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Feet on the ground: Engineering geology past, present and future

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Abstract

Engineering geology has a long and rich heritage and the UK has been in the vanguard of the development of the subject as a distinct discipline, with the first book on the subject being published in London in 1880. Since then, engineering geology has been applied to projects around the world and engineering geologists have become core members of planning, investigation, design and construction teams in the civil engineering and mining industries. However, in the past few decades we have seen numerical analyses increasingly being accepted as the answer to all geotechnical design questions, although as engineering geologists we are used to dealing with natural materials and processes and recognize that their inherent variability cannot always be reduced to a simple numerical value. Consequently, how do we ensure that any proposed construction works in civil engineering or mining take full account of this variability and the uncertainties that result? To enable engineering geologists to understand and describe these uncertainties are there fundamental skills that define an engineering geologist and, if so, how can these skills be taught or acquired? Also, in a world dominated by readily accessible data that can be downloaded and analysed for so many planned development sites, how important are the field techniques of observation and mapping that an older generation of engineering geologists, including the author, considered their defining skill? Concentrating on the role of engineering geology in relation to civil engineering, these are amongst the questions explored in this paper, leading to observations as to how the profession might develop in the future in order to meet the needs of society.

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... Recent studies have emphasized the importance of mapping urban geomorphological forms and features as well as geoheritage, revealing the intricate interplay between natural processes, human actions, and urban growth [9,[25][26][27][28]. Geomorphological mapping utilizes various techniques to capture the dynamic interplay among geological forces, climatic factors, and surface processes [29]. The techniques encompass systematic data collection through field observations and mapping, utilizing ground-based digital data capture systems and Remote Sensing (RS) interpretation. ...
... The techniques encompass systematic data collection through field observations and mapping, utilizing ground-based digital data capture systems and Remote Sensing (RS) interpretation. This comprehensive approach, including field mapping during on-site investigations, aids in understanding the geological and geomorphological history of a site, forming a vital spatial framework for designing and interpreting ground investigations [29,30]. This mapping method plays a vital role in recognizing geological hazards, devising sustainable urban strategies, preserving cultural heritage, and enabling informed decision-making amidst urban expansion and environmental intricacies [29][30][31]. ...
... This comprehensive approach, including field mapping during on-site investigations, aids in understanding the geological and geomorphological history of a site, forming a vital spatial framework for designing and interpreting ground investigations [29,30]. This mapping method plays a vital role in recognizing geological hazards, devising sustainable urban strategies, preserving cultural heritage, and enabling informed decision-making amidst urban expansion and environmental intricacies [29][30][31]. In this scenario, fieldwork is fundamental to being able to making specific observations [29,32]. ...
Article
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This study conducted an extensive literature review spanning from 1950 to 2023, exploring the methodologies in urban geomorphology and urban geoheritage assessment, and the possibility of applying Nature-Based Solutions (NbSs) in order to enhance geomorphological maps. The methodology proposed here is based on a two-step approach: (i) a bibliographic review and methodo-logical investigation and (ii) methodological proposal in order to enhance the traditional geomor-phological and geoheritage maps with NbS to reduce the geomorphological risk in urban areas. This paper aims to introduce a methodological framework and illustrated its practical application to provide researchers and practitioners with a clear understanding of its implementation in real-world scenarios. The proposed methodology was applied in the north and northeastern parts of Milan, Italy. The implementation of the proposed methodology demonstrated its effectiveness in urban contexts and its potential for further modification and extension to various urban environments in the future.
... Therefore, it is fundamental to mapping rock exposures, whether outcrops, road and railway cuttings, underground excavations, or quarry operations, to collect structural data supported by field mapping surveys [10,13,20]. Conclusively, a civil or mining engineering work success is related to the proper knowledge of the site investigations framework, mainly related to the geological, morphotectonic, and hydrogeological ground conditions [21][22][23][24][25][26]. ...
