiction of parent verbal sideline
behavior. Parent recordings commenced upon
the parent’s arrival on the sideline and con-
cluded following the contest. Immediately upon
arrival, the parent was outfitted with a lapel
microphone, and provided with a digital record-
ing device to place in her/his pocket. In all
cases, the device was already recording when
the researcher gave it to the participant. Parent
recordings were made once per competitive ath-
letic season of the child’s participation. Over
the course of the study, this amounted to 14 in
situ recordings lasting in total nearly 14.5 hours.
Direct observations were recorded and interpre-
tive memos were also made to assist in contex-
tualizing parent verbal sideline behaviors dur-
ing the data analysis phase. Additionally, 110
hours of direct observation conducted across
lessons, practices, and competitions assisted in
the interpretation of in situ data.
Data Analysis
Digital recordings of interviews and verbal
sideline behavior, respectively, were tran-
scribed verbatim using Dragon NaturallySpeak-
ing 10 computer software. All electronic tran-
scripts were cross-checked for accuracy against
the original recordings. Interpretive memos
were transcribed directly and QSR NVivo9 com-
puter software was used to assist with catego-
rizing, storing, and retrieving all forms of data
for subsequent analyses.
A three-step data analysis procedure was em-
ployed to address study aims. First, a systematic
search of parent interview and journal data was
conducted and all data pertaining to parents’
goals for their children’s sport participation
were coded inductively. These data were
deemed reflective of parent goals when parents
described desired end states that they hoped
they, their child, or their family would attain or
maintain through the child’s organized youth
sport involvement. In some interviews, these
were prompted by specific questions or probes
(e.g., “What did you hope to see as a result of
Alex’s participation in organized youth
sport?”); in other cases, parents chose to discuss
their goals without specific prompting from re-
searchers (e.g., “I hope her participation allows
us to spend more quality time together outside
the home.”). In total, 23 pages of coded text
pertained to parents’ goals for their children’s
sport participation. Roughly 14 of these pages
were drawn from interview data and roughly
nine from journal data. Parent goals were clas-
sified as instrumental, identity, or relational ac-
cording to the multiple goals framework.
Within these categories, quotations were induc-
tively coded into subcategories and labeled
based on shared characteristics. A constant
comparative approach was used in the coding of
parent goals. To organize these data, a time-
ordered data matrix was constructed for each
participant upon completion of this coding pro-
cess.
The second step of analysis entailed classify-
ing in situ verbal sideline behaviors. Initially, all
verbalizations relative to sport were isolated.
Episodes of verbal sideline behavior included
parent comments directed toward their children,
and comments made to or about other athletes,
spectators, coaches, and officials. In some cases,
longer comments were broken into multiple ep-
isodes. Extraneous comments not related to the
child or sport context were not used in the
analysis. Episodes of parent verbal sideline be-
havior were then classified within the Holt and
colleagues (2008) framework as praise/encour-
agement, performance-contingent feedback, in-
struction, striking a balance, negative, or derog-
atory.
The final step of analysis entailed the con-
struction of case narratives. These narratives
integrate information from the time-ordered
matrices and the in situ behavior tables to offer
an interpretation of each parent’s involvement
experience in organized youth sport. Specifi-
cally, incorporating quotations (a) the initial
goals held by each parent for their children’s
sport participation were described, (b) potential
links between parent goals and verbal sideline
22 DORSCH, SMITH, WILSON, AND MCDONOUGH
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behavior over the course of the study were
proposed, and (c) an interpretation of how mul-
tiple goals were reflected in parents’ verbal
sideline behavior was constructed. Each step
was undertaken by the first author. Due to the
longitudinal nature of the data, verbal sideline
behaviors from a given season were examined
in light of parent goals articulated during that
season.
To ensure a trustworthy analytic process, the
third author served as a peer debriefer (Cre-
swell, 2007) during the initial stages of data
analysis. The peer debriefer examined the first
author’s interpretations and provided feedback
to enhance the first author’s classification of
parent goals within the multiple goals perspec-
tive. The second and fourth authors served as
critical friends throughout data analysis (Hill,
2002). They offered continual critique of the
first author’s own interests and values. Follow-
ing the first author’s coding of parent goals, the
first and fourth authors met to discuss the label-
ing and assignment of goals within subcatego-
ries and categories. Following the first author’s
construction of case narratives, the first and
second authors met to discuss the conceptual
links between parent goals and verbal sideline
behavior. Together, these meetings led to sub-
stantive edits to the clusters of descriptive sub-
categories that fell within the multiple goals
framework as well as edits to the case narra-
tives.
Results
Parents articulated 43 specific goals related to
their children’s sport participation. Parent goals
were classified into four subcategories of instru-
mental goals (avoid negative sport outcomes,
develop as an athlete, grow as an individual,
enjoy sport experience), two subcategories of
identity goals (maintain a positive image as a
parent and manage others’ perceptions of child),
and two subcategories of relational goals (en-
hance family relationships and build relation-
ships with others). Although a great deal of
overlap existed in parents’ experiences, each
parent case afforded unique interpretation of
parent goals, verbal sideline behaviors, and the
potential link of the two. The following case
narratives integrate these data to offer an inter-
pretation of each parent’s involvement experi-
ence in organized youth sport.
Holly
Over her son’s initial 15 months of sport par-
ticipation, 14 of Holly’s 30 sport-related goals
were interpreted as instrumental (see Table 1).
