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Abuse of Women With Disabilities
Abstract
According to the National Study of Women With Physical Disabilities, the prevalence of abuse was not significantly different between women with and without disabilities. Women with physical disabilities, however, reported significantly longer durations of abuse. Unique vulnerabilities to abuse experienced by women with disabilities include social stereotypes of asexuality and passivity, lack of adaptive equipment, inaccessible home and community environments, increased exposure to medical and institutional settings, dependence on perpetrators for personal assistance, and lack of employment options. In order to enable the identification of women with disabilities who are in abusive situations and their referral to appropriate community services, policy changes are needed to increase training for all types of service providers in abuse interventions, to improve architectural and attitudinal accessibility of programs for battered women, to increase the responsiveness of adult protective services, to increase options for personal assistance, to expand the availability of affordable and accessible legal services, and to improve communication among community services.
... For many women, their disability is the key factor that renders them unable to perform certain predetermined and valued social roles -intimate partner, lover, mother and nurturer -thus imposing upon them an 'invisible social status.' The contradiction for women with disabilities then, is that despite being precluded from performing many traditional gendered roles as a result of society's perception that they are not full, capable and whole human and sexual beings, it is these very women that are at great risk of finding themselves victims of sexual violence (Iglesias et al, 1998;Nosek and Howland, 1998;and Traustadottir, 2002). ...
... Recent international studies have concluded that women with disabilities suffered an equal, or up to three times greater, risk of rape by a stranger or acquaintance, than their nondisabled peers (Groce, 1999;Saxton et al, 2001;and Groce, 2004). In a 1995 US survey of violence against women with and without disabilities, it was found that the incidence of abuse amongst both groups of women was similar, with 62% reporting some type of abuse in their lifetime (Nosek and Howland, 1998). Half of both groups had experienced physical or sexual abuse, with the most common perpetrators of physical or emotional abuse being husbands or live-in partners. ...
... Spouses and ex-spouses were most often cited as the perpetrators, followed by strangers, parents, service providers and dating partners. This study also revealed that less than half of these women reported the abuse because of their dependency on the abuser and/or their fear of recrimination (Riddington, 1989 in Nosek andHowland, 1998). The study found that the perpetrators of violence were usually people known to or close to the victim (ibid). ...
Research report written for the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, April 2005. Ereshnee Naidu is a Project Manager at the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. Sadiyya Haffejee is a former Researcher at the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. Lisa Vetten is the former Manager of the Gender Programme at the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. Samantha Hargreaves is a researcher specialising in land and development issues. Acknowledgements We thank the women who so courageously shared their experiences with us and in so doing enriched this study. Our thanks to all the organisations and police units who gave up their valuable time and agreed to be interviewed. Thanks also to Kailash Bhana and Collet Ngwane who conducted the training, and Peo Makoto and Busiswe Nkosi who assisted with the organisation of the workshops.
... Additionally, disabled women are found to experience abuse at a higher rate than nondisabled women (72) and also experience more severe consequences from the abuse (73) . Disability can create additional needs and complexities in a case (72) (74) that serve to heighten the vulnerability of victims; for example, this group of victims may encounter significant barriers to help seeking, including practical difficulty in contacting and accessing specialist services, reliance on a perpetrator for the provision of care, and fear of having to leave specially adapted accommodation (75) (73) (76) . ...
... Additionally, disabled women are found to experience abuse at a higher rate than nondisabled women (72) and also experience more severe consequences from the abuse (73) . Disability can create additional needs and complexities in a case (72) (74) that serve to heighten the vulnerability of victims; for example, this group of victims may encounter significant barriers to help seeking, including practical difficulty in contacting and accessing specialist services, reliance on a perpetrator for the provision of care, and fear of having to leave specially adapted accommodation (75) (73) (76) . Furthermore, when victims do attempt to access support, provision may be inadequate to meet their needs (77) (78) , making it more likely that they will return to an abusive partner. ...
... Physical limitations may hinder a survivor's ability to engage independently in help-seeking behaviors or even physically escape from her abuser. Depending upon the nature of their mental, hearing, or communication skills, some survivors with disabilities may not be able to easily convey their needs to others (Nosek & Howland, 1998). Despite these barriers, there is evidence to suggest that many mainstream shelter programs are able to accommodate clients of a variety of ages and with a variety of physical and mental abilities. ...
... Recommendations here include training legal service providers in working with women with disabilities, offering mobile services that may come to the women, ensuring that disability service providers have knowledge of the legal services available to women with disabilities, and providing women with disabilities with assistance in communicating with police and district attorney's offices. 178 Providing these service would ensure that women with disabilities have appropriate assistance in getting restraining orders, educating women with disabilities on how protective orders work, and training women how to respond to perpetrators who violate these orders. 179 v. ...
... 22 Likaså har per soner med olika former av kommu nikations svårigheter studerats, då detta kan medföra pro blem att påtala sin situation, söka hjälp, men också att lämna den utsatta situatio nen (RiversMo ore, 2000). En annan grupp är kvinnor med någon form av fysisk funktions ned sättning som utsatts för sexuella över grepp (Kennedy, 1996; Nosek och Howland, 1998). Oavsett fokus är ett utmärkande drag, i syn nerhet vid sexuella övergrepp men även vid andra former av brott och över grepp, att dessa inte förekommer som enstaka hän delser utan upp visar ett åter kom mande möns ter. ...
... Unfortunately the first issue that has to be addressed is the prevalence of physical and sexual abuse experienced by women with disabilities, as well as the different manifestations of abuse related to disability (e.g., removing a battery from a wheelchair to immobilize someone) and the relationship to the abuser (e.g., a caregiver or paid assistant on whom one might be physically dependent). Studies of abuse of girls and women with disabilities consistently show high rates, and further compounding this issue is that the abuse tends to last over a longer time period, may take different forms, and is often perpetrated by someone on whom the woman is physically or economically dependent (Nosek, 1995(Nosek, , 2001Nosek & Howland, 1997;Nosek, Hughes, Taylor, & Taylor, 2006). Additionally, there are significant physical and attitudinal barriers for women with varying disabilities to report abuse, to be believed, and to receive treatment (Nosek et al., 2006). ...