... IAEG-CEGM [32] defined an engineering geological map as "(…) a type of geological map which provided a generalized representation of all those components of a geological environment of significance in land-use planning, and in design, construction and maintenance as applied to civil and mining engineering". That engineering geological mapping, even in the form of sketches mapping, is a longstanding and successful track record in applied geology and geotechnical practice, as pointed out by several authors [4,25,27,[33][34][35][36][37][38]. ...
... Besides, they are resourceful databases of ground information on lithology, structure, morphology, soil and rock mechanics, hydrology and groundwater, and in-situ investigation conditions. A variety of best practices in the preparation of applied geological maps for engineering purposes have been highlighted in topical publications in the last half-century [4,25,27,34,35,[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49]. Griffiths [50] and Culshaw [28] outline the historical milestones of the engineering geological mapping concept development evolution. ...
Chapter
Maps are of fundamental topical importance in the geology and engineering practice, mainly in field data surveys, synthesis and communication related to several domains, such as applied geomorphology, engineering geology, hydrogeology, soil and rock geotechnics, slope geotechnics and site investigation. The preparation of geological maps and plans specifically for engineering purposes is still a challenging task. The application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and geovisualisation techniques for geosciences and engineering are gaining increasing relevance. New developments in surveying acquisition for applied mapping—sketch or general maps, engineering geological maps and geotechnical maps, at diverse scales—take on critical importance in further ground investigations and modelling stages. It is also essential to highlight the value and cost-effectiveness of accurate mapping for geotechnical practice. The present chapter summarises the state of the art regarding engineering geology mapping techniques, methods, and models. Additionally, it intends to focus on an insightful geotechnical mapping reasoning concept established on advanced methods such as geomatic techniques, geovisualisation techniques, unmanned aerial vehicles for detailed surveys, and ground and numerical modelling.KeywordsApplied mappingEngineering geologyGeotechnicsGISGeovisualisation techniques
... An excellent account of the history of engineering geology is provided in the IAEG 50th anniversary book (Delgado et al. 2014). It is also addressed by Knill in the First Hans Cloos Lecture (Knill 2003) and again by Griffiths in the 14th Glossop Lecture (Griffiths 2014). These sources form the basis of this summary. ...
... As part of his discussion on risk and uncertainty, he states 'If codes and standards are adopted without question, then ground engineering overall is stagnating and the lack of appreciation of the ground conditions is leading to designs that are safe but over-expensive, over-elaborate and not an effective use of diminishing resources'. Figure 7 from Griffiths (2014) illustrates the relationship between risk and the role of codes and standards, good practice, risk-based analyses, judgement and innovation in the design process. Innovation has an important place in design but 'will require a more flexible attitude, and research and testing of new approaches will be necessary'. ...
... Innovation has an important place in design but 'will require a more flexible attitude, and research and testing of new approaches will be necessary'. (Griffiths 2014). ...
... An excellent account of the history of engineering geology is provided in the IAEG 50th anniversary book (Delgado et al. 2014). It is also addressed by Knill in the First Hans Cloos Lecture (Knill 2003) and again by Griffiths in the 14th Glossop Lecture (Griffiths 2014). These sources form the basis of this summary. ...
... As part of his discussion on risk and uncertainty, he states 'If codes and standards are adopted without question, then ground engineering overall is stagnating and the lack of appreciation of the ground conditions is leading to designs that are safe but over-expensive, over-elaborate and not an effective use of diminishing resources'. Figure 7 from Griffiths (2014) illustrates the relationship between risk and the role of codes and standards, good practice, risk-based analyses, judgement and innovation in the design process. Innovation has an important place in design but 'will require a more flexible attitude, and research and testing of new approaches will be necessary'. ...
... Innovation has an important place in design but 'will require a more flexible attitude, and research and testing of new approaches will be necessary'. (Griffiths 2014). ...
... Since the well-defined engineering geological map concept in practice by IAEG-CEGM (1976) until the vital importance of mapping standards and geotechnical models in current days pointed out by several authors (e.g., Chacón et al., 2006;Culshaw, 2018;Davis, 2021;De Freitas, 2021;Dearman, 1991;Fookes et al., 2015;González de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011;Griffiths, 2001Griffiths, , 2002Griffiths, , 2014Hutchinson, 2001;Norbury, 2017Norbury, , 2021Parry et al., 2014;Zuquette & Gandolfi, 2004, and references therein), this science developed dramatically. ...