Holly wanted Greg to avoid negative sport out-
comes such as burnout, to develop as an athlete by
learning about sport, to grow as an individual by
trying new things, and to enjoy his sport experi-
ence by performing well. Seven of Holly’s sport-
related goals were interpreted as identity-related.
Holly wanted to maintain a positive image as a
sport parent by having Greg reflect well on her,
and wanted to manage others’ perceptions of
Greg by him maintaining a good attitude.
Lastly, nine of Holly’s sport-related goals were
interpreted as relational. Holly wanted to en-
hance family relationships by spending time
together and wanted to see Greg build relation-
ships with others by meeting other children and
making new friends.
Holly displayed 558 verbal sideline behav-
iors across her son Greg’s four seasonal athletic
competitions. Forty-three percent of these ver-
bal sideline behaviors were interpreted as in-
structive, with the highest proportion coming in
Season 5. A combined 8% of behaviors were
interpreted as negative or derogatory, though
nearly one-quarter of her behaviors fell into
these categories in Season 4 (basketball; see
Table 1). Holly’s verbal sideline behaviors re-
flected multiple goals simultaneously. In most
cases, we interpreted her instruction as a means
to achieve instrumental outcomes; however,
identity and relational concerns were also evi-
dent. Interviews and journals provided evidence
of Holly’s desire for Greg’s play to reflect well
on her and her aspiration to become part of the
“in crowd.” When asked about her sport parent-
ing style during Season 1, Holly stated frankly,
“I really put a lot of emphasis on learning...
although clearly I want [Greg] to be a star too.”
The latter goal was captured during a Season 1
in situ recording as she spoke to her husband
Anthony about Greg not wanting to play offense
where she thought his performance would stand
out more: “I don’t know why he asked to be a
defender. I don’t know why he doesn’t want to
be on offense where he can score a goal.”
Holly made a similar proportion of negative
and derogatory comments about Greg’s perfor-
mances during Seasons 3 and 4. In one episode,
captured during a Season 3 in situ recording,
23PARENT GOALS AND BEHAVIOR
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Table 1
Time-Ordered Matrix of Holly’s Specific Goals for Greg’s Participation in Organized Youth Sport and
Verbal Sideline Behavior by Category
Goal
category Subcategory Goal
Season
B12345
Instrumental Avoid negative sport
outcomes
Avoid overlap/overload/burnout X X X
Develop as an athlete Become more competitive X
Improve technical skills X X
Learn about the sport XXXXXX
Learn which sports are most enjoyable X
Prepare to get a scholarship X X X
Grow as an
individual
Become more confident X
Keep goals in perspective X
Learn balance and structure X
Learn to work hard/commit/finish X
Learn value of exercise/activity X
Try new things/Get out of comfort zone X X
Enjoy sport
experience
Have a good season/Perform well X X X X X
Have fun/Be happy X X X X
Identity Maintain a positive
image as a parent
Avoid other parents’ negative views X X
Become part of the “in crowd” X X X
Have child reflect well on parents X X X
Manage others’
perceptions of
child
Have child blend in with teammates X
Have other parents notice child’s ability X
Maintain child’s good attitude X
See child compare well to other athletes X
Relational Enhance family
relationships
Feel support from family X
Have something to talk about X
Spend time together X X
Build relationships
with others
Avoid letting down coach X
Get to know other families X X
Learn sportsmanship X
Learn how to work with others X X
Meet other children/Make new friends XXXXXX
Respect adults/authority figures X X X
Season
Behavior category 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Praise/encouragement 57 35 10 46 148
34% 27% 19% 22% 27%
Performance-contingent feedback 28 31 12 44 115
17% 24% 22% 21% 21%
Instruction 71 50 17 104 242
43% 38% 31% 50% 43%
Striking a balance 3 2 2 1 8
2% 2% 4% ⬍1% 1%
Negative comments 5 10 10 9 34
3% 8% 19% 4% 6%
Derogatory comments 2 2 3 4 11
1% 2% 6% 2% 2%
Total behaviors observed 166 130 54 208 558
Note. Verbal sideline data were collected during Season 1 (spring soccer), Season 3 (fall soccer), Season 4 (winter
basketball), and Season 5 (spring soccer). No verbal sideline data were collected during Season 2 (summer swimming and
soccer lessons) because Holly did not participate verbally on the sideline during Greg’s lessons. Percentages correspond to
behaviors by category within a season/event.
24 DORSCH, SMITH, WILSON, AND MCDONOUGH
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Holly commented to a parent peer on the side-
line, “That was kind of a wimpy throw.” This
negative statement was followed by a less neg-
atively valenced instructive comment directed
toward Greg on the field, “Greg, throw the
ball!” Communication episodes such as these
were interpreted as reflecting identity and rela-
tional goals, in addition to the instrumental goal
of wanting Greg to improve his performance. In
pursuing identity goals, Holly seemed to want
Greg’s sport outcomes to reflect well on her as
a sport parent (as she stated during interviews in
Seasons 1, 4, and 5). However, she also re-
mained cognizant of the image she was portray-
ing to others on the sideline, describing during
Seasons 2 and 4 a desire to avoid other parents’
negative views. Holly often seemed to adapt her
verbal sideline behavior based on relational
concerns as well. For instance, when Greg ac-
cidentally scored against his own goalie in a
Season 5 soccer match, we observed Holly
strike a balance in her verbal sideline behavior.
Her immediate response (“It’s all right...”)
was indicative of encouragement, and was fol-
lowed by somewhat derogatory (i.e., sarcastic in
tone) performance-contingent feedback (“. . .
