A Review of Formal and Informal Mentoring

Abstract

This paper reviews the literature of formal mentoring programs in organizational settings. Additionally, the components of mentoring, how it works, and how it can be implemented in an organization is addressed. Further this paper also proposes that formal mentoring is possible in organizations. Formal mentoring will be shown to be less effective than informal mentoring. Furthermore, it will be shown that formal organizational mentoring can be effective to meet the needs for all employees to have the opportunity to be mentored, to learn from the wisdom, experience and mistakes of others, and to increase the protégé's career opportunities.

Full text

Journal of Leadership Education Volume 4, Issue 1 - Summer 2005
A Review of Formal and Informal Mentoring:
Processes, Problems, and Design
Lonnie D. Inzer
Instructor, Pikes Peak Community College
Colorado Springs, CO
719-635-5182
aallinzer@earthlink.net
C. B. Crawford, Ph.D.
Professor, Department of Leadership Studies
600 Park Street
Hays, KS 67601
785-628-4531
ccrawfor@fhsu.edu
Abstract
This paper reviews the literature of formal mentoring programs in organizational
settings. Additionally, the components of mentoring, how it works, and how it can
be implemented in an organization is addressed. Further this paper also proposes
that formal mentoring is possible in organizations. Formal mentoring will be shown
to be less effective than informal mentoring. Furthermore, it will be shown that
formal organizational mentoring can be effective to meet the needs for all employees
to have the opportunity to be mentored, to learn from the wisdom, experience and
mistakes of others, and to increase the protégé’s career opportunities.
Introduction
Mentoring is a relationship. It is a relationship between the mentor and the protégé.
Mentoring is defined as a one-to-one relationship in which an expert or a senior
person voluntarily gives time to teach, support, and encourage another (Santamaria,
2003). The term mentor came from Greek mythology from the name of an old man
who Odysseus left in charge of his home and his son, Telemachus, while he went on
a ten-year journey. Mentor helped the boy become a young man and on occasion
saved his life. The concept of mentoring relates to emotional support and guidance
usually given by a mature individual to a younger person called a protégé
(Successfulmanagers.com, 2004).
There is much refining of the definition in the recent literature on mentoring.
According to Zachary (2002), mentoring passes on knowledge of subjects, facilitates
personal development, encourages wise choices, and helps the protégé to make
transitions. In other research it is stated that most of the literature primarily
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examines mentoring in relation to individual career development, with the mentor as
a friend, career guide, information source, and intellectual guide. This review
promotes mentoring with peers, where those in the mentoring relationship are
colleagues. Both participants have something of value to contribute and to gain from
the other. Participants in peer mentoring have been known to achieve a level of
mutual expertise, equality, and empathy frequently absent from traditional
mentoring relationships (Harnish & Wild, 1994).
Another broader definition of mentoring is someone who helps a protégé learn
something that he or she would have learned less well, more slowly, or not at all if
left alone (Bell, 2000). This is different from the traditional definitions of mentoring
where mentoring mentoring where mentoring is a relationship where a superior,
subordinate or a peer can share knowledge, wisdom, and support. In an
organizational sense this researcher states, “All mentors are not supervisors or
managers. But all effective supervisors and managers should be mentors. Mentoring
must become that part of every leader’s role that has growth as its primary
component” (Bell, 2000, p. 2).
Mentoring Components
Mentoring has a number of components. There is the mentor, the protégé, the
relationship, and the atmosphere in which they operate. This atmosphere could be
the organization, friendship or family. Defining these components is essential.
The Mentor
The mentor’s role includes the following:
• to identify career goals of the protégé,
• provide career advice and guidance, encourage their career and personal
development to the fullest, share own insights into the organization, provide
suggestions on activities and information that would benefit the protégé’s
growth, and
• recommend pursuits that will develop specific areas in the person’s
professional advancement, and assist the employee by being a reference and
advocate (Air Force Personnel Center, 2004).
Throughout the literature the mentor is described as being an advisor, counselor,
confidant, advocate, cheerleader and listener. The mentor should be confident,
secure, sensitive to diversity, and be a good communicator.
Jacobson and Kaye (1996) examined mentoring successes and failures to learn from
past problems and to enhance learning opportunities. Some specific mentor roles
that emerged follow:
• A mentor’s role is to promote intentional learning which includes developing
people’s capabilities through instructing, coaching, modeling, and advising,
as well as providing stretching exercises.
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• Mentors should share their failures as well as successes through discussing
and analyzing the realities of the organization.
• Mentors should be storytellers, sharing their real-life stories. These provide
valuable insights and can establish rapport with the protégé.
• Mentoring is a synthesis of ongoing events, experiences, observations,
studies, and thoughtful analyses.