... Consequently, mapping is essential in on-site investigations, design, and modelling studies (e.g., Chaminé et al., 2016Chaminé et al., , 2021González de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011;Griffiths, 2001Griffiths, , 2014Oliveira, 1975Oliveira, , 1977Oliveira, , 1987Parry et al., 2014). The review of methods and techniques for geological mapping for rock engineering purposes or geotechnical surveys can be complemented by reading the works of Terzaghi (1965), Varnes (1974), Goodman (1976), Oliveira (1977Oliveira ( , 1978, Priest (1993), Hudson and Cosgrove (1997), Price (2009), Hencher (2012, Chaminé et al., (2013Chaminé et al., ( , 2021, and Cosgrove and Hudson (2016). ...
Conference Paper
This work intends to summarise the principles of geotechnical mapping as one of the fundamental elements in diverse applications, emphasising its use in underground works. This activity is generally integrated into the construction and extractive industry projects and is often the starting point for dimensioning and layout design. Developed and applied by geo-professionals with well-established and systematized techniques, with the support of new technologies and tools, while never leaving aside old and always reliable tools derived from geological mapping as the compass and geological hammer, geotechnical mapping has undergone several developments. As a result, it is increasingly recognised as part of major projects. Its application in underground works is a key part of their development, whether in the on-site investigations, design development, and excavations monitoring.
... 1 152 C. Santa et al. Since the well-defined engineering geological map concept in practice by IAEG-CEGM (1976) until the vital importance of mapping standards and geotechnical models in current days pointed out by several authors (e.g., Chacón et al., 2006;Culshaw, 2018;Davis, 2021;De Freitas, 2021;Dearman, 1991;Fookes et al., 2015;González de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011;Griffiths, 2001Griffiths, , 2002Griffiths, , 2014Hutchinson, 2001;Norbury, 2017Norbury, , 2021Parry et al., 2014;Zuquette & Gandolfi, 2004, and references therein), this science developed dramatically. IAEG-CEGM (1976) outlined an engineering geological map as: "(…) a type of geological map which provided a generalized representation of all those components of a geological environment of significance in land-use planning, and in design, construction and maintenance as applied to civil and mining engineering". ...
... Consequently, mapping is essential in on-site investigations, design, and modelling studies (e.g., Chaminé et al., 2016Chaminé et al., , 2021González de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011;Griffiths, 2001Griffiths, , 2014Oliveira, 1975Oliveira, , 1977Oliveira, , 1987Parry et al., 2014). The review of methods and techniques for geological mapping for rock engineering purposes or geotechnical surveys can be complemented by reading the works of Terzaghi (1965), Varnes (1974), Goodman (1976), Oliveira (1977Oliveira ( , 1978, Priest (1993), Hudson and Cosgrove (1997), Price (2009), Hencher (2012, Chaminé et al., ( , 2021, and Cosgrove and Hudson (2016). ...
Chapter
Precise 3D dilatometric monitoring began on the San Andrés megalandslide detachment plane on El Hierro, Canary Islands, during the winter of 2013. It has been found that this presumably aborted giant landslide creeps progressively at rates of up to 0.5 mm a−1, with accelerations following periods of seismicity and extreme rainfall. In addition, a detailed multidisciplinary investigation of the landslide detachment plane has found that silica and cataclastic layers were produced during a pair of discrete slip events at 545–430 ka and 183–52 ka. Furthermore, slope stability analysis has suggested that creep may result from the deformation of sedimentary layers in the ocean, while destabilisation of the volcanic flank would require an earthquake with an intensity of at least VII. Finally, simple tsunami modelling based on conservative scenarios has shown that even a comparatively small event could have severe ramifications along the coasts of northwest Africa and southwest Europe.KeywordsVolcanic collapseDisplacement monitoringStability modellingSan Andrés LandslideEl HierroCanary Islands
... Since the well-defined engineering geological map concept in practice by IAEG-CEGM (1976) until the vital importance of mapping standards and geotechnical models in current days pointed out by several authors (e.g., Chacón et al., 2006;Culshaw, 2018;Davis, 2021;De Freitas, 2021;Dearman, 1991;Fookes et al., 2015;González de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011;Griffiths, 2001Griffiths, , 2002Griffiths, , 2014Hutchinson, 2001;Norbury, 2017Norbury, , 2021Parry et al., 2014;Zuquette & Gandolfi, 2004, and references therein), this science developed dramatically. ...