Just remember, you’re going that way. You’re a
defender!”). After a brief pause, she offered
positively valenced instruction: “No big deal,
you just go that way.”
Toward the end of the 15-month period,
Holly shared multiple, and potentially conflict-
ing, goals. Specifically, Holly implied during a
Season 4 interview that she was equally con-
cerned with avoiding other parents’ negative
views as with Greg learning to respect adults/
authority figures: “[When he] had a bad attitude,
or if he talked back, or if he was mean, I would
definitely say something to him right there, but
I wouldn’t yell and scream. I would wait ‘til I
got home [to do that].” Holly’s identity con-
cerns reflected a potential conflict with her in-
strumental and relational concerns tied to
Greg’s participation. Indeed, early in the study
she prioritized instrumental outcomes, stating in
a Season 2 interview: “I find myself thinking
that if we can keep him good at soccer maybe he
could get a scholarship...forme,that’s a
long-term goal.” However, we documented a
transformation over the course of the 15
months, as was evident in our Season 5 inter-
view: “For a while I thought maybe I was be-
coming one of those people who eat sleep and
breathe it, and I got caught up in all the stuff he
could do to get him a scholarship, and now I
feel like I’m normal again.” This change pro-
vides evidence that Holly weighted her goals
and verbal sideline behavior based on an evolv-
ing perception of what was most important in
organized youth sport.
Trina
Over her daughter’s initial 15 months of par-
ticipation, 10 of Trina’s 22 sport-related goals
were interpreted as instrumental (see Table 2).
Trina wanted Leslie to avoid negative sport
outcomes such as injury, develop as an athlete
by improving her technical skills, grow as an
individual by getting out of her comfort zone,
and enjoy her sport experience by getting a
trophy. Over the course of the study, five of
Trina’s sport-related goals were interpreted as
identity-related. Within this category, Trina’s
goals shifted from a concern about her own
image as a youth sport parent (wanting Leslie to
reflect well on her) to a concern about Leslie’s
own image as an athlete. Specifically, she
wanted Leslie to blend in with other athletes and
to compare well to her teammates in skill.
Lastly, seven of Trina’s sport-related goals were
interpreted as relational. Trina wanted to en-
hance family relationships by spending time
with Leslie and the rest of the family and
wanted to see Leslie build relationships with
others through improved social skills.
Trina displayed 103 verbal sideline behaviors
across her daughter Leslie’s two seasonal ath-
letic competitions. Forty-eight percent of her
verbal sideline behaviors were interpreted as
praise/encouragement, whereas a combined
11% were interpreted as negative or derogatory.
Her verbal sideline behavior remained rela-
tively unchanged in volume and proportion
from Season 1 to Season 5 (see Table 2). Tri-
na’s verbal (and nonverbal) sideline behaviors
reflected multiple goals simultaneously. In most
cases, we interpreted her use of praise/
encouragement as a means to reinforce instru-
mental outcomes; however, identity and rela-
tional concerns were also evident. For instance,
one of Trina’s identity goals was to avoid other
parents’ negative views. This desire was re-
vealed in a Season 1 interview: “There are sev-
eral people that I will not sit by anymore be-
cause they’re either yelling at the kids or the
25PARENT GOALS AND BEHAVIOR
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referee, and I can’t deal with that. So, I go out
of my way to not be that parent.” From a
relational aspect, Trina wanted Leslie to feel
support from the family: “Supporting your kid
in what they’re doing ...Ithink it’s just being
very supportive of your kid and making sure
that your kid knows that you are supporting
everybody.”
Trina made a number of negative and derog-
atory comments over the course of the study;
however, these comments were typically made
about other parents, coaches, or the general
sport context rather than to or about Leslie. For
instance, when Leslie’s team was playing a
clearly inferior opponent during Season 1, she
made a negative comment to another parent for
Table 2
Time-Ordered Matrix of Trina’s Specific Goals for Leslie’s Participation in Organized Youth Sport and
Verbal Sideline Behavior by Category
Goal
category Subcategory Goal
Season
B12345
Instrumental Avoid negative sport
outcomes
Avoid injury X
Develop as an athlete Gain coordination X
Improve technical skills X
Learn about the sport X X
Grow as an individual Become more confident X
Learn value of exercise/activity X
Try new things/Get out of comfort zone X X
Enjoy sport
experience
Get a trophy X
Have a good season/Perform well X
Have fun/Be happy X X X
Identity Maintain a positive
image as a parent
Avoid other parents’ negative views X
Have child reflect well on parents X X
Manage others’
perceptions of child
Control child’s on-field emotions X X
Have child blend in with teammates X
See child compare well to other athletes X
Relational Enhance family
relationships
Feel support from family X
Spend time together X
Build relationships
with others
Get along with teammates X
Improve child’s social skills X
Learn sportsmanship X
Learn how to work with others X
Meet other children/Make new friends X
Season
Behavior category 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Praise/encouragement 25 24 49
48% 47% 48%
Performance-contingent feedback 8 8 16
15% 16% 16%
Instruction 13 12 25
25% 24% 24%
Striking a balance 1 1 2
2% 2% 2%
Negative comments 4 5 9
8% 10% 9%
Derogatory comments 1 1 2
2% 2% 2%
Total behaviors observed 52 51 103
Note. Verbal sideline data were collected during Season 1 (spring soccer) and Season 5 (spring soccer). No verbal sideline
data were collected during Seasons 2– 4 because Leslie did not participate in organized youth sport during these seasons.
Percentages correspond to behaviors by category within a season/event.