This article describes a semester-long course on women with disabilities. The overall sequence for the course, and the progression of concepts presented to students are outlined. The course is divided into eleven modules and I recommend a specific film and assignment for each module. A distributive justice lens permeates the course. The overarching goal is to increase competency in working with female clients with disabilities, including those who are women of color or diverse in sexuality.
... Early explanations drew primarily on the role of patriarchal power within intimate partner relations (Dobash and Dobash, 1979). As theories evolved, a number of authors argued that the domestic abuse could not just be viewed through a gendered lens, but rather ethnicity (Mama, 1989;Bograd, 1999), class (Bograd, 1999), age (Penhale, 2003) and physical impairment (Nosek et al, 1997) were all relevant factors to consider in understanding, not only the effects of domestic abuse, but also what service responses most benefited victims. Yet, within this ever growing body of literature, the needs of women with a learning disability who have experienced domestic abuse have largely been overlooked (Walter-Brice et al, 2012). ...
Women with a learning disability who experience domestic abuse receive intervention from both social services and the police.
Responses from these services have increasingly become focused on notions of risk. This article uses governmentality theory
to examine how risk is understood and managed by both services through a focus on policy and practice. The article examines
how policy directs social workers to promote positive risk taking whilst assessing and managing risk for those deemed vulnerable
or lacking mental capacity to self-protect. It is argued that, whilst social work decision making around risk has primarily
been based on the judgement of individual workers, the police have increasingly adopted assessments utilising calculative
measures. In addition, the article explores the extent to which these women are treated as autonomous agents responsible for
managing their own risk. It is argued that social workers and the police should adopt a common screening process to highlight
groups of women who may be at risk of abuse. In addition, social workers should draw on their interpersonal skills to enable
women with a learning disability to recognise and make informed choices about abuse.
... Other conditions known to predispose victims towards DV are alcoholism, depression, physical disability, past history of abusive relationships, rigid partner roles, childhood abuse of the perpetrator and external stressors like poverty and loss of work (Bland and Orn 1986;Coleman and Straus 1983;Nosek et al. 1997;Straus and Gelles 1986;Swan and Snow 2003). In male homosexual relationships a diagnosis of HIV can also be an extra stress (Relf 2001;Roberts et al. 1993). ...
Most studies regarding DV focused mainly on female victims. To gain more insight into the problems male victims encounter, this study investigated the characteristics of this group in the Netherlands. Adult male victims of DV filled out an online questionnaire regarding the characteristics of the abuse (N = 372). When men are victims of DV, they are physically as well as psychologically abused with the female (ex)-partners often being their perpetrator. The most important reason for men not to report the abuse is the belief the police would not take any action. Our findings suggest society should be aware that men are also victims of DV and feel the need to talk about it and desire support.
... In spite of limited research in the United Kingdom, international studies and practice responses provide important insights about disabled women and domestic violence on which researchers, activists and practitioners in the United Kingdom have drawn (Chenoweth 1997;Nosek and Howland. 1998;Dorian 2001;Nosek, Howland, and Hughes 2001;Nosek et al. 2007;Garland-Thompson 2005). Much of this research indicates that disabled women are just as, if not more, likely to experience abuse, which can take multiple forms and be experienced across a range of settings Mirrlees-Black 1999). For example, episodes and experiences of abuse ha ...
The links between disability and domestic violence have been under-examined to date, leading to the marginalisation of disabled women affected by domestic violence in theory, politics, and practice. This paper draws on the findings from the first national study in the United Kingdom of the needs of disabled women experiencing domestic violence and of the services available to meet these needs. Utilising the concept of intersectionality to locate abused disabled women along axes of oppression/domination, the paper highlights the complex nature of women’s abuse experiences as well as the inadequacy of professional responses which leave women without support and protection.
... Physical abuse was involved in the onset or worsening of a disability for 6% of respondents to our current survey (this question was not included in the earlier survey from Through the Looking Glass), and 5% were unsure if this was the case. Given the higher risk of abuse for children with disabilities (Kewman, Warschausky, Engel, & Warzak, 1997;Nosek, Howland, & Young, 1997;Sobsey & Doe, 1991;Sobsey, Wells, Lucardie, & Mansell, 1995) and similar findings on abuse as a possible cause of disability in two other studies (Cohen, 1998;Conley-Jung & Olkin, 2001), it is vital that data continue to be solicited on abuse as a cause or exacerbator of disability, so that efforts at prevention and early intervention can be undertaken. ...
Objectives: To contrast families headed by parents with disabilities raising children ages 11-17 years with families headed by parents without disabilities. Study Design: There were 3 sources of data: (a) the National Health Institute Survey (National Center for Health Statistics, 2000), (b) a previous national survey (L. T. T. Barker & V. Maralani, 1997), (c) a new national survey of parents with disabilities (n = 273) and their teens (ages 11-17 years; n = 246) and a control group of parents without disabilities (n = 48) and their teens (n = 37). Main Measure: Participants completed a survey designed for this study. Results: Parents with disabilities were generally quite similar to parents without disabilities, with some notable differences, particularly in employment and income. Deaf parents exhibited certain differences from parents with other disabilities. Conclusion: Survey responses provided a snapshot of parents with disabilities and their families from community samples, including aspects in which disabled and nondisabled participants were similar. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... First is the combined cultural devaluation of women and persons with disabilities (Belsky, 1980). Analysis of the policy implications of abuse of women with disabilities, Nosek, Howland, and Young (1997) has shown a stereotypic vulnerability factor that includes the belief that women with disabilities are asexual, passive, unaware, and therefore, easy prey. Many women who have been victims of abuse for most of their lives may accept it as normal behavior. ...
Research findings reveal that women with disabilities experience rates of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse that are comparable to, if not greater than, women without disabilities. Disability specialists propose that women with disabilities experience specific vulnerabilities to abuse. The question in the present study was, What types of abuse experienced by women with physical disabilities are directly related to their disability? Of the 504 women with disabilities who responded to a questionnaire assessing sexuality and relationships, 181 of the women completed open-ended questions about abuse. Using qualitative techniques, we analyzed their responses and identified disability-specific types of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse. Certain disability-related settings increased vulnerability for abuse. The need for personal assistance with daily living created additional vulnerability. We conclude that disability is not a protective factor against abuse; indeed, it often serves to reduce a woman's emotional and physical defenses. These findings indicate a need for the development of disability-sensitive abuse screening instruments, and development and testing of interventions to assist women with disabilities in recognizing abuse, protecting themselves in abusive situations, and removing themselves from potentially abusive relationships and situations.