• The mentor and protégé are in a joint venture of sharing responsibility for
learning.
The U.S. Department of Transportation Mentoring Handbook (2004) states that a
successful mentor is characterized as supportive, patient, and respected, a person
who wants to share their experiences, and who facilitates personal and professional
growth in the protégé. On the surface the protégé is the person mentoring is geared
towards. But notably, a mentoring relationship can be as much for the mentor as the
protégé.
Informal mentoring is the natural coming together of a mentor and protégé. This is
done in friendship, through personal and professional respect and admiration from
each to the other. It is usually a long-term relationship. Formal mentoring differs
from informal mentoring in that the organization develops a program and process for
mentoring to take place. The relationship is usually short-term (one year) formally,
with the hope it will develop informally over the long-term. The mentors are
volunteers, or should be, but they are still chosen. The protégés are assigned or
strongly encouraged to participate. The protégé and mentor may or may not
voluntarily choose each other (Cotton, Miller, & Ragins, 2000). Most research states
the mentor should not be a supervisor, but some research is beginning to counter that
theory. In a formal mentoring program, there are certain processes and activities that
should take place to give the relationship the best chance for success, a point for
later discussion.
To summarize, the mentor is seen differently, depending on the organization. The
prevailing view is that in most cases the organization sees the mentor as a senior
person with much experience. In military and government settings the mentor is
seen as either a supervisor or a senior officer. In academia the mentor could be that
senior person or a peer, but most of the literature states the mentor should not be a
supervisor. The mentor would still be a person who is experienced and has
knowledge and wisdom to pass on. Therefore, a mentor can be anyone who the
protégé sees as having experience, knowledge, or wisdom of value to them. Feldman
(1999) found that the term “mentor” has gone from meaning intense, exclusive,
multiyear relationships between senior and junior colleagues to also include a wide
variety of short-term, low intensity interactions with peers, slightly older workers,
and direct supervisors. The options of who can mentor are wide. And, the mentor
should be someone chosen by the protégé, who has a connection with the protégé,
someone with whom a relationship can be built. This will be discussed later.
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The Protégé
The next component of mentoring is the protégé. The protégé has an important role
in mentoring, analogous to the role of the follower in the leadership relationship.
The protégé must know what he or she wants and shapes the overall agenda for the
relationship. The protégé must be open in communicating with the mentor. And the
protégé must establish priority issues for action or support. The protégé must not
expect the mentor to have all the answers or to be an expert in every area. The
protégé must solicit feedback, and come prepared to each meeting to discuss issues
(Ohio Women’s Business Resource Network, 2004). Some of these points seem to
be more the role of the mentor. But, they are not. The protégé must take
responsibility for the relationship. In one program the results indicated the protégé
should continue to have responsibility for selecting the preceptor (Benson, Morahan,
Richman, & Sachdeva, 2002). The important fact is that the protégé is involved in
the relationship as an active partner. Passive completion of tasks is not the goal of
mentoring or how mentoring should occur.
The Relationship
The next component is the relationship between the mentor and the protégé. Without
a relationship where each person values the other, and makes a connection with the
other, the quality of the mentoring will be lessened. In the relationship the mentor
and the protégé should understand that the mentor’s advice may not always work.
Mentors provide options as well as direction. Most importantly, privacy and
confidentiality must be maintained. The mentor should listen more than give advThe
protégé should not be dependent on the mentor (Kellam, 2003). Finally, the mentor
should be secure in accepting the success of the protégé.
The protégé should come to the mentor in an equal partnership. In the relationship
the mentor and protégé should not set too many goals. The process of goal setting is
as important as the goals or the achievement of those goals. The relationship should
work for the mentor and the protégé. If not, it should be terminated. How a formal
mentoring program is developed, how the participants are trained, and how the
relationships are made have an impact on the relationship’s success. In one study it
was found that individuals without mentoring experience lack a realistic preview of
the relationship, and consequently may overestimate the costs and underestimate the
benefits associated with being a mentor. The anticipated outcomes of being a mentor
may affect the decision to become a mentor (Ragins & Scandura, 1999). Excellent
individuals may choose not to participate as mentors. This could also be true of
protégés. The relationship may be undermined before it has begun. The formal
mentoring program organization must be aware of this, especially in its initial
stages.