26 DORSCH, SMITH, WILSON, AND MCDONOUGH
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cheering loudly after the team’s third goal:
“We’re winning three to nothing already. We
don’t need to rub it in.” This in situ statement
was followed by a positively valenced comment
directed at Leslie: “Way to be there Leslie...
you’re doing a good job honey!” Communica-
tion episodes such as this indicated that while
Trina cared about instrumental, identity, and
relational outcomes with the children, identity
and relational concerns were less likely to shape
her verbal exchanges with parent peers.
One of the unique aspects of Leslie’s partic-
ipation was that she played soccer during Sea-
son 1 and did not participate again in organized
youth sport until Season 5. In a Season 5 journal
entry, Trina articulated an understanding that
Leslie was not one of the better athletes on her
team. We interpreted this as leading to an ad-
justed set of goals for Leslie’s participation.
Specifically, Trina’s goals in Season 5 shifted
from Leslie’s development as an athlete to her
growth as an individual. Although her goals
evolved, Trina’s verbal sideline behavior did
not. Namely, we observed Trina continue to
strike a balance by framing in situ criticisms of
Leslie in a joking and/or laughing manner (e.g.,
“Leslie, what are you doing honey?”) and by
making negative comments (e.g., “Good grief,
c’mon Leslie.”) under her breath and not within
earshot of Leslie. On one occasion during Sea-
son 5 we observed Trina begin to comment on
the way Leslie was positioned as the goal-
keeper. However, rather than finish the com-
ment herself, she told her husband: “Paul, you
better go down there and tell her not to be in the
goal...”This exchange typified Trina’s mul-
tiple goals in that she wanted to avoid other
parents’ negative views of how she communi-
cated with her daughter (an identity goal), to
have Leslie avoid negative sport outcomes (an
instrumental goal), and to have Leslie feel sup-
port from the family (a relational goal).
Scott
Over his daughter’s initial 15 months of par-
ticipation, 12 of Scott’s 18 sport-related goals
were interpreted as instrumental (see Table 3).
Scott wanted Kaylee to avoid negative sport
outcomes like being turned off to sport, to de-
velop as an athlete by learning which sports are
most enjoyable, to grow as an individual by
learning to work hard, and to enjoy her sport
experience by being happy. Just one of Scott’s
goals was interpreted as identity-related. Spe-
cifically, he wanted to manage others’ percep-
tions of Kaylee by seeing her compare well to
other athletes. Finally, five of Scott’s sport-
related goals were interpreted as relational.
Scott wanted to enhance family relationships by
spending time together and wanted to see Kay-
lee build relationships with others by learning
how to work with others.
Scott displayed 106 verbal sideline behaviors
across his daughter Kaylee’s four seasonal ath-
letic competitions. Twenty-eight percent of his
behaviors were interpreted as performance-
contingent feedback, with comparable percent-
ages of behaviors falling into the praise/
encouragement and instruction categories,
respectively. His instructive behaviors peaked
during Season 2 (track and field), when 36% of
his verbalizations were interpreted as instruc-
tional (see Table 3). Scott’s verbal sideline be-
haviors reflected multiple goals simultaneously.
In most cases, we interpreted his performance-
contingent feedback as a means to achieve in-
strumental outcomes; however, identity and re-
lational concerns seemed to shape these
exchanges. For instance, many episodes of per-
formance-contingent feedback captured during
in situ observations (e.g., “Well done Kaylee,
that was a lot of work to get the ball!”) appeared
to be shaped by identity (e.g., wanting to see
Kaylee compare well to other athletes) and re-
lational (e.g., wanting Kaylee to feel support
from the family) concerns that Scott shared in
subsequent interviews. Despite Scott’s wealth
of knowledge and experience in sport, we noted
that most of the instruction and performance-
contingent feedback he provided was inaudible
to Kaylee on the field. In addition, although
Scott had the highest proportion of negatively
valenced comments among the study partici-
pants, not once did we observe him direct a
negative comment toward Kaylee. Rather, Scott
typically whispered these comments to himself
or spoke them to his wife on the sidelines. This
potentially underscores the importance he felt in
maintaining a positive image as a youth sport
parent and a warm relationship with his daugh-
ter.