... Consequently, mapping is essential in on-site investigations, design, and modelling studies (e.g., Chaminé et al., 2016Chaminé et al., , 2021González de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011;Griffiths, 2001Griffiths, , 2014Oliveira, 1975Oliveira, , 1977Oliveira, , 1987Parry et al., 2014). The review of methods and techniques for geological mapping for rock engineering purposes or geotechnical surveys can be complemented by reading the works of Terzaghi (1965), Varnes (1974), Goodman (1976), Oliveira (1977Oliveira ( , 1978, Priest (1993), Hudson and Cosgrove (1997), Price (2009), Hencher (2012, Chaminé et al., (2013Chaminé et al., ( , 2021, and Cosgrove and Hudson (2016). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
This work intends to summarise the principles of geotechnical mapping as one of the fundamental elements in diverse applications, emphasising its use in underground works. This activity is generally integrated into the construction and extractive industry projects and is often the starting point for dimensioning and layout design. Developed and applied by geo-professionals with well-established and systematized techniques, with the support of new technologies and tools, while never leaving aside old and always reliable tools derived from geological mapping as the compass and geological hammer, geotechnical mapping has undergone several developments. As a result, it is increasingly recognised as part of major projects. Its application in underground works is a key part of their development, whether in the on-site investigations, design development, and excavations monitoring.KeywordsMappingGIS-based toolsEngineering geologyGeotechnicsGeomaterials
... Several important methods have been developed that use engineering geomorphological techniques. A comprehensive summary of the history of engineering geomorphology around the world, the requisite skills of an engineering geomorphologist, and the wide range of practical applications of the science can be found in Griffiths (2014). The Geological Society of London Engineering Group Working Party (GSL 1972) put together recommendations for a standard set of plan and section map preparation procedures including symbols for use in the UK. ...
... However, due to the complex nature of geomorphic systems, they also recommended that the practitioner at each site customize mapping symbology to highlight key features for the intended use of the map. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, engineering geological/geomorphological mapping was recognized as important but did not play a major role in many engineering projects (Griffiths 2014). In the 1990s, engineering geology maps developed for special purposes, for example landslide susceptibility, began to appear and are now being used to guide development plans in areas with natural hazards particularly in Hong Kong (Hencher and Malone 2012). ...
Article
The recent assessment of the Mitchell Creek Landslide (MCL) in northern British Columbia is a good case history of engineering geomorphological analysis of a large landslide. It was completed using historic aerial photographs, with approximately 20-year time intervals dating back to the mid-twentieth century and field investigations completed between 2008 and 2014. The large bedrock slide initiated between 1956 and 1972 and continues to experience ongoing annual movements. Significant glacial downwasting and retreat has been observed in the photographic record, and it is hypothesized that alpine glaciation has contributed to development of the MCL. This paper documents four aspects of the engineering geomorphological assessment completed at the MCL: (i) topographic evolution, (ii) slope morphology, (iii) deformation features, and (iv) displacement behavior. Four distinct geomorphic zones have been defined at the MCL based on these analyses, controlled by different failure mechanisms. The extents of these zones have changed little over the documented history of the landslide, and rates of movement estimated from aerial photography have been consistent over the last 60 years. Retreat of the Mitchell Valley Glacier appears to have played an important role in landslide initiation, as the ice mass receded the kinematic freedom of the slope increased. This study of the initiation and development of the MCL demonstrates the capabilities of a multi-faceted approach to engineering geomorphology. The combination of historical aerial photographs with digital photogrammetric modeling and point cloud analysis techniques, and geomorphological mapping, allows for development of a robust understanding of landslide behavior.