Ο όρος ενδοοικογενειακή βία περιγράφει μια βίαιη συμπεριφορά που κυμαίνεται από λεκτική κατάχρηση, σωματική και σεξουαλική επίθεση, βιασμό μέχρι και ανθρωποκτονία. Η βία αυτή ασκείται, στην πλειοψηφία των περιστατικών, από τους άνδρες απέναντι στις γυναίκες που τις περισσότερες φορές κρατούν το «στόμα τους κλειστό» μη γνωρίζοντας από ποιον να ζητήσουν βοήθεια. Η ενδοοικογενειακή βία κατά των γυναικών έχει προσδιοριστεί ως σημαντικό πρόβλημα δημόσιας υγείας με σοβαρές συνέπειες για τις γυναίκες, προσβάλλοντας την φυσική και συναισθηματική τους ακεραιότητα τόσο βραχυπρόθεσμα όσο και μακροπρόθεσμα και με σημαντικό κοινωνικό αντίκτυπο. Έρευνες που έχουν πραγματοποιηθεί από μελετητές που προέρχονται από διαφορετικά συστήματα υγειονομικής περίθαλψης, έχουν αναπτύξει σημαντικά εργαλεία αξιολόγησης και αναγνώρισης της ενδοοικογενειακής βίας με σκοπό να υποστηρίξουν τις γυναίκες-θύματα. Η χρήση αυτών των εργαλείων από τους επαγγελματίες υγείας, θα μπορούσαν να βοηθήσουν στην αποτελεσματική αντιμετώπιση τέτοιων περιστατικών βίας. Η αποτυχία των επαγγελματιών υγείας να αναγνωρίσουν την ενδοοικογενειακή βία και να προσφέρουν υποστήριξη στα θύματα, αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό πρόβλημα και ενοχοποιούνται διάφοροι παράγοντες όπως: η έλλειψη ειδικής εκπαίδευσης, η αρνητική στάση απέναντι στα θύματα, η δυσκολία κατανόησης της παραμονής των θυμάτων σε μια βίαιη σχέση. Η βοήθεια και η υποστήριξη των θυμάτων ενδοοικογενειακής βίας αποτελεί ηθική υποχρέωση των επαγγελματιών υγείας.
The article explores the potential “healing” role performance art can have when representing disabling trauma, and engaging, as part of the creative process, participants who have experienced in their lives significant trauma and physical, as well as mental health concerns arising from gender violence. It focuses on the show cicatrix macula , performed during the exhibition Speaking Out: Women Healing from the Trauma of Violence (Leicester, 2014). The exhibition involved disabled visual and creative artists, and engaged participants in the process of performance making. It was held at the Attenborough Arts Centre in Leicester (UK), a pioneering arts centre designed to be inclusive and accessible. The show cicatrix macula focused on social, cultural, mental, and physical representations of trauma and disability, using three lacerated life-size puppets to illustrate these depictions. Working under the direction of the audience, two artists attempted to “repair” the bodies. The creative process was a collaborative endeavour: the decision-making process rested with the audience, whose privileged positions of witness and meaning-maker were underscored. Fayard demonstrates the significance of cicatrix macula in debunking ablist gender norms, as well as in highlighting the role played by social and cultural enablers. She calls attention to its potential for mobilizing positive identity politics, including for viewers who had experienced trauma. For example, the environment of the participatory performance space offered some opportunities for the survivor to become the author or arbiter of her own recovery. In addition, the constant physical exchange of bodies within this space of debate was well-suited to the (re)connection with the self and with others.
Although women with disabilities are at increased risk for intimate partner violence (IPV), little is known about how this phenomenon impacts transitional-aged young women with disabilities who are still trying to master the developmental challenges of adolescence. This study explores risk factors for and prevalence of IPV by drawing on a population-based sample of women ages 18–21 with (N = 1,616,207) and without (N = 7,554,064) self-reported disabilities. Findings suggest that risk factors for IPV were more prevalent among sample members, as was past year experience of IPV. This study has implications for school social workers and disability service providers who interact with this population.
It has been suggested that individuals with intellectual disabilities (IDs) are at increased risk of violence perpetration and victimization. A systematic review was undertaken to identify and critically evaluate the existing empirical research concerning the use and experience of partner violence by adults with IDs. In total, six poor-quality articles were identified: five of which adopted qualitative methods and one of which adopted a mixed-methods approach, comprising a total of 93 participants (48 women, 45 men: 1 perpetrator, 92 victims). The qualitative data were extracted from the studies and synthesized. A partner violence victimization rate of 60% was identified in one nonrepresentative sample. Two superordinate themes emerged from the qualitative data: nature of partner violence experience and help seeking. Children were the cross-cutting theme within the two superordinate themes. Participants reported experiencing a range of physical, emotional, and sexual violence leading to serious injury and psychological consequences. Participants reported experiences of positive and negative help-seeking reactions from professionals and specific requirements of services for victims with IDs. Children were identified as involved in the experience of abuse, the impact of abuse, and decisions to seek help. The findings indicate that training of clinical staff to detect partner violence is needed. In addition, adults with IDs need education concerning healthy relationships. Research is needed to better understand the difference between “challenging behavior” that is behavior displayed by an individual which challenges services, family members, and carers. Such behavior is more common in individuals with a severe ID for whom it would not be appropriate to be dealt with through the criminal justice system, and partner violence, in order to develop appropriate interventions for victims and perpetrators with ID.
To live a life free from abuse and violence is a fundamental human right. Yet for many girls and women with disabilities, this remains a difficult goal to achieve. This paper examines the issue of violence against girls and women with disabilities in Portugal, by addressing three key questions: what forms of violence against girls and women with disabilities are more prevalent? How significant is the issue in Portugal? How to ensure the right of girls and women with disabilities to protection against violence? Drawing from 60 semi-structured interviews with women and men with various types of disabilities, the study reveals a high prevalence of situations of abuse among girls and women with disabilities including psychological, physical, sexual, financial and social violence. Results are discussed in light of human rights principles and suggestions are made to develop a research agenda and continue exploring the topic in the near future.