In Kaylee’s first season of organized youth
soccer, we observed Scott attempt to strike a
balance by whispering instruction to himself
(e.g., “You’ve got to hold it there Kaylee.” or
27PARENT GOALS AND BEHAVIOR
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“Run upfield Kaylee.”), directing the perfor-
mance-contingent feedback toward his wife
(e.g., “That’s a play she needs to make as a
defender.”), or delaying his communication al-
together until after the competition. In a Season
1 interview, Scott shared his desire to make sure
Kaylee felt support from the family and this was
manifest in him not providing instruction or
making negative or derogatory comments in
front of other people at her events. This pattern
of interaction appeared to change during Kay-
lee’s initial season of track and field when Scott
became more involved in her participation. At
her first meet, we observed Scott pull Kaylee to
the side of the track to question her decision not
to run one of the races she had signed up for:
“Do you want to run the 1600? It’s only four
laps around.” By questioning her decision not to
Table 3
Time-Ordered Matrix of Scott’s Specific Goals for Kaylee’s Participation in Organized Youth Sport and
Verbal Sideline Behavior by Category
Goal
category Subcategory Goal
Season
B12345
Instrumental Avoid negative sport
outcomes
Avoid being turned off to sport X X X X
Avoid injury X X
Develop as an athlete Become more competitive X
Improve technical skills X X X
Learn about the sport X X X X
Learn which sports are most enjoyable X X X
Grow as an
individual
Keep goals in perspective X
Learn to work hard/commit/finish X X
Learn value of exercise/activity X X
Try new things/Get out of comfort zone X X
Enjoy sport
experience
Have a good season/Perform well X X
Have fun/Be happy XXXX X
Identity Manage others’
perceptions of
child
See child compare well to other athletes X X
Relational Enhance family
relationships
Feel support from family X
Spend time together X X
Build relationships
with others
Learn sportsmanship X
Learn how to work with others X X X
Meet other children/Make new friends X X
Season
Behavior category 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Praise/encouragement 3 10 12 2 27
25% 26% 36% 9% 25%
Performance-contingent feedback 2 11 9 8 30
17% 28% 27% 36% 28%
Instruction 4 14 4 6 28
33% 36% 12% 27% 26%
Striking a balance 0 1 2 0 3
0% 3% 6% 0% 3%
Negative comments 3 3 6 5 17
25% 8% 18% 23% 16%
Derogatory comments 0 0 0 1 1
0% 0% 0% 5% 1%
Total behaviors observed 12 39 33 22 106
Note. Verbal sideline data were collected during Season 1 (spring soccer), Season 2 (summer track and field), Season 3
(fall soccer), and Season 5 (spring soccer). No verbal sideline data were collected during Season 4 because Kaylee did not
participate in organized youth sport during that season. Percentages correspond to behaviors by category within a
season/event.
28 DORSCH, SMITH, WILSON, AND MCDONOUGH
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run without demanding that she did, we inter-
preted this communication episode as driven by
an instrumental goal (not wanting Kaylee to be
turned off to sport) and an identity goal (want-
ing to see Kaylee compare well to other ath-
letes). The discrepancy between Scott’s com-
munication with Kaylee in soccer and track and
field provides evidence that the sport context
itself, and perhaps his background in the respec-
tive sports, influenced his verbal sideline behav-
ior.
Craig
Over his son’s initial 15 months of participa-
tion, 18 of Craig’s 28 sport-related goals were
interpreted as instrumental (see Table 4). Craig
wanted Alex to avoid negative sport outcomes
like putting pressure on himself, to develop as
an athlete by learning about the sport, to grow
as an individual by learning about the value of
exercise and activity, and to enjoy his sport
experience by having something that is his do-
main. Just two of Craig’s sport-related goals
were interpreted as identity-related and both
focused on managing others’ perceptions of Al-
ex. Specifically, Craig wanted Alex to learn to
control his on-field emotions and to compare
well to other athletes in sport. Finally, eight of
Craig’s sport-related goals were interpreted as
relational. Craig wanted to enhance family re-
lationships by spending time with the family
and wanted to see Alex build relationships with
others by learning sportsmanship and making
new friends.
Craig displayed 118 verbal sideline behaviors
across his son Alex’s four seasonal athletic
competitions. Thirty-seven percent of these be-
haviors were interpreted as praise/encourage-
ment and 33% were interpreted as performance-
contingent feedback. Although 12% of his
verbal sideline behaviors were interpreted as
negative, no derogatory behaviors were ob-
served in situ. The volume of Craig’s total ver-
bal sideline behavior increased with each season
of Alex’s soccer participation (16 in Season 1,
27 in Season 3, and 62 in Season 5) as did the
number of negative verbal behaviors (from 1 to
2 to 11; see Table 4). Craig’s verbal sideline
behaviors reflected multiple goals simultane-
ously. In most cases, we interpreted his praise/
encouragement as a means to achieve instru-
mental outcomes; however, identity and/or
relational concerns were also evident. For in-
stance, during an interview following Season 1
Craig admitted that Alex’s and other parents’
reactions to his praise/encouragement would in-
fluence his future verbal sideline behavior. Ad-
ditionally, although we observed Craig offer
more negative comments as the study pro-
gressed (e.g., “Geez Alex, get back here.”),
these episodes seemed to be shaped more by
identity and relational rather than instrumental
concerns. Indeed, during a Season 5 soccer
match, Alex was confused and lined up on the
wrong side of the pitch prior to the start of the
half. Craig’s initial reaction was to yell toward
Alex; however, after Craig moved to the front
of his chair and called “Alex . . .” he waved him
off, laughed, and whispered to himself: “...oh
Alex, you’re at the wrong end of the field.”
With this, we observed Craig strike a balance by
withholding a verbal behavior that may have
accomplished an instrumental goal at the possi-
ble detriment of identity (e.g., maintaining a
positive image of himself and Alex) and rela-
tional (e.g., wanting Alex to feel supported)
goals.
We interpreted a potential tension between
two of Craig’s instrumental goals for Alex early
in his sport participation. Specifically, during a
Season 1 interview, Craig articulated a desire to
see Alex have fun and be happy while also
wanting him to learn to deal with failure: “I
don’t want him to feel bad, but I know he needs
to learn to deal with [it]...Itake it as a reality
of sports. There will be failure and it will be
good for him to experience it.” Craig reflected
during a Season 3 interview that on multiple
occasions conflicting goals forced him into a
difficult emotional position: “You don’t want to
see your kid sad and crying and frustrated and
miserable...It’s not [something] I enjoy, but
it’s something that he can benefit from and grow
from.”