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The Organization
The last component of formal mentoring is the organization, the atmosphere in
which mentoring takes place. It is usually assumed the organization is supportive for
a formal mentoring program to exist. This is something that cannot be assumed or
left to chance. The organization must be an active participant. The organization is
not to enter into the privacy of the mentoring relationship; rather it should develop
mentors and protégés through training and education. It should provide the time and
resources necessary for the personnel to participate. The organization should,
through coordinators and committees, constantly evaluate the processes, be available
for intervention, help, and correction. The feedback from participants has a direct
impact of the attitudes of future mentors and protégés. In organizations where there
is a high rate of mentor/protégé failures, norms of trust are less likely to develop,
collaborative behavior and teamwork are less likely to occur, and there is likely to
be higher levels of age-discriminatory attitudes and behaviors (Feldman, 1999). The
organization must have the mentoring program high on the priority list, with
adequate resources and training, or not enter into a formal mentoring program.
Informal Mentoring
Informal mentoring is a natural component of relationships that occurs throughout
the society, in the workplace, as well as in social, professional, and family activities.
Informal mentoring occurs in a relationship between two people where one gains
insight, knowledge, wisdom, friendship, and support from the other. Either person
may initiate the mentoring relationship, the mentor to help the other, the protégé to
gain wisdom from a trusted person. Cotton and Ragins (1999) found that informal
organizational mentoring is more beneficial than formal mentoring. Informal
mentors provided higher amounts of several types of career development functions,
including coaching, providing challenging assignments, or increasing protégés
exposure and visibility. Informal mentors were more likely to engage in positive
psychosocial activities such as counseling, facilitating social interactions, role
modeling, and providing friendship. One result of informal mentoring is that
protégés were much more satisfied with their mentors than protégés were with
formal mentors. These differences may be attributed to the underlying differences in
the structure of the relationships. Informal mentoring relationships develop because
protégés and mentors readily identify with each other. The mentor may see one’s
self in the protégé and the protégé may wish to emulate the mentor’s qualities.
Finally, in informal mentoring the protégé and mentor are selective about whom
they wish to approach for a mentoring relationship; it can last for years (Nemanick,
2000). Informal mentoring is a strong and valuable tool for developing an employee.
It occurs in a relationship that is voluntarily formed by both persons. It is friendship
first, learning and career second and third.
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Formal Mentoring Programs
Formal mentoring programs are pervasive. The literature studies formal mentoring,
its effectiveness, and many of its aspects. There is also literature in the form of
mentoring handbooks and business journal articles. Many people may not have the
opportunity to develop a mentoring relationship in an informal way. The
organization has an investment in all its members and must develop each employee
to the greatest extent possible. This is why formal mentoring programs are
developed and operated within organizations. Formal mentoring is not as powerful
as informal mentoring in some ways, but it is a process the organization should still
pursue. The benefits are too important to pass up. The organization should develop a
mentoring program that is well thought out and implemented, with adequate
resources.
There are benefits of mentoring for the protégé, the mentor and the organization.
Mentored individuals tend to enjoy more advancement opportunities and higher
wages than their non-mentored counterparts (Nemanick, 2000). For the protégé one
paper noted a number of positive factors. People tend to relate more readily and
positively to peer assistance than to supervisory direction. Mentoring provides a
non-threatening environment for learning and growth to occur. Also, mentors and
mentoring have a positive and powerful impact on professional growth, career
advancement, and career mobility for the protégé. Mentoring promotes six things a
person moving into a management or leadership role must learn: (a) politics of the
organization, (b) norms, (c) standards, (d) values, (e) ideology, and (f) history of the
organization. This leads to increased job satisfaction (Williams, 2000).
There are also benefits for the mentor. Mentors share and take pride in their
protégé’s accomplishments, mentoring invigorates and renews their commitment to
their job and their profession, and a legacy of the mentor is left (Williams, 2000).
The benefits for the organization are both tangible and intangible. The organization
benefits with more employees successfully completing their probationary periods.
The mentoring creates enthusiasm, camaraderie, and professionalism, and impacts
positively the entire culture of the organization, promoting organizational values,
norms, and standards (Williams, 2000). Perrone (2003) states that mentoring should
be seen as a critical element in helping the organization achieve its strategic goals.
The reasons for establishing a mentoring program must be linked to an
organization’s business goals. A benefit for the organization is that it gets a
leadership team ready to accomplish its objectives (Benabou & Benabou, 2000).
Mentoring improves employee performance, increases commitment to the
organization, improves flow of organizational information, and supports leadership
and management development (Navy Mentoring Handbook, nd).
Lawrie (1987) promoted mentoring for organizations by noting that it is in the
organization’s best interest to foster high-quality mentor-apprentice relationships
when the shaping of the learner’s attitudes is important. Skills, of course, can be
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learned from one’s mentor. But perhaps more importantly sometimes a frame of
mind or set of attitudes can be learned most powerfully when one is an apprentice.