Women who have disabilities represent a very broad spectrum in terms of ability to manage their personal and social affairs. This collection reflects many of the issues faced by Women with Disabilities, the social construction of disability, and suggests development and modifications Of culturally-relevant therapy to meet the needs of those women. Many of the selections address the concerns of age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, size, relationships, and other social situations that complicate the lives of Women with Disabilities. Several authors address safety concerns and the vulnerability of Women with Disabilities, while others focus on successful coping strategies. Many include the voices of Women with Disabilities. Those voices reveal to therapists the need to increase sensitivity and conduct the research that provides the foundation for developing appropriate therapies. Feminist therapists describe the extensions they have made to traditional psychotherapy in order to directly address a wide range of issues faced by Women with Disabilities.
A national survey of directors of the Business Enterprise Program Vending Facility Program indicated that women who are legally blind are significantly under-represented, making up about 24% of the licensed facility managers. This article reports on the survey and suggests way to eliminate barriers to the recruitment of women into the program.
Rehabilitation counselors need to be aware that children who have disabilities are at higher risk for sexual abuse than children without disabilities. Definitions of sexual abuse are provided as is a discussion of the scope of the problem. The relevance of childhood sexual abuse to rehabilitation counselors is described and an explanation provided as to why children with disabilities are at greater risk. Sexual abuse as a child can lead to unresolved issues in adult life. Lastly, this article offers recommendations for rehabilitation counselors when working with clients who had been sexually abused as children.
PurposeThe purpose of this chapter is to discuss disability hate crimes in the context of feminist theories of intersectionality.
Design/methodology/approachA mixed-method approach is adopted, combing feminist auto-ethnography with case reviews of a number of disability hate crimes.
FindingsDisability hate crimes must be understood in the wider context of social inequality and the intersection of identities which make some people more vulnerable to criminal victimization than others.
Social implicationsFeminists can apply many of the lessons from third wave feminist debates about intersectionality to the topic of disability hate crimes, so that the multiplicity of inequalities which influence victimization are appropriately recognized. Policy changes are necessary to respond more appropriately to the intersectional forms of power underlying disability hate crimes.
Originality/valueThere has not been a feminist exploration of disability hate crimes ever written before, so the chapter breaks new ground in exploring these issues.
Domestic violence, childhood sexual abuse, rape and sexual assault, and sexual exploitation through prostitution, pornography and trafficking can have many significant adverse impacts on a survivor's health and wellbeing, in the short, medium and long-term. Taking a life-course approach, the book explores what is known about appropriate treatment responses to those who have experienced, and those who perpetrate, domestic and sexual violence and abuse. The book also examines key factors that are important in understanding how and why different groups experience heightened risks of domestic and sexual violence and abuse, namely: gender and sexuality; race and culture; disability; and abuse by professionals. Drawing together results from specially commissioned research, the views of experts by experience, experts by profession and the published research literature, the book argues that sufficient is already known to delineate an appropriate public health framework, encompassing primary, secondary and tertiary prevention, to successfully tackle the important public health issue represented by domestic and sexual violence and abuse. Domestic and Sexual Violence and Abuse equips health and social care professionals and services to identify and respond to the needs of affected individuals with a view to the prevention and early intervention. © 2010 Catherine Itzin, Ann Taket and Sarah Barter-Godfrey for Parts 1, 2 and 4; Part 3. All rights reserved.
This comprehensive overview of research and clinical practice in PTSD includes new insights into assessment with regard to DSM-5 and ICD-11, discussion of ongoing controversies in the field as to what constitutes safe and effective care, and new research as to assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of PTSD. The second edition includes new coverage of the neurobiology of PTSD, PTSD in special populations, and forensic issues relating to PTSD. Synthesizes research and clinical developments on PTSD. Highlights key controversies, issues, and developments in the field. Provides case studies for better understanding of clinical care. Encompasses DSM-5 and ICD-11 major revisions to PTSD symptoms. Includes new coverage of neurobiology and genetics of PTSD. Includes advances in prevention and treatment of PTSD. Includes new coverage of forensic issues related to PTSD. All rights reserved.
This study examined sociocultural factors associated with abuse of mentally impaired persons (MIP) in Imo state, Nigeria. A cross-sectional survey of 1,147 persons aged 10 years and above who had at least one MIP in their household was conducted. Six in-depth interviews and 21 focus group discussion (FGD) sessions with 160 study participants comprising adult male and female members of the communities, respectively, were conducted. The study established that a multitude of cultural and social factors shape the attitude of individuals toward mental impairment and MIPs. It was found that cultural perceptions of the cause of mental impairment as supernatural and evil forces were widespread within the study communities. Among those surveyed, 74.6% were aware that MIPs are victims of abuse. Perpetrators identified were mostly relatives and persons close to MIPs. The findings provide useful insights into gaps in conventional understanding of mental impairment and abuse of MIPs in Imo State.
Women represent an underreported segment of the spinal cord injury (SCI) community: A majority of the literature written on SCI deals with its impact from the male point of view. Very few articles acknowledge or address the social problems that women with SCI encounter. This article will address the specific social issue of domestic violence and will offer a number of recommendations for the rehabilitation community.
Diagnosis and good practices on the inclusion of women and girls with disabilities into mainstream social policies. International experiences.
Raport cząstkowy dla projektu "Od kompleksowej diagnozy sytuacji osób niepełnosprawnych do nowego modelu polityki społecznej wobec niepełnosprawności"
Στα πλαίσια της παρούσας ανασκόπησης επιχειρείται να δοθεί μια συνοπτική εικόνα του φαινομένου της βίας στους χώρους παροχής υπηρεσιών σε παιδιά με αναπηρία. Τα υπάρχοντα εμπειρικά δεδομένα αναφορικά με την επίπτωση και τον επιπολασμό της κακοποίησης-παραμέλησης σε παιδιά με αναπηρία εμπίπτουν σε περιορισμούς που έχουν να κάνουν με ζητήματα έλλειψης ευρέως αποδεκτών τόσο εννοιολογικών όσο και λειτουργικών ορισμών για την κακοποίηση - παραμέληση παιδιών, και με σημαντικά προβλήματα στο μεθοδολογικό σχεδιασμό των διαθέσιμων μελετών. Γίνεται ειδική ευσύνοπτη μνεία σε κρίσιμα ζητήματα όπως η πολυ-θυματοποίηση, η υπο-αναφορά των περιστατικών, το προφίλ των δραστών και η συστημική ανακύκλωση βίας, απόρροια αλληλεπιδρόντων παραγόντων. Τέλος, παρατίθενται συμπεράσματα και προτάσεις πολιτικών υγείας μέσα από τη σκοπιά της προστασίας παιδιών με αναπηρία από κάθε μορφή κακοποίησης.