... Dobbs et al. (2012) state they serve to raise the awareness of the impact that geology has on planning and development, and act as a reminder of the importance of engineering geology (and correlated disciplinary areas, such as hydrogeology, environmental geology, applied geomorphology, etc.) in reducing the hazards or risks associated with human interaction in the built and natural environment. In short, all geotechnical practitioners aim to contribute to the correct study of the ground behaviour of soils and rocks, its applications in sustainable design with nature and environment and to the development of society (e.g., Dearman and Fookes 1974;McHarg, 1992;Griffiths, 2002Griffiths, , 2014. That approach stresses particularly the key importance of field-based training in applied geoscience and engineering geology for geologists, engineers, architects and planners (Griffiths, 2014), as well as GIS-based mapping for geoengineering purposes and communication skills in applied geosciences (e.g., Chaminé et al., 2013Chaminé et al., , 2014Marker, 2015). ...
... New developments in surveying acquisition for applied mapping (sketch or general maps, engineering geological maps and geotechnical maps, at diverse scales) take on critical importance in further stages of ground investigations and modelling. It is also important to highlight the value and cost-effectiveness of accurate mapping for geoengineering, georesources and planning purposes (Griffiths, 2002(Griffiths, , 2014, Figure 1. ...
Article
Full-text available
Among the actions designed to manage the water crisis that have taken place in the summers of recent years in the Emilia- Romagna Region (Italy) is a launched trial of managed aquifer recharge in the alluvial fan of the Marecchia River (Rimini). This test consists of conveying water through an existing channel into a quarry lake located in the recharge area of the alluvial fan. The increase in the volume of water in the lake should result in a rapid increase in the availability of water in the aquifers. Managed recharge of the aquifers can fit in the redevelopment of quarry lakes in plain areas aimed at improving the quality and quantity of groundwater bodies. Parmi les actions projetées pour faire face à la crise (problème du déficit d’eau) qui s’est développée, ces derniers étés, en région d’Emilie-Romagne, il a été lancé un test de recharge de l’aquifère à hauteur du cône alluvial du fleuve Marecchia (Rimini). Ce test consiste à acheminer l’eau, par l’intermédiaire d’un canal, jusque dans un lac artificiel (de carrière) situé dans l’aire de recharge du cône alluvial. L’augmentation du volume d’eau au niveau du lac devrait s’accompagner d’une augmentation rapide de l’eau disponible dans les aquifères. Une gestion contrôlée de la recharge des aquifères peut concorder avec le redéveloppement des lacs de carrière en zones de plaine, destiné à améliorer la qualité et la quantité des réservoirs souterrains. Una de las acciones diseñadas para gestionar las crisis del agua que occurieron en los veranos de los últimos años en la región de Emilia-Romagna (Italia) es un ensayo de recarga de los acuíferos en el cono de deyección del río Marecchia (Rimini). Esta prueba consiste en el transporte de agua a través de un canal existente a un lago, originado por una cantera, ubicado en el área de recarga del cono de deyección. El aumento en el volumen de agua en el lago debe dar lugar a un incremento rápido en la disponibilidad de agua en los acuíferos. La gestión de la recarga de acuíferos puede reconvertir el uso de los lagos de cantera ubicados en llanuras destinadas a mejorar la calidad y cantidad de las masas de agua subterránea. Topical - Sustainable land use
... The fourth period, from 2000 onwards, has considered new topics, such as 3D-4D models, spatial variability, uncertainties, and statistical methods applied to the different aspects of Engineering Geology, all of them parts of books and texts published and of an interesting overview provided by Griffiths (2014) and Oliveira (2009). ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper discusses some points of the evolution of Engineering Geology based on a survey of historical facts, books, and other types of publications and technical reports and analyzes the teaching in engineering schools, specifically in the São Carlos School of Engineering, at University of São Paulo (EESC/USP). The survey involved the main topics considered in the teaching of Engineering Geology and both successes and challenges of the teaching experience at undergraduate and graduate levels at EESC/USP over the past 50 years are presented. Engineering Geology teaching has undergone different phases and adaptations to the evolution of knowledge and research procedures. According to the survey, it focuses on four large groups of didactic activities for the current decade and, perhaps, for the next one in several countries. The first group refers to access to materials of each topic in the format of books, videos, and lectures available on websites and the second includes face-to-face activities on the solution of practical problems related to a specific topic. The third group focuses on field and laboratory works, whereas the fourth comprehends development and analyses of specific civil work projects, mineral exploration, and environmental problems according to both face-to-face and non-face-to-face methodologies.