Rigorous analysis of mentoring programs in national organizations indicates that,
like informal mentorship, structured mentoring is effective in integrating new
employees and enhancing their career success and work satisfaction (Benabou &
Benabou, 2000). Mentoring is too beneficial for it not to be formally implemented in
an organization. Informal mentoring will always occur. The goal is for formal
mentoring to promote mentoring in an informal way throughout the organization. It
can change the culture of the organization into a mentoring culture. If the people
believe that mentoring is important to the organization, mentoring can become
important to them.
Problems Associated with Formal Mentoring
A number of sources exist that generally address formal mentoring and its problems,
and other research that addresses specific problems. Beehr and Raabe (2003) studied
formal mentoring versus supervisor and coworker relationships from the perspective
of the mentor and the mentee. There were three factors present with the mentors.
They were relatively high in the organizational hierarchy, at least two levels above
the mentee, the organization sponsored the mentoring as an official formal program,
and job satisfaction was evaluated. The researchers used the Leader-Member
Exchange theory to evaluate the data from supervisor relationships versus mentor
relationships. This theory is based on the concept of social exchange, providing a
parallel between mentoring and leadership processes. In this study it was determined
that the mentors were not the mentees’ direct supervisors, allowing for a separation
between the two roles. The study also noted that much of the previous research does
not differentiate between mentors who were or were not supervisors. The mentoring
dimensions in this study are psychosocial support, career development, and role
modeling. The leadership/supervision dimensions are contribution, affect, loyalty,
and professional respect. The Beehr and Raabe study’s overall purpose was to
determine the strength of the relationship between the formal mentor’s and mentee’s
perceptions of their relationship with each other and to compare mentor-mentee
relationships with supervisor-subordinate relationships and with coworker-coworker
relationships in relation to mentee outcomes.
The results are not good for formal mentoring. The Beehr and Raabe (2003)
indicated a surprising result was that mentoring did not play a significant role for
any of the outcome variables. This contradicted their expectations and was different
from some previous findings. Two practical implications the authors identified from
this study were that mentors and mentees should be required to spend more time
together than the minimum two hours per month as is the case in the programs
studied. Supervisors or coworkers should be chosen to perform mentoring functions.
They are naturally closer and appear to have some advantage in terms of impact on
the mentees in the present study. This is of great significance to the formal
mentoring programs. This study further suggests that formal mentoring by superior
non-supervisors is not effective, in regards to mentees’ attitudes (job satisfaction,
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turnover intentions, and organizational commitment) as most programs are designed.
The authors also state mentoring-type functions performed by supervisors (or even
coworkers) might be more effective than mentoring by someone else.
Cotton, Miller, and Ragins (2000) studied the effects of marginal mentoring, the
type of mentor, and quality of relationship and program design on work and career
attitudes. Their study supports much of Beehr and Rabbe’s (2003) findings, but they
do give some hope for formal mentoring. They note that a substantial portion of
mentors may simply be marginal, meaning they disappoint the protégés or may not
meet some or most of the protégés’ developmental needs. Studies that compare
mentored and non-mentored individuals only are based on group averages that may
mask the differences in relationship satisfaction. The authors go on to compare
formal and informal mentoring. Their study determined the following:
• Mentoring is good if the mentoring, formal or informal, was highly
satisfying for the protégé.
• Informal mentoring was better than no mentoring.
• Formal protégés who reported being in highly effective mentoring programs
reported more positive career and job attitudes than formal protégés who
reported being in less effective programs.
• Protégés in effective mentoring programs reported more satisfying mentoring
relationships than protégés in ineffective programs.
• Programs whose purpose was to promote protégés’ careers had a
significantly stronger relationship with attitudes than programs whose
purpose was to orient new employees.
• Programs with guidelines for frequency of meetings were more effective.
• Programs where the mentor voluntarily entered the relationship were
marginally more effective.
• Protégés whose mentors were in other departments were significantly more
satisfied.
• Good mentoring may lead to positive outcomes, bad mentoring may be
destructive, or in some cases may be worse than no mentoring at all.
• Even the best designed program may not compensate for a pool of marginal
mentors.
These two studies have many implications for formal mentoring programs. It is
agreed that informal mentoring with a good mentor is the best kind of mentoring. So
should an organization only be concerned with informal mentoring? No. A formal
mentoring program is beneficial if it promotes informal mentoring and involves
good mentors. The goal of a formal mentoring program should be to promote the
protégé’s career and to create a mentoring environment in the organization where
informal mentoring is increased, because informal mentoring is the most effective.
These ideas and theories should not be seen as formal mentoring program
eliminators, but rather they should be considered as program health and
effectiveness red flags for the ongoing program and as points to be considered in the
development, implementation, and ongoing assessment of any formal mentoring
program.