Λέξεις κλειδιά:
Βία, παιδιά με αναπηρία, παιδική προστασία
Although the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was instrumental in raising societal conscious awareness of the issues and discriminatory practices towards people with disabilities, the evidence points to a lack of full inclusion in the mainstream of American society. Due to the double discrimination of gender and disability status, women with disabilities confront major obstacles even more boldly to achieve equality and full participation in society. This article examines some of the current meanings of disability, vital statistics, and current discriminatory practices in specific areas for women with disabilities such as, human rights and abuse, relationships and sexual functioning, health maintenance issues, employment, and environmental barriers. Positive strategies for social workers to become involved at both the macro and micro levels of practice as well as social policy level are identified.
The purpose of this investigation was to explore the ways that women with severe work disabilities (SWDs) attributed meaning to their lives, experiences, and decisions. The author used qualitative research methodology and grounded theory procedures to analyze data obtained from videotaped interviews, discussion of videotaped interviews, and prolonged and persistent participant observations to shed light on the lives and experiences of women with SWDs, a previously understudied group. Implications for counseling are discussed.
• Summary: This article explores a relatively uncharted research area. The focus of the analysis is on how professionals working in care provision units, specialized prostitution units, the police, social services and special schools detect and deal with prostitution among people with intellectual disabilities. The data were obtained primarily through focus group interviews. The study shows that organizational specialization in different authorities and services makes it difficult to identify and work with this group. Clients with complex problems tend to find themselves in between the jurisdictional fields of different authorities, meaning that many do not receive the support that they need.
• Findings: In recent decades social work has undergone increasing balkanization and specialization. Each particular organization is regulated by specific legislation, regulations, forms of knowledge and normative assumptions. Professionals working with people with intellectual disabilities have difficulties in detecting prostitution among their clients, whilst those who work with prostitution lack the knowledge and methods to work with intellectual disabilities. At the same time, social work with these individuals is conducted within a field of tension between the client′s right of self-determination and professionals’ responsibilities for their well-being.
• Applications: The study demonstrates that, with this type of complex problem, it is important to establish different types of collaboration between different organizations. However, due to the risk of increased control being detrimental to clients, collaboration needs to be founded on the client’s needs and right to self-determination.
A possible interaction among the characteristics of disability, race, gender, and age was examined with respect to formal allegations of disability harassment. Using data from the National Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) Research Project, the authors examined whether there was an interaction among disability, gender, age, race, and employer characteristics when considering the proportion of harassment versus other forms of discrimination allegations. Using Exhaustive Chi-Squared Automatic Interaction Detector (Exhaustive CHAID) analysis, the authors detected several interaction effects. They discovered unique clusters of characteristics that place certain groups at a very high and very low risk for experiencing disability harassment. The findings are discussed in the context of past and future research on intersectionality and workplace implications.
Four domains of barriers for women with physical disabilities who are considering leaving a partner are outlined. These obstacles include (a) physical needs; (b) financial needs; (c) custody concerns; and (d) relationship issues. Disability policies can have direct bearing on the lives of women with disabilities, and hence on their freedom to choose to remain with or to leave a partner.
The prevalence of sexual abuse and domestic violence among women with disabilities is at least as high as the rates experienced by women without disabilities. However, according to anecdotal accounts and preliminary research, many victim service agencies are inaccessible and do not provide appropriate support and services for people with disabilities. This study examined the physical and programmatic accessibility of 55 rape crisis, sexual assault, and domestic violence agencies throughout Pennsylvania. Findings suggest that most programs had several accessibility structures in place, such as ramps and accessible restrooms. However, fewer programs had less well-known physical and programmatic accessibility features in place to ensure equal access to services. Recommendations focus on cross-system collaboration to provide access to victim services by all victims, including those with disabilities.
This article delineates issues that should be considered by investigators endeavoring to conduct empirically sound research on abuse and women with disabilities. These issues include (a) incorporating in the research design variables that assess increased vulnerability; (b) using literature-based definitions that distinguish emotional, physical, sexual, and disability-related abuse; (c) using population-based sampling methodologies; (d) securing informed consent; (e) maintaining confidentiality; (f) installing safety measures to protect study participants and project staff from retaliation; (g) making special efforts to include women with disabilities from minority backgrounds; (h) using appropriate, validated, disability-sensitive screening instruments; (i) understanding the legal requirements for reporting abusive incidents; (j) implementing abuse studies in clinical settings; and (k) including formative and summative evaluations in outcome studies of abuse interventions. To increase the capacity of battered women's programs to serve women with disabilities, considerably more needs to be known about interventions that are most effective for this population.
This article focuses on the challenges and effects of adhering to community participation as a principle of community development and the related issue of reflecting diverse representation in prevention and health promotion planning. As a requirement of funding agencies, the consequences of upholding these principles in light of the resources made available are explored. Information is drawn from a case study of an advisory committee with diverse membership. A participatory evaluation of this committee illustrates the difficulties encountered when a community agency initiated a health promotion project to address the needs of women who are non-verbal and at risk of sexual assault. Suggestions are made as to how these difficulties may be overcome. The advisory committee is a common means for community development but also has the potential to be a model for increased communication and understanding.
The authors use the conceptual framework of intersectionality to deconstruct the help-seeking and help-receiving behaviors of abused persons of color with disabilities. Two case examples illuminate the complex interplay of race, gender, accent, immigration status, sexual orientation, disability, and socioeconomic status in women's help-seeking decisions. The case examples highlight the women's perceived experiences based on their decisions to seek assistance from formal helping systems. The authors note limitations in some existing models of system response to persons of color with disabilities, as well as describe programs that are more attentive to intersectionality. The article concludes with implications for various stakeholders.
Women with disabilities experience abuse at similar or higher rates than women in the general population. In addition to experiencing emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, women with disabilities may also experience disability-specific forms of abuse for prolonged periods of time and from multiple perpetrators. To promote awareness of this serious problem, this article offers a brief overview of the general domestic violence literature and a critical review of existing research regarding the abuse of women with disabilities. Following these reviews, we offer an overview of practical implications and existing resources in this important area.