Craig was frequently observed using halftime
as an opportunity to manage Alex’s on-field
emotions. During Season 3 Alex was visibly
upset about having to play a soccer game in the
rain and mud. Craig’s verbal sideline behavior
that day seemed to strike a balance between
encouragement and instruction: “It’s okay to get
dirty today chief.” This in situ exchange was
also interpreted as reflecting Craig’s desire to
see Alex compare well with other athletes and
perform well. During Season 3, when a negative
29PARENT GOALS AND BEHAVIOR
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Table 4
Time-Ordered Matrix of Craig’s Specific Goals for Alex’s Participation in Organized Youth Sport and
Verbal Sideline Behavior by Category
Goal
category Subcategory Goal
Season
B12345
Instrumental Avoid negative sport
outcomes
Avoid injury X
Avoid overlap/overload/burnout X
Avoid putting pressure on self X
Develop as an athlete Improve technical skills X X X X
Learn about the sport X X X X X
Learn which sports are most enjoyable X X X
Grow as an
individual
Become a good person X
Become self-reliant X
Keep goals in perspective X
Learn balance and structure X X
Learn to work hard/commit/finish X X
Learn to deal with failure and success X X X X
Learn value of exercise/activity XXXXX
Try new things/Get out of comfort zone X
Enjoy sport
experience
Be interested/motivated X X X
Have a good season/Perform well X X X
Have fun/Be happy X X X X X
Have something that is child’s domain X X
Identity Manage others’
perceptions of
child
Control child’s on-field emotions X X
See child compare well to other athletes X
Relational Enhance family
relationships
Feel support from family X
Spend time together XXXX
Build relationships
with others
Get along with teammates X
Improve child’s social skills X
Learn sportsmanship X X X
Learn how to work with others X
Meet other children/Make new friends X X X X
Respect adults/authority figures X
Season
Behavior category 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Praise/encouragement 7 9 7 21 44
44% 33% 54% 34% 37%
Performance-contingent feedback 4 10 6 19 39
25% 37% 46% 31% 33%
Instruction 3 3 0 9 15
19% 11% 0% 15% 13%
Striking a balance 1 3 0 2 6
6% 11% 0% 3% 5%
Negative comments 1 2 0 11 14
6% 7% 0% 18% 12%
Derogatory comments 0 0 0 0 0
0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Total behaviors observed 16 27 13 62 118
Note. Verbal sideline data were collected during Season 1 (spring soccer), Season 3 (fall soccer), Season 4 (winter
basketball), and Season 5 (spring soccer). No verbal sideline data were collected during Season 2 (summer tennis lessons)
because Craig did not participate verbally on the sideline during Alex’s lessons. Percentages correspond to behaviors by
category within a season/event.
30 DORSCH, SMITH, WILSON, AND MCDONOUGH
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comment may have been warranted, Craig com-
mented instead to his wife and another parent in
attendance: “He’s looking a little sluggish [to-
day].” Indeed, very rarely did we observe Craig
direct negative or derogatory comments toward
Alex. This changed in Season 5 when Craig was
much more willing to offer negative feedback to
Alex on the soccer pitch. He described in our
Season 5 interview that this transformation was
closely tied to the fact that Alex was now par-
ticipating in his third season of organized soc-
cer: “Over time, when he plays the same sport
over and over again, I guess I have the expec-
tation that he’ll be learning and picking up
things as he goes along.” This transformation
indicated that Craig’s goals were potentially
influenced by Alex’s increasing ability, Craig’s
own expectations of that ability, and the com-
petitive environment in which Alex was partic-
ipating.
Discussion
The current study was designed to investigate
the potential link of parent goals and verbal
sideline behavior during the earliest stage of
organized youth sport involvement. Data from
parent interviews, journals, and in situ observa-
tions offered initial evidence for this link and
support past research suggesting that parenting
practices are typically enacted to achieve paren-
tal goals and values (Darling & Steinberg, 1993;
Dillard, 1990;Wilson, 2002). Moreover, con-
sistent with the multiple goals perspective
(Caughlin, 2010;O’Keefe & Shepherd, 1987),
the instrumental, identity, and relational goals
parents sought through their children’s youth
sport participation were not mutually exclusive,
as parent verbal sideline behavior often re-
flected multiple goals simultaneously (Wilson,
2014).
Adopting a multiple goals perspective
(Caughlin, 2010;O’Keefe & Shepherd, 1987)
in the present study was particularly useful for
thinking about parents’ attempts to manage po-
tentially conflicting goals. Because identity and
relational considerations often shaped parents’
pursuit of instrumental outcomes, we inter-
preted parents as pursuing multiple goals that
were made relevant by the immediate youth
sport context (see Berger, 2005;Caughlin,
2010;Wilson, 2014). In the present study, par-
ents sought a wide range of instrumental out-
comes that impacted their verbal sideline be-
havior. Importantly, parents’ identity goals
seemed to temper these behaviors, leading par-
ents in most cases to communicate in ways that
created a desirable image of themselves and
their children (Dillard, 1990;Goldsmith et al.,
2006). For example, in many situations, parents
wanted to offer performance-contingent feed-
back (e.g., “you’re going the wrong direction!”)
and yet chose not to say it loud enough for their
children to hear. This finding aligns with
Hample and Dallinger (1987), who discussed
the use of “editing” to deal with goal conflict. In
the present study, it is plausible that parents
may have edited different amounts or for dif-
ferent reasons based on the goals they held for
their children’s sport participation. Finally, we
interpreted parents’ relational goals as leading
parents to communicate in ways that enhanced
feelings of closeness with their children and
significant others (e.g., coaches, peers) in the
organized youth sport context. Often this com-
munication came in the form of “temporal seg-
menting,” whereby parents would prioritize one
goal immediately (in public), and another, con-
flicting goal later (in private). Together, these
mechanisms afford a clearer understanding of
parents’ attempts to manage potentially con-
flicting goals in organized youth sport.