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To address Beehr and Raabe’s (2003) conclusion that supervisor/coworker
mentoring is more effective than formal superior mentoring, a second tier of
relationships should be built into the formal mentoring time period. This tier could
be a formal supervisory assignment, task, evaluation, and review program parallel to
the formal mentoring program. This would promote extenuating interaction between
the supervisor/coworker and the protégé where informal mentoring could take place
and be promoted through training and experience in mentoring. Informal mentoring
would increase and an increase of mentoring in the organizational culture would
similarly occur through effective mentoring training and education for the entire
organization. Of course, this is an under-studied academic field.
The next study did look at just such a two-tiered mentoring program in an academic
medicine mentoring demonstration program during reorganization. It involved
identifying effective faculty precepting and mentoring. Benson, et al. (2002)
conducted a two-tiered program mentoring study. It compared and contrasted
precepting and mentoring. The study showed the program design was important.
The program was two-tiered, participation of mentors/preceptors was voluntary, and
mentors were independently selected by the junior mentees. The faculty participants
in this program perceived they were more productive, had initiated more projects,
and were more focused on their work. This study also identified a trend towards
increased retention of minority faculty. Both junior and senior faculty involved in
the program believed the time spent was valuable and had a positive effect on their
professional life.
Kram (1985) identified conditions that impede constructive mentoring. Potential
mentors may be opposed to the concept because they never received mentoring, or
they are experiencing career blocks that extinguish the desire to promote junior
colleagues. Potential protégés may be skeptical if they do not trust senior managers’
motives, if they do not respect the competence and advice of senior colleagues, or if
they do not have the attitudes and interpersonal skills to initiate relationships with
potential mentors. Senior management resistance can stem from a results orientation
that overrides interest in people development objectives.
Methods to overcome such obstacles have been identified (Kram, 1985). The human
resource development professional should establish a sequence of programs and
organizational changes that support rather than force the mentoring process. Failure
to define objectives and conduct a diagnosis can promote resistance among those
who should benefit from the process. Kram notes that taking time to involve
organizational members in a collaborative approach pays off. It is evident that many
organizations could fall into the trap of needing a mentoring program, doing good
research, but not involving the members of the organization in its development,
before implementation (forced upon the organization). Planning, engagement, and
collaboration are needed throughout the organization for a mentoring program to be
successful.
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Building a Successful Formal Mentoring Program
The literature on formal mentoring is mostly from consulting groups, with a small
amount of research on the design of the program. Many formal programs are in
place and operating. Much of the literature identifying what a formal mentoring
program should be is more anecdotal and less academic. Again, this shows the need
for new studies into the structure of a formal program related to its effectiveness.
The following is a compilation of both types. First, it is important for an
organization to audit and fine-tune one-on-one training under a number of
conditions. Mentoring can be justified if failure of on-the-job consequences is
serious, and is justified where the shaping of the learner’s attitudes are important
(Lawrie, 1987).
Mentoring is also about creating a learning experience for the protégé. The
American Society for Training and Development conducted a human resource
development survey to determine how learning occurs in organizations. The
question was, “How does learning occur in your company?” The following are the
results.
• 95% - Formal in-house training
• 83% - Teams
• 79% - Formal off-site training
• 71% - Coaching or mentoring
• 71% - University programs
• 69% - Continuous improvement
• 66% - Individual development plans
• 58% - Feedback
• 55% - Best practices
• 42% - Job rotation
• 38% - Focus groups
• 18% - Quality circles
• 12% - Other
The implications are many. But one is important for this review. Mentoring is a way
learning occurs in 71% of the companies surveyed (Benson, 1997).
Planning and Organization
In reviewing the literature, common themes are apparent for developing and
establishing a mentoring program. The first component is to identify goals for the
program, including a strategy. Perrone (2003) states that a well-defined mentoring
vision has the capacity to serve as a guiding mechanism for future mentoring efforts.
In addition, senior management as well as others responsible for the mentoring
system must come together to design strategy, define objectives, and plan the
implementation of such programs. The purpose, short- and long-term goals, and who
to focus on as mentors and protégés must be determined. As it has been stated
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throughout this review, any formal mentoring program should have the ultimate goal
of promoting informal mentoring as a strong organizational cultural component.
Organizational goals may include improving employee retention rates, enhancing
the match between employees and jobs, increasing employee job satisfaction and
loyalty, facilitating the professional growth of protégés, and teaching organizational
culture, values and standards (Williams, 2000). More ideas for the planning of a
mentoring program include, taking at least six months to plan the mentoring
initiative and get “buy in” and linking the mentoring program goals to the mission
and values of the organization is also important. If you do not, the efforts will not be
taken seriously and will fail. Start small by focusing the effort on a group in the
organization. Two good targets are new hires and budding leaders. Do not do
everything yourself. Create a dynamic task force that is excited about mentoring. Do
not reinvent the wheel. Good materials for designing a mentoring program exist and
you can hire a quality consultant. Plan a great deal of structure in the program, and
evaluate everything you do (Phillips-Jones, 2003).