To compare immigrant and Canadian-born women on the physical and psychological consequences of intimate partner violence (IPV), as well as examine important sociodemographic, health and social support and network factors that may shape their experiences of abuse.
National, population-based, cross-sectional survey conducted in 2009.
6859 women reported contact with a current or former partner in the previous 5 years, of whom 1480 reported having experienced emotional, financial, physical and/or sexual IPV. Of these women, 218 (15%) were immigrants and 1262 (85%) were Canadian-born.
Immigrant women were less likely than Canadian-born women to report having experienced emotional abuse (15.3% vs 18.2%, p=0.04) and physical and/or sexual violence (5.1% vs 6.9%, p=0.04) from a current or former partner. There were no differences between immigrant and Canadian-born women in the physical and psychological consequences of physical and/or sexual IPV. However, compared with Canadian-born women, immigrant women reported lower levels of trust towards their neighbours (50.7% vs 41.5%, p=0.04) and people they work or go to school with (38.6% vs 27.5%, p=0.02), and were more likely to report having experienced discrimination based on ethnicity or culture (18.8% vs 6.8%, p<0.0001), race or skin colour (p=0.003) and language (10.1% vs 3.2%, p<0.0001). Immigrant women were less likely than Canadian-born women to report activity limitations (p=0.01) and medication use for sleep problems (14.1% vs 20.6%, p=0.05) and depression (11.5% vs 17.6%, p=0.05).
Our exploratory study revealed no differences between immigrant and Canadian-born women in the physical and psychological consequences of IPV. Abused immigrant women's lower levels of trust for certain individuals and experiences of discrimination may have important implications for seeking help for IPV and underscores the need for IPV-related intervention and prevention services that are culturally sensitive and appropriate.
Lesbians with disabilities have atypical life experiences- they are virtually invisible within the mainstream culture. Both women with disabilities and lesbians experience societal, familial and economic pressures that directly impact their lives and the range of options available to them. When a lesbian is also a woman with a disability, the combination of these pressures has important mental health implications. This article explores the issues and barriers related to disabled lesbians accessing mental health services. Because no systematic research on the mental health needs and experiences of lesbians with disabilities exists, it is unknown how many of them are in need of, access, or are denied appropriate mental health services. The little research that exists on the mental health needs of women with disabilities has either excluded or ignored the particular experiences associated with lesbian identity. Like wise, lesbian mental health research has historically overlooked disabled women's identity and experiences. Shared experiences and other similarities, such as discriminatory attitudes in the health service system, social stigma, and self-devaluation, are discussed within the context of disabled lesbians' compounded risk for mental health problems. Service access and barriers, key therapeutic issues, and cultural competency are discussed as additional issues that emerge when addressing mental health services. We also examine how lesbians with disabilities have proactively networked, caring for each other through informal supports within their communities, and have creatively developed their own strategies and resources. The paper concludes with a discussion of new efforts toward gaining visibility, successful strategies for mental health practitioners in addressing issues and challenges associated with providing care to lesbians with disabilities, and recommendations for further research.
Violence against women is a top human rights issue for women with disabilities, a population that is more at risk for intimate partner violence (IPV). Existing research on violence against women with disabilities has pointed to the need for population-based sampling, the inclusion of women of non-White descent, and the use of literature-based definitions of IPV, conditions all met by this study. Women with disabilities were less likely to report past-year IPV in the form of verbal abuse, but more likely to report threats and physical violence. Case management implications relate to the need for disability-sensitive IPV assessment training at all state disability offices and the need to facilitate the accessibility of traditional IPV systems.
This article reports on the first-ever national study of domestic violence and disability in the United Kingdom. The multi-method study used the social model of disability and was mainly qualitative in design. It reports distressing findings of the abuse which disabled women may experience, confirming similar findings in Australia and other countries. Less provision than that available proportionally to non-disabled women is accompanied by a greater need for such focussed and specialist services. Disabled women in the United Kingdom therefore lose out on both counts. The paper concludes that a cultural shift or sea-change is required in relevant service provision at both management and operational levels, informed by disabled women themselves wherever possible. The study made wide-ranging recommendations at both the strategic level across localities and for relevant agencies in the United Kingdom. These recommendations have wide relevance in other countries.
This paper presents information on the incidence and causes of substance abuse and disabilities in Black women, identifying common problems and risks. Drug abuse is technically a disability; however, there is little in the literature that jointly addresses issues of drug addiction and disability. Black women are the second largest group of women with disabilities and one of the largest groups to suffer the consequences of drug use such as HIV/AIDS, arising source of disability highly correlated with drug abuse. Psychiatric co-morbidities related to disabilities and drug abuse are identified. Implications for research and treatment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article is Part 2 of a review of factors hindering battered women's chances of leaving violent relationships. Part 1 covered major external inhibiting factors (e.g., women's economic dependency and the shortcomings of the criminal justice system). Part 2 centers on additional external inhibiting factors, such as inadequate social support from workplaces and community agencies, and addresses internal inhibiting factors, including the processes and effects of socialization, psychological and victimization events, and victim traits. Evidence suggests that workplaces, health care practitioners, clergy, and social service agencies fail to provide the level of social support needed by battered women to leave. This article also documents a number of internalized socialization beliefs (e.g., acceptance of partner abuse) that affect battered women's decisions not to leave. Finally, several psychological processes (e.g., fear) and traits of victims (e.g., depression) complicate battered women's efforts to leave. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research on women with disabilities has found that the most common perpetrators of violence were current or former intimate
partners (Young etal. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 78, S34–S38, 1997; Riddington, Beating the “odds”: Violence and Women with
Disabilities (Position Paper 2). 1989). This article examines intimate partner sexual and physical abuse experienced by women
with disabilities compared to women without disabilities and men with and without disabilities through chi square analysis
and regression analysis using data from the 2005 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). Results show that women
with disabilities experienced almost twice the rate of all forms of abuse compared to the other populations. Variables increasing
the likelihood of abuse include being female, disabled, not employed, uncoupled and younger age. Implications for future research,
screening and intervention for rehabilitation professionals are discussed.