... For example, rock lithology is essential for debris source identification and size estimation (Table 3). Engineering designs involve variability and uncertainty, and other studies have suggested that a comprehensive geomorphological investigation is required for large-scale construction or alteration projects (Griffiths, 2014;Griffiths & Lee, 2021) because these projects can have prolonged effects on the environment (Kondolf, 1997;Mossa & Chen, 2022;Surian, 1999). As geospatial Table 4. Educators' suggestions from group interview and panel discussion. ...
Article
Full-text available
Numerous studies have concentrated on developing user-centered designs for hazard zone maps but rarely for hazard-oriented geomorphological maps, named as Geomorphological Hazard Thematic Maps (GHTMs) in this study, which provide more detailed information about natural hazards. This study developed a user-centered mapping design for GHTMs for nonexperts in geomorphology. We invited civil engineers and high school educators to evaluate a sample GHTM's design in group and focus group panel interviews. The civil engineers preferred maps with more geomorphological features, whereas the educators preferred simple designs. Both groups indicated that the inclusion of essential facilities and road networks is essential. The map was also adjusted by adding hillshade layer and by changing the symbology for mass wasting, fault scarps, and fluvial features to increase clarity and simplicity. This case study is the first step toward developing user-centered mapping designs for hazard communication that will deepen their understanding of natural hazards.
... Hybrids occur in landforms; a mudslide may become a mudflow (flow-slide) according to the water content, materials properties and thus behaviour. Engineering geomorphological classifications are visual ('reading the ground') as well as related to earth materials (Hutchinson, 2001) where fieldwork, mapping and visualising (Hungr et al., 2014) are important parts of 'understanding' (Fookes et al., 2000;Griffiths, 2014), perhaps related to Cézanne's conceptualizations of Montagne Sainte-Victoire (Elderfield, 2020). I now examine some visualisation examples within information landscape and landsystem approaches before looking more closely at linking geomorphic data to organise, store and share data with context (Honti & Abonyi, 2021 (Brighenti et al., 2019) as well as species adaptations to cold environments (Ornaghi et al., 2023) is required. ...
Article
Full-text available
There is a need for geomorphology to integrate better with related disciplines, especially in Critical Zone science. To help satisfy this integration, geomorphology's knowledge-base should extend into biotic as well as geological processes via 'open data'. To aid information exchange between disciplines, the use of decimal latitude-longitude (dLL) topographic geo-referencing is advocated to identify locations of investigations, images and data in accord with the FAIR principles for data: findability, accessibility, interoperability and reusability. While local place names (toponyms) have their uses, they do not provide good location information. Identification of detailed locations using dLL referencing should be used in written, especially published , reports of investigations. Author-date citations are traditionally used to identify geomorphic knowledge, which can be enhanced when linked to dLL-specified locations and data such as sample sites and laboratory data. Ways in which dLL specifications might be used in geomorphology and associated disciplines are explored and some geomorphological problems associated with 'steepland' landscape domains are presented. Examples show how dLL data can be incorporated into the literature, whereby authors can help provide and develop geomorphic 'information surfaces' by using geo-referencing to enhance 'open' science via the FAIR principles.
... [5][6][7][8]). In fact, that includes techniques and methods of engineering geological mapping, in situ geological and geotechnical investigations, geological and geotechnical testing techniques and modelling methods (e.g., [9][10][11][12]).Přikryl et al. [10] defined geomaterials as "inorganic raw materials derived from the Earth's crust and used in construction after appropriate processing to make a genetically and functionally varied group of mineral resources". ...