The next area is to identify who will administer the mentoring program. It is
necessary that a coordinator be assigned to oversee the program development and to
monitor the ongoing program. Also there should be a committee to develop and
monitor the program. This committee should be comprised of senior personnel and
the targeted mentoring group.
Input and Collaboration
This moves into the next area of concern, input and collaboration in the area of
program development. In one study where a mentoring program was started at a
university library, at the initial organizational presentation of the program, the
library faculty asked why more people were not asked for input before the program
was implemented. The mentoring committee was surprised by the negative reaction
the program received. The other concern faculty raised was why mentors should be
saddled with one more obligation when their workloads were already full (Kuyper-
Rushing, 2001). This example shows a significant need for input from supporters, as
well as less than enthusiastic members before implementation, and preferably during
development.
In the Lansing Police Department’s mentoring program input on organizational
goals came from all members of the organization. The mentoring coordinator
conducted a series of focus groups, including supervisory and non-supervisory
personnel, from every area of the department, as well as individuals from the
academy and police union. These sessions provided critical, substantive input on
every aspect of the proposed program. Every officer with three or more years
completed a survey to provide feedback on a mentoring program, including any
potential barriers to implementation, accessibility, and acceptability. Sworn
personnel with fewer than three years completed another survey designed to elicit
positive and negative experiences they had encountered during their probationary
year with the department. All focus groups and surveys were anonymous. Mentoring
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cannot succeed without support from all levels of the organization, especially senior
management. Senior management support includes policy statements, allocation of
financial resources, active recruitment by and involvement of administrators in the
program, inclusion of mentoring as a consideration for promotion, and public
speeches by administrators about the progress and accomplishments of the program
(Williams, 2000).
United Defense identified the implementation solution for their new mentoring
program and then conducted a series of buy-in orientations. The solution was
developed by five senior managers, and then it was sold to the organization. In the
implementation phase a cross-section of the organization oversaw this stage. An
evaluation of this pilot program has not yet been completed (mediapro.com, 2004).
It seems reasonable, however, to assume that the organization should have involved
a cross-section of the members and used focus groups for the development. Buy-in
meetings are perceived as the-decision-has-been-made-and-you-will-come-along
meetings. By having input at the beginning, many problems are alleviated or
lessened later on. Complete organizational input and involvement in the
development process is critical for a successful mentoring program. Even more
important is the support and participation of the administration of the organization.
This provides the solid foundation for formal mentoring success.
Selecting Mentors
The next area of development for a formal mentoring program is the selecting and
training of mentors. This critical function is well documented in the literature. The
three basic questions include:
• Who should the mentors be?
• How does the organization select them?
• What is their role?
The best mentors are not necessarily your best employees. Mentors need to exhibit
flexibility and good interpersonal and counseling skills. Mentors can be selected
from two groups. The first group includes individuals who are already functioning
as mentors. They probably have the right motivations and probably have become
pretty good at it. The second group of new mentors can be nominated by the
leadership of the organization. All people who are to be trained as mentors have to
be “winners.” They must be good at their jobs, respected throughout the
organization (with administration and workers), and they should have the skills,
beliefs, and values you will be trying to instill in the learners. They should have two
crucial attitudes. First, they should like teaching, guiding, and training. And, hey
need to be able to tell you a story from their careers in which a mentor put them on
the right track (Lawrie, 1987). All potential mentors should be invited to participate.
A personalized letter from the department head and the administrator of the protégé
group to these individuals should be used for the invitation (Benson, et al., 2002).
All mentors must be volunteers. This invitation to potential mentors should be well
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thought out, take time, and include input from many. The best mentors may not be
obvious and the obvious mentors may be the worst.
The mentor should use a transformational leadership style in working with protégés.
This style has been shown to be associated with increased protégé receipt of
mentoring functions (Godshalk & Sosik, 2000). Transformational leadership occurs
when one or more engage others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one
another to higher levels of motivation and morality (Burns, 1978). The transforming
leader recognizes and exploits an existing need or demand of a potential follower.