According to societal stereotypes, women with physical disabilities are asexual and therefore do not date. Another stereotype, and a fear of many women with disabilities, is that no one will want to date them because they have a disability. Consequently, little is known about their dating behaviors. Qualitative research methods were used to code and analyze 31 in-depth interviews of women with a variety of disabling conditions. Themes emerging from their stories indicated that the timing of onset of disability, and the response to disability of family, friends, and society in general, were critical in establishing patterns of dating behavior for women with physical disabilities.
Culture and economic development influence how disability is perceived, distributed, and responded to. Physical disability
resulting from disease, malnutrition, and accidents is more common in developing nations than in more developed nations (United
Nations General Assembly, Resolution 37/53, Dec. 3, 1982). Poor prenatal nutrition, obstetric skills, and perinatal care are
other sources of disability. Once a disability occurs, the affected child has considerably less chance of surviving due to
impoverished living conditions (De Jong, 1987). Poverty and harsh living conditions may result in extreme solutions, including
abandonment (Carreire, 1971;Lévy-Bruhl, 1921). This higher prevalence of disabilities in developing nations has negative and,
surprisingly, also positive consequences for those who have physical or mental disabilities. On the one hand, because of poverty
and lack of health services, persons with physical disabilities in developing nations are less likely than those in more developed
nations to have technical aids and accommodations that facilitate their interactions and functioning. On the other hand, perhaps
because disabilities are more common in developing countries, and also because in these countries individuals are more integrated
into family and mainstream society, persons with both physical and mental disabilities appear to be better accepted in developing
nations.
A 36-item short-form (SF-36) was constructed to survey health status in the Medical Outcomes Study. The SF-36 was designed for use in clinical practice and research, health policy evaluations, and general population surveys. The SF-36 includes one multi-item scale that assesses eight health concepts: 1) limitations in physical activities because of health problems; 2) limitations in social activities because of physical or emotional problems; 3) limitations in usual role activities because of physical health problems; 4) bodily pain; 5) general mental health (psychological distress and well-being); 6) limitations in usual role activities because of emotional problems; 7) vitality (energy and fatigue); and 8) general health perceptions. The survey was constructed for self-administration by persons 14 years of age and older, and for administration by a trained interviewer in person or by telephone. The history of the development of the SF-36, the origin of specific items, and the logic underlying their selection are summarized. The content and features of the SF-36 are compared with the 20-item Medical Outcomes Study short-form.
Maltreatment has serious consequences for the development of children. The reason for the negative outcomes is not, however, fully understood. This study investigated the hypotheses that psychological maltreatment would be present in almost all cases of physical maltreatment and that it would be more related to detrimental outcomes for children than would severity of injury. A sample of 175 maltreated children, 39 children in mental health treatment, and 176 normative children was assessed for type and severity of maltreatment. Both hypotheses were supported. In addition, evidence is provided that psychological maltreatment can occur alone, that assessments of parental psychologically maltreating behavior and negative child outcomes are highly correlated, and that child age and gender are unrelated to psychological maltreatment in young children whereas family income is related. Implications for investigation and treatment are considered.
Divergent etiological viewpoints of child abuse stress psychological disturbance in parents, abuse-eliciting characteristics of children, dysfunctional patterns of family interaction, stress-inducing social forces, and abuse-promoting cultural values. A conceptual framework that integrates these viewpoints is proposed to show that much of the theoretical conflict that has characterized the study of child maltreatment is more apparent than real. The framework conceptualizes child maltreatment as a social-psychological phenomenon that is multiply determined by forces at work in the individual (ontogenic development), the family (the microsystem), the community (the exosystem), and the culture (the macrosystem) in which the individual and the family are embedded. Although the proposed framework cannot yet identify the necessary and sufficient conditions for child maltreatment to take place, it can be used to guide future empirical inquiry and to direct efforts aimed at reducing the incidence of child abuse and neglect. (3 p ref)
This study examined barriers to reproductive health maintenance among women with physical disabilities. A qualitative interview methodology was used. All interviews were recorded on audio cassette, transcribed, and analyzed using constant comparison and analytic induction. Thirty-one women with disabilities that resulted in functional impairments were interviewed. Theoretical sampling was used to assure that the individuals selected represented key variables thought to affect sexuality, such as type of disability, age at onset of disability, ethnicity, and marital status. Identified themes coalesced into two major domains: participants' experiences, including childhood interactions with medical settings, opportunities to learn about reproductive health, abuse experienced in medical settings, and disability as a risk factor for reproductive health problems; and characteristics of medical systems and practitioners, including problems with health insurance, medical systems' policies, attitudes of practitioners, architectural barriers in medical facilities, the need for direct communication, and contradictory information about contraception. Results of this study indicate a strong influence of characteristics of medical systems and practitioners on the knowledge, beliefs, and experiences of women with physical disabilities as they strive to maintain their reproductive health. An analytic model is proposed that presents disability status as having a strong influence on the internal factors that lead to reproductive health maintenance behaviors, such as knowledge, beliefs, psychological factors, and medical experiences. While disability itself does not have a direct effect on environmental factors, such as medical systems and professionals, it conditions the way in which medical systems and professional respond to women. Environmental factors influence internal factors. Both, in turn, affect reproductive health maintenance.
Supports C. Marshall's (1992) contention that gender-based analyses can provide a more thorough understanding of rehabilitation issues. The author argues that gender differences are sufficiently distinct and important to warrant a renewed focus on specific issues in the lives of women with disabilities (WDs). She traces changes in society as a whole, notes how these changes have impacted WDs differentially, and revisits "what next" concerning the status of WDs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article examines the dynamic relationship between gender and ethnicity. The socialization effects of ethnic culture are considered in conjunction with the “self‐in‐relation” theory of gender development and the implications of status to gender. Specific focus is given to the influence of these three factors on Mexican American and African American women and men.
Este artículo examina la relación dinámica entre género y etnicidad. Se consideran los efectos de la socialización de la cultura étnica junto con la teroría “self‐in‐relation” del desarrollo del género y las implicaciones del estatus con el género. En este artículo se pone énfasis en la influencia de estos tres factores en mujeres y hombres mejicano‐americanos y africano‐americanos.