... What I had always alluded to as Fookes' block diagrams appeared in his Glossop Lecture (Fookes 1997), and then suitably modified in a rather good set in his Keynote Paper to GeoEng2000 (Fookes et al. 2000), a conference held in Australia. They can also be found suitably modified and complemented by much other material in Fookes' book with Lee and Milligan (Fookes et al. 2005) or his book with Lee and Griffiths (Fookes et al. 2007), the latter author also a Glossop Lecturer (Griffiths 2014). ...
... Seafloor data made available through EMODnet have already proved valuable for mapping the geomorphometry and geodiversity of seabed terrain (Lecours et al. 2016;Kaskela and Kotilainen 2017) in addition to providing harmonized geological maps and data (Vallius et al. 2020). In his reviews of engineering geology in the UK, Griffiths (2014Griffiths ( , 2019 notes that one of the more remarkable remote sensing developments has been in submarine survey, helping to facilitate exploration, geohazard assessment and seabed investigation for offshore structures, drawing attention to the work of Hillier (2011) and Micalleff (2011). Improvements in multibeam swathe bathymetry systems has facilitated, together with geological data, sophisticated and comprehensive applications of terrain evaluation for the development of seabed oil and gas resources, for example in the Caspian Sea (Griffiths 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Marine engineering geology requires good seabed maps and access to metadata. In 2009 the European Commission established the European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODnet) programme, which is now in its fourth phase (2019–21). The programme is designed to assemble existing, but fragmented and partly inaccessible, marine data and to create contiguous and publicly available information layers which are interoperable and free of restrictions on use, and which encompass whole marine basins. This collection highlights the use of EMODnet Geology data for better understanding seafloor geology, coastal behaviour and geological events and probabilities. The papers illustrate methodological approaches to harmonizing and representing geological and geohazards information, resultant maps and datasets and their uses, alongside national datasets, for marine spatial planning. Thematic collection: This article is part of the Mapping the Geology and Topography of the European Seas (EMODnet) collection available at: https://www.lyellcollection.org/cc/EMODnet
... The importance of geomorphology Griffiths and Stokes (2008, p. 73) noted that 'whereas the methods of compiling and incorporating geotechnical and geological data in the "geo" model are reasonably well-defined … the means of systematically including geomorphological information is less well established'. The importance of an understanding of geomorphological history in the development of ground models was further underlined by Griffiths (2014). The significance of geomorphology is illustrated and discussed below, in terms of legacy and contemporary processes. ...
Article
The approach to ground modelling should be devised to suit the geological and geomorphological challenges that pertain and the context and manner in which the model is to be used. Several case studies are examined where problems experienced during works construction and operation are associated with complex ground conditions and geomorphological outcomes not fully anticipated from the site investigation and ground modelling. Other cases reflect situations where either important existing information was ignored or no apparent consideration was given to the potential for ground engineering problems. Insufficient attention to geomorphology, and especially geomorphological processes, has been the cause of several construction difficulties and continues to pose a significant source of risk in many terrains. The observational and analytical skills of a carefully-chosen geo-team will be paramount if these challenges are to be overcome. However, such considerations become largely academic if institutional shortcomings serve to limit or exclude engineering geological assessment in the first place. Thematic collection: This article is part of the Ground models in engineering geology and hydrogeology collection available at: https://www.lyellcollection.org/cc/Ground-models-in-engineering-geology-and-hydrogeology
... Preliminary information, which would inform a 29 preliminary observational model, may propagate through the subsequent design, construction, and 30 service phases of a project in the form of geotechnical risks that will require identification and 31 management. The DS is, therefore, widely recognised to be the most cost-effective part of this risk 32 identification process (Figure 1) (Fookes 1997;Chapman, 2008;Griffiths 2014). 33 ...