The leader looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs,
and engages the full person of the follower. According to Burns, this results in a
relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders
and may convert leaders into moral agents. A mentor’s use of laissez-faire
leadership was found to be negatively related to the protégé’s receipt of mentoring
functions (Godshalk & Sosik, 2000). The mentor who engages the protégé and
transforms the protégé based on the protégé’s needs is an effective mentor. The
mentor should be focused on the protégé’s personal and career development, not on
the completion of organizational tasks. Specific organizational needs and task
completion can be addressed through a preceptor who is a supervisor/coworker, and
this can be a complementary program to the mentor program. It must be reiterated,
the formal mentor must not be a supervisor, which is not to say the supervisor
cannot be or should not be an informal mentor.
Training Mentors
All mentors should receive formal training. Organizations should develop training
according to their own unique needs. However, quality training provided by a
qualified professional remains paramount to program success. The training should
cover mentoring history, participant roles, success factors for pairing mentors and
protégés, practical hints and suggestions, and general expectations mentors and
protégés have of each other. Training should also include an overview of the
program structure, guidelines, policy, goals, and evaluation criteria. The heart of
mentor training is communication. A communication expert should conduct this part
of the training (Williams, 2000).
Mentoring program training sessions are primarily for protégés and mentors. They
should, however, also include the protégés’ superiors. Each member of the
organization has a mentoring role and mentoring responsibility (Benabou &
Benabou, 2000). The roles may be formal or informal, but all should have training.
Furthermore, research suggests that protégés, mentors, and the protégés’ managers
should participate in formalized training programs emphasizing mentoring concepts
and skills. They also stress to not let people off the hook. If they have to miss the
training event, have a back-up session for them supplemented with self-study
materials and coaching. Another suggestion is to form joint protégé and mentor
training with trust building exercises (Phillips-Jones, 2003). It is important to not try
and turn mentors into sophisticated training people like yourself. If you do so, even
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unconsciously, it will backfire, and they will become overwhelmed and
subsequently fail. Training with mentors involves three steps. First, the mentor
should make a careful diagnosis of what the learner’s job is now and what it is likely
to become. Second, a real assessment of what the trainee has yet to learn is done by
the mentor and the trainee, and they collaboratively build a learning plan. Third, you
help them develop a set of behavioral milestones that will signal the protégé, not the
mentor, that learning is taking place. These are things the protégé can do as a result
of the mentor relationship that they could not do before (Lawrie, 1987).
An organization should provide thorough mentoring training for all members.
Specific training should be included for the mentor, the protégé, and the protégé’s
supervisor. Communication and interpersonal skills training are paramount for the
mentor. The administration must fully support the training aspect with time and
resources. If the training is not complete, the mentoring will be weak, causing
formal mentoring program failure.
Pairing Mentors and Protégés
Mentors and protégés can be linked up in different ways. Formal mentoring
relationships usually develop through the assignment of members to the relationship
by a third party (Cotton, et al., 2000). Pairing is based on the goals of the mentoring
program. In one study the mentors volunteered and all members of the new faculty
were encouraged to become protégés. The protégés developed the relationship with
the mentors (Benson, et al., 2002). In another study a mentor advisory team and the
program coordinator paired protégés with mentors. Mentors did have some input,
but the coordinator made the final decision. In this study the coordinator examined
the strengths of the mentors and consulted protégés about their career goals. The
mentor and protégé should meet to discuss their needs and wants. Personalities
should also be considered for mentor-protégé pairings (Williams, 2000).
Mentors, protégés, and superiors need agreed-upon program parameters. Much of
this is done in the planning stage with input. The length of a partnership is usually
six months to one year. The frequencies of meetings between the partners are agreed
upon, as well as the specific activities of each participant and the evaluation.
Rewards, financial or symbolic, may also be specified (Benabou & Benabou, 2000).
The mentor and protégé must respect each other. They need to have compatible
values and career goals which yield a comfortable open communication atmosphere.
Basic mentoring activity is listening to each other, caring about each other, and
cooperatively engaging in mutually satisfying ventures. This allows the transfer of
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors based on a level of trust. Trust is the most
important dimension of a successful mentoring relationship. Without mentor/protégé
trust no amount of structure, guidelines, and effort can make the relationship
succeed (Williams, 2000). The content of the relationship is confidential and each
participant is required to respect that confidence. A suggestion for a formal pairing
plan is to have the mentors be selected, but serve voluntarily, and the protégés be a
specific group (new employees or new leaders), with the protégés selecting a mentor
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from the official mentor pool. This would allow the organization to select mentors,
the mentors to volunteer, and for the protégés to have some choice in mentors.
Implementation
At this stage the mentor begins the mentoring of the protégé by performing a variety
of functions. The first function is a “career” or professional function. The second is a
“role modeling” function where the protégé learns what appropriate behaviors are.