Notes that being female and physically disabled is a double handicap and that the situation of disabled women requires special skills on the part of rehabilitation practitioners. Past inequities in training, education, and service provision have resulted in physically disabled women being underemployed, unemployed, or in low-status positions. Professionals must understand issues of being female and disabled and increase their awareness of individual attitudinal biases. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent research of the Sexual Abuse and Disability Project at the University of Alberta included a survey of 208 sexual abuse and sexual assault victims with disabilities from Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. The reported patterns of sexual abuse and sexual assault were analyzed. Results from these three countries indicate that sexual abuse and assault are frequently repeated and chronic and often result in significant harm to the victim. In addition, incidences of abuse are rarely reported to child welfare or law enforcement authorities; consequently, charges and convictions are rare. Many offenses are committed by paid service providers and occur in disability service settings, although other offenses occur in the same situations as sexual abuse and assault of victims without disabilities. Victims with disabilities often experience difficulty in obtaining accessible and appropriate treatment services. The implications for sexual abuse prevention and treatment are discussed.
Patterns of sexual abuse and sexual assault are analyzed from 162 reports involving victims with disabilities. Results suggest that abuse and assault are frequently repeated and chronic, often result in significant harm to the victim, and are rarely reported to child welfare or law enforcement authorities. Many offenses are committed by paid service providers and occur in disability service settings, but other offenses occur in the same situations as sexual abuse and assault of victims without disabilities. Victims are predominantly female and offenders are predominantly male. Charges and convictions are rare. Victims with disabilities often experience difficulty obtaining treatment services that are accessible and appropriate to their needs. Discussion considers a multifactorial, ecological model of abuse and recommends some possible prevention strategies.
This article is an overview of the issues and problems facing women with disabilities who have been battered and abused. It is written by two women who have experienced abuse and have been involved with the Finex House in Jamaica Plains, Massachusetts. The article discusses specific problem areas facing women with disabilities such as accessibility, self-protection and shelters available. It also examines the unique psychological and socialization problems that women with disabilities must deal with throughout the developmental process. Finally, the article addresses prevention issues and how to protect one's self from an abuser.
Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/45562/1/11195_2005_Article_BF01102612.pdf
This paper provides a background and suggests a strategy for an international approach to policy development concerning child abuse. First, child abuse is defined in a way that makes it applicable across cultures and national boundaries as that portion of harm to children that results from human action that is proscribed, proximate and preventable. A number of other dimensions, such as the degree of social sanction or social censure, are outlined that also affect the likelihood that given harm will be regarded as child abuse. Cross-cultural research also reveals that certain categories of children--such as those in poor health, females, unwanted children and those born under difficult circumstances or with disvalued traits or under conditions of rapid socioeconomic change--are more vulnerable to maltreatment in many countries. The paper argues for a two-pronged international strategy that first urges individual countries to make a priority of the particular types of abuse that are in most urgent need of attention in their society as well as participating at the same time in a concerted international focus on three widely occurring forms of child abuse: parental child battering, selective neglect, and sexual abuse.
Three a priori hypotheses were tested: (1) There are significant differences in sociosexual behaviors of women with physical disabilities compared with women without disabilities; (2) the sexual functioning of women with disabilities is significantly related to age at onset of disability; (3) psychological factors explain more of the variance in the sexual functioning of women with physical disabilities than do disability, social and environmental factors.
Case-comparison study using written survey.
General community.
The questionnaire was mailed to 1,150 women with physical disabilities who were recruited as volunteers or through independent living centers. Each woman gave a second copy of the questionnaire to an able-bodied female friend, which comprised the comparison group. The response rate was 45%, with 475 cases and 425 comparisons eligible to participate. The most common disability type was spinal cord injury (24%), followed by polio (18%), muscular dystrophy (11%), cerebral palsy (11%), multiple sclerosis (10%), joint disorders (7%), and skeletal abnormalities (5%).
None.
Sexual-functioning, consisting of four factors: (1) sexual desire, (2) sexual activity, (3) sexual response, (4) sexual satisfaction.
Highly significant differences were found in level of sexual activity (p = .000001), response (p = .000009), and satisfaction (p=.000001) between women with and without disabilities. No significant differences were found between groups on sexual desire. Severity of disability was not significantly related to level of sexual activity.
Psychological and social factors exert a strong impact on the sexual functioning of women with physical disabilities. Further investigations is needed of the effect of social environment on development of self-esteem and sexual self-image, and how these influences affect levels of sexual functioning in women with physical disabilities.
Emotional, physical, and sexual abuse of women with physical disabilities is a problem largely unrecognized by rehabilitation service providers. This article documents the prevalence of abuse of women with physical disabilities compared to women without physical disabilities.
Case-comparison study using written survey. Data were analyzed using chi 2 analyses and the Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon rank sum W tests.
General community.
A sample of 860 women, 439 with physical disabilities and 421 without physical disabilities, was compiled from women responding to a national sexuality survey.
The women were asked if they had ever experienced emotional, physical, or sexual abuse. If they answered yes, they were asked to identify the perpetrator(s) of the abuse and when the abuse began and ended.
Sixty-two percent of both groups of women had experienced some type of abuse at some point in their lives. Of women who had experienced abuse, half of each group had experienced physical or sexual abuse. Husbands or live-in partners were the most common perpetrators of emotional or physical abuse for both groups. Male strangers were the most common perpetrators of sexual abuse for both groups. Women with physical disabilities also were more likely to be abused by their attendants and by health care providers. Thirteen percent of women with physical disabilities described experiencing physical or sexual abuse in the past year.
Women with physical disabilities appear to be at risk for emotional, physical, and sexual abuse to the same extent as women without physical disabilities. Prevalence of abuse by husbands or live-in partners in this study is similar to estimates of lifetime occurrence of domestic violence for women living in the United States. Women with physical disabilities are more at risk for abuse by attendants or health care providers. They are also more likely to experience a longer duration of abuse than women without physical disabilities.
Abuse of Women with Disabilities: Policy Implications
- M A Nosek
- C A Howland
- M E Young
Nosek, M.A., Howland, C.A., & Young, M.E. (1998). Abuse of Women with Disabilities:
Policy Implications. Journal of Disability Policy Studies 8 (1,2), 158-175.
Disabled women more likely to be battered, survey suggests. The Toronto Star
Ontario Ministry of Community and Social Services. (1987). Disabled women
more likely to be battered, survey suggests. The Toronto Star, April 1, F9.