The sport motivation literature, particularly
that grounded in achievement goal perspectives,
also offers a framework for understanding our
findings. According to Nicholls (1984), individ-
uals differ in the criteria by which they define
success in achievement contexts. When an in-
dividual is task involved, the goal of action is to
develop mastery, improvement, or learning;
when an individual is ego involved, the goal is
to demonstrate ability relative to others (Rob-
erts, Treasure, & Conroy, 2012). In line with the
multiple goals perspective, this framework pos-
its that individuals may seek multiple achieve-
ment goals simultaneously in an effort to de-
velop and demonstrate competence (Roberts,
2012). Although achievement goal perspectives
have been widely used to study young athletes’
goal orientation and involvement (Roberts), as
well as coach-, parent-, and peer-created moti-
vational sport contexts (e.g., Keegan, Harwood,
Spray, & Lavallee, 2009), none have to our
knowledge been used to understand parent ver-
bal sideline behaviors. Such application of
achievement goal perspectives could be useful
31PARENT GOALS AND BEHAVIOR
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for researchers attempting to map parents’ goals
to their verbal sideline behavior.
In the present study, parent verbal sideline
behavior largely aligned with task goals for
their children’s participation (e.g., improve
technical skills, learn to work hard/commit/
finish). However, a number of episodes of ver-
bal sideline behavior also seemed closely linked
to parents’ ego goals (e.g., compare well to
other athletes, prepare to get a scholarship).
These behaviors were interpreted as direct man-
ifestations of parents’ latent desires for their
children’s participation in organized youth
sport. In some cases, parents expressed disap-
pointment or shame for holding such desires,
suggesting that tension may stem from the co-
existence of task and ego goals. It is also pos-
sible that parents interpreted dissonance be-
tween their children’s goals and the goals they
themselves held for their children (see Duda &
Hom, 1993). Another important consideration is
the social aspect of parents’ sport-related goals.
In the present study, parent verbal sideline be-
havior seemed to be impacted by parents’ social
ambitions for their children’s participation (e.g.,
meet other children/make new friends, become
part of the “in crowd”), aligning with sport
research on social goals (e.g., Allen, 2003;
Stuntz & Weiss, 2009). Given the potential
overlap of parents’ task, ego, and social goals,
future studies should explicitly address the goal
orientations sport parents maintain for their
children as well as the more specific goal in-
volvement patterns parents exhibit through their
verbal communications.
Findings from the present research suggest
that parents are attuned to their children in
youth sport, adjusting their goals based on the
early successes and failures of their children and
the overall tenor of the parent– child relation-
ship. For instance, after it became evident that
Leslie was not one of the better players on her
Season 5 soccer team, Trina’s focus shifted
from Leslie’s status as an athlete to her growth
as an individual through sport. Scott’s parenting
behaviors also appeared to be impacted by Kay-
lee’s sport experiences. For example, when
Kaylee decided not to run the 1600 m at a
Season 2 track meet, Scott remarked, “It’s only
four laps around.” It was clear Scott wanted
Kaylee to participate in the event and we inter-
preted his verbal sideline behavior as control-
ling. These two examples align with the
grounded theory produced by Holt and col-
leagues (2008), which highlighted the impact of
parent– child interactions and the achievement-
related performances of the child on parent in-
volvement behavior.
Parents also adjusted their verbal sideline be-
havior based on factors related to the organized
youth sport context (see Holt et al., 2008). This
was especially true for Craig, who described par-
ents as collectively shaping one another’s verbal
sideline behavior: “You’re part of a social group
and together you all have similar expectations, but
the group also keeps you in line—it places bound-
aries, I guess, on where you’re likely to go [ver-
bally].” Holly’s son, Scott’s daughter, and Craig’s
son sampled a range of sports over their initial 15
months of participation. This allowed exploration
of the potential impact of sport type and setting on
these parents’ goals and verbal sideline behavior.
Indeed, our inspection of their verbal sideline be-
havior across sport type and setting highlighted
the potential impact of context-related factors.
Most notably, it was evident that Holly and Craig
exhibited more verbal sideline behaviors in soccer
(an outdoor sport) than basketball (an indoor
sport), whereas Scott exhibited more verbal side-
line behaviors in track & field (an individual sport)
than soccer (a team sport). The impact of the sport
context is not surprising given the family level and
broader social transitions involved in becoming a
sport parent for the first time and then adapting to
new contexts. In an effort to better understand
parents’ verbal sideline behavior, researchers
should conduct theoretically informed longitudi-
nal research across other key transition points in a
child’s athletic career (e.g., recreational to travel to
elite, primary school to middle school to high
school).
The present work could be extended by attend-
ing to how parent goals translate into verbal side-
line behavior at different levels of sport. This
would extend past research on achievement goals
conducted with elite athletes and their parents
(Gershgoren, Tenenbaum, Gershgoren, & Eklund,
2011;Harwood & Swain, 1998) and would build
on parent verbal sideline behavior research (Holt
et al., 2008;Kidman et al., 1999). Holt and col-
leagues’ research can be used to guide such stud-
ies, having classified parents’ verbal sideline be-
havior on a continuum from controlling to
supportive. Developmentally, controlling and sup-
portive parenting styles/practices are salient to the
parent– child relationship (Darling & Steinberg,
32 DORSCH, SMITH, WILSON, AND MCDONOUGH
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1993;Grolnick et al., 1997) and may be impacted
by parents’ goals for their children in organized
youth sport. Examining parents’ goals along with
potential moderators of parent verbal sideline be-
havior (e.g., parent and child sex, child age, level
of sport participation) would be especially valu-
able, building upon extant work on parent and
child sex on parents’ goal beliefs and parenting
practices in youth sport (Fredricks & Eccles,
2005).