The third is the “psychosocial” function where the mentor serves as a friend and
confidant. And the last function is a “political” function. This is where the protégé
learns how to acquire influence (Benabou & Benabou, 2000). The mentor and the
protégé are each responsible for the effort required for a successful mentoring
relationship. The mentoring team must communicate on a regular basis, beyond the
program requirements, be open in communicating to each other, set the agenda for
each meeting, come prepared each meeting to discuss issues, and be honest about
expertise (Ohio Women’s Business Resource Network, 1997).
Monitoring Participants
It is important for the mentoring coordinator to check on progress, encourage the
participants, and make sure the relationship is working. The coordinator is an
impeller, liaison, and the administration’s representative. The coordinator monitors
the relationship and helps the parties to bear fruit, meets one-on-one with the
participants, and publishes a monthly newsletter to provide mentoring tips, program
updates, and spotlights on particular participants or occurrences (Williams, 2000). It
is important that the coordinator have a relationship with all the protégés and
mentors to head off problems before they become severe. These relationships are not
to betray confidences, but to point out problems. Identification of any serious issue
needs the coordinator, mentor, and the protégé to be involved in addressing the
issue. The coordinator must also maintain confidentiality.
Evaluation
Evaluation of the program is critical. It determines whether to consider the protégé
an exceptional candidate, whether to prolong or change the program and its
components, and to evaluate the mentors for future involvement. Results can be
assessed by evaluating behavioral changes, comparing costs, and doing a cost-
benefit analysis (Benabou & Benabou, 2000). Kram (1985) states that evaluation of
training and development efforts includes pre- and post-tests as well as long-term
follow-up with participants and control groups. These tests can be interviews,
questionnaires, and surveys to reveal participants’ attitudes toward mentoring, their
understanding of the mentoring process, and their perceptions of the organizational
climate. In the Lansing Police Department Mentoring Study, year-end protégé and
mentor surveys examined assimilation into the department, acquiring and enhancing
skills, identifying career goals, and success in completing their probationary periods.
Besides the mentors and protégés, others were surveyed concerning the impact of
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the program including issues such as the protégés’ conduct, appearance, and attitude
(Williams, 2000). Any evaluation process must be developed in the planning stage
with input and collaboration from the entire organization. The process should also
be very clear to the participants in the orientation. The evaluation process can
compare one year’s group of mentor/protégé teams from beginning to end and it can
compare one year’s group of teams against another year’s group.
Conclusion
Formal mentoring programs are seen by organizations as necessary programs to
implement. Organizations that have formal mentoring programs include AT&T,
Clairol, Colgate-Palmolive, duPont, Dow Jones, Eastman Kodak, Exxon, Liz
Claiborne, Motorola, New England Telephone, Johnson & Johnson, Pacific Bell,
Pitney Bowes, Proctor & Gamble, Federal Development Bank, U.S. Department of
Transportation, the Navy, the Air Force, the Air National Guard, Agilent
Technologies, Intel, and Southwest Airlines (Benabou, 2000). The literature is
diverse in identifying the components of successful mentoring. However, research is
lacking in comparing the components of a mentoring program with outcomes.
Research identifying formal aspects of mentoring for success is needed.
At this time, it is widely agreed that mentoring is good for the organization, the
protégé, and the mentor. A formal mentoring program must take the best of informal
mentoring and institutionalize it. Ragins and Scandura (1999) identified the possible
importance of a formal mentoring program for developing future mentors, and
developing an organizational mentoring culture. Organizations that actively develop
protégés are likely developing future mentors. If an organization seeks to develop
mentoring relationships as part of the organizational culture, it may need to take a
proactive role in reaching potential mentors who have not been in a mentoring
relationship. Such organizations may also promote the development of mentoring by
including them in performance appraisals and career development programs.
This review indicates that mentoring is important for the organization. At this time
mentoring should be formalized, using best practices, while supporting informal
mentoring through education and training. The reason for the formalizing of
mentoring is not to replace informal mentoring, but to promote mentoring as an
important part of the organizational strategy. Formal mentoring can be improved
through academic research of formal mentoring programs. This subject is in an area
that crosses many disciplines where academic resources should be allocated to
identify reality. There are enough organizations with mentoring programs with
history and data for this research to use.
Maxwell (1998) identifies mentoring as empowering. He states that a key to
empowering others is belief in people. According to Maxwell, empowerment is
powerful not only for the person being developed, but for the mentor. Empowering
others makes you larger. His protégé wrote to him to express appreciation and
gratitude. The individual suggested the best way to show gratitude was to pass on
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that gift to other leaders in his life. Mentoring occurs naturally as a powerful activity
for passing on wisdom and knowledge from the wise to the naïve, resulting in
protégé success and mentor fulfillment. Organizations need to capture some of the
power of mentoring to create greater organizational success.
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