While the findings extend understanding of par-
enting in sport, this research area can be advanced
by addressing study limitations. For example, all
the parents were upper-middle class and married,
possessing the time and resources to support their
children’s participation. Because parent expecta-
tions can be influenced by factors such as educa-
tion, income, cultural expectations, and family
structure (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004), future work
should incorporate a range of parent and family
backgrounds. Moreover, future work could illumi-
nate a wider span of parent communication con-
texts (e.g., at home, in the car) and address some
of the nonverbal forms of parent behavior that
were observed in the present investigation. This
would extend the current findings, which were
delimited to parents’ verbal behavior during sport-
ing events, and draw attention to the ways parent
goals can shape both actions and words.
Another limitation pertains to parent reports of
their goals. First-time sport parents may share
goals they think are appropriate for athletes at the
initial stage of youth sport instead of goals they
actually hold. In the present study parents wanted
their children to achieve task-related, mastery out-
comes and wanted to project this as important.
They also wanted their children to be highly com-
petent so their children (and they as parents)
would compare well to others. Parents’ initial
goals were not based on experience as a sport
parent, and therefore may reflect personal achieve-
ment goal orientations. Subsequent seasonal
goals, however, may have been modified and/or
grounded in the organized youth sport climate.
Beyond this achievement goal theory interpreta-
tion, Wilson’s (2014) distinction of conventional
and personal goals suggests that parents may pos-
sess multiple, and often conflicting, subsets of
goals for their children’s youth sport participation.
In the present study, this created dilemmas for
some parents when the act of pursuing an instru-
mental outcome threatened their or their child’s
identity, or the parent– child relationship. Impor-
tantly, parents with different achievement orienta-
tions may respond to such dilemmas differently.
In some cases, opposing goals may lead parents to
prioritize one goal over others (e.g., limiting in-
struction or performance-contingent feedback be-
cause they prioritize the social aspects of sport, or
providing instruction or performance-contingent
feedback—sometimes negatively— because they
prioritize performance goals). Future work that
explores these psychological dilemmas may offer
valuable knowledge on sport parenting.
Although obtaining in situ data was considered
the best method for attaining an ecologically valid
depiction of parent verbal sideline behavior, par-
ents may have censored their verbalizations when
fitted with the recording device. Despite this lim-
itation, one advantage of collecting data in this
manner is that the recorders picked up not only
comments that were said loudly enough for the
athlete and/or other parents on the sideline to hear,
but also comments that were said softly to oneself.
This is important when considering the difference
between making a negative or derogatory remark
so that the child (or other parents) can hear it
versus making it softly such that others wouldn’t
hear it (i.e., “editing”). It is also worth acknowl-
edging the potential limitation of having only col-
lected in situ data from each parent on one occa-
sion per season. Future studies could assess parent
verbal sideline behavior both within and across
seasons, offering a more fine-grained understand-
ing of potential changes in parents’ verbal sideline
behavior.
A final limitation pertains to having to make
judgments about how to classify goals and how to
interpret potential links between goals and verbal
sideline behavior. These judgments were in-
formed by numerous interviews, parent journals,
and direct observations over 15 months, yet they
are subject to our predispositions and interpretive
lens. As a result, it is impossible to know for sure
what goals parents have in the moment. Indeed,
inferring goals from behaviors raises issues, be-
cause a given behavior can result from different
goals. Moreover, one goal or many goals can drive
a behavior. Our work suggests that multiple goals
will often impact verbal sideline behavior of new
sport parents and that further work corroborating
this interpretation is warranted. In pursuing this
work, it is vital to incorporate child perceptions of
the ways that parent goals may impact verbal
sideline behavior. Despite parent reports of over-
whelmingly supportive goals for their children,
33PARENT GOALS AND BEHAVIOR
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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
young athletes do not always perceive verbal com-
munication from their parents as supportive
(Stein, Raedeke, & Glenn, 1999). One explanation
for why parent verbal sideline behavior may be
perceived by athletes as nonsupportive has to do
with differing views on the goals underpinning
communications and a mismatching of parent and
athlete goals. With divergence in goals, verbal
sideline behavior can be perceived as controlling
and may threaten the child’s perceptions of auton-
omy and self-worth (Caughlin, 2010). This is im-
portant given the established association between
parent involvement in child activities and child
outcomes such as achievement and motivation
(Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling,
1992).
The present work answers calls for an intensi-
fied focus on parent involvement in youth sport
(Brustad, 1992;Fredricks & Eccles, 2004) and
meaningfully extends emerging youth sport par-
enting knowledge (Dorsch et al., 2009;Knight &
Holt, 2013). An important finding is that parents
largely wanted their children to learn about sport
and have fun, yet also adjusted their goals over
time based on their children’s experiences and
their evolving perceptions of the organized youth
sport context. Continued efforts to understand
youth sport parent goals and verbal sideline be-
haviors will enrich the respective sport psychol-
ogy and communication knowledge bases as well
as direct practitioners toward strategies for maxi-
mizing the positive developmental potential of
organized youth sport.
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Received October 9, 2013
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Accepted June 2, 2014 䡲
35PARENT GOALS AND BEHAVIOR
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