Article
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The sharing of ground investigation (GI) data within the UK is commonly practised only in large infrastructure projects. A vast amount of GI data collected on routine projects is commonly not made publicly available which is arguably inefficient and potentially unsustainable. This paper captures the opinions of the geoscience community and the GI industry on data sharing to better understand current working practices and potential barriers to data sharing. The results of a survey carried out at the Janet Watson Meeting 2018: A Data Explosion: The Impact of Big Data in Geoscience held at the Geological Society of London are reported. This survey is compared with the results of interviews undertaken during the Dig to Share project, a collaborative project led by Atkins, British Geological Survey (BGS) and Morgan Sindall. The opinions and practices of geoscientists towards data sharing across a project life cycle are reviewed. Drivers of risk relating to geotechnical aspects of a project are directly linked to current data sharing practice. Thematic collection: This article is part of the Digitization and Digitalization in engineering geology and hydrogeology collection available at: https://www.lyellcollection.org/cc/digitization-and-digitalization-in-engineering-geology-and-hydrogeology
... Burke et al., 2015;Loures, 2018;Mak, 2010;Weng et al., 2019;Woll et al., 2003) and wetlands. Unforeseen ground conditions related to soil properties and the groundwater conditions posit great challenges in urban development and can potentially cause delays or budget overruns (e.g. de Rienzo et al., 2008;Griffiths, 2014;Hearn, 2019;Marache et al., 2009a;McCall et al., 1996). In Denmark, few geological and hydrological data are available regarding urban areas compared to the rural areas, making management of urban areas difficult for planners and politicians. ...
Article
The increasing population density in existing urban areas often leads to the development of areas previously omitted due to construction risks. We suggest a comprehensive interpretation strategy exemplifying how planning maps should classify areas depending on risk and opportunities. The first steps of the interpretation strategy involve a review of the purpose of the project, followed by the acquisition of high-density geophysical data. In the subsequent steps, geophysical data in conjunction with GIS data are used for constructing a detailed high-resolution 3D geological voxel model. Specific geotechnical properties are assigned to the interpreted geological units based on in situ vane shear tests and the standard penetration test. In the final step of the interpretation strategy, two planning maps containing the three relevant themes are combined into one conclusive map demonstrating the recommended use of different parts of the area for future urbanisation. An isopach map showing the depth of the layers suitable for the foundation is combined with a map showing the areas flooded by the Vejle Stream during a 50- and 100-year event as well as habitat protected areas. Thus, the resulting planning maps show the most suitable locations of blue areas (lakes, wetlands), green areas (parks, etc.) and grey areas (buildings, roads) for future development. The adopted interpretation strategy can be successfully applied in similar situations to reduce the risks associated with urban development.
... This path is essential to create reliable conceptual and numerical models, such as: (1) ground models (geologic and/or geomorphological models with engineering and engineering geology parameters); (2) geotechnical models (ground models with predicted performance based on design parameters); and (3) geomechanical models (geotechnical models based on mathematical modelling and predicting behaviour) (e.g. Griffiths and Stokes 2008;Keaton 2013;Chaminé et al. 2013;Griffiths 2014;Fookes et al. 2015). All the models must be robust, calibrated and monitored through constant back-analysis based on a sound understanding of real ground behaviour. ...
Article
The rock mass quality in underground excavations and or tunnelling is a key issue in the design of the most suitable support to ground stability. This work aims to discuss the applicability of the latest version of the geological strength index (GSI|2013) in an anisotropic media during ongoing deep underground excavation by drilling and blasting. The study encompasses a comprehensive geological, geotechnical and geomechanical characterisation and evaluation of the excavation faces in the Marão tunnel (north Portugal). In addition, 305 m (two underground sections) of tunnel were mapped in 74 consecutive face underground excavation advances. Geological, geotechnical and geomechanical data relating to the site investigation were collected and computed in each new face advance. The scanline sampling technique was applied on exposed rock surfaces, a geotechnical analysis of the discontinuities was performed, and the block size of the rock mass was determined. Geotechnical and geomechanical zoning of the studied sections were continuously carried out considering the knowledge of the site rock mass characteristics and behaviour. In addition, a comparison was performed between the version of GSI|2013 and its earlier version (namely, GSI|98) and correlated with rock mass rating. The study will contribute to a better understanding of GSI|2013 and its applicability in geoengineering projects in design or excavation work stages.
... Engineering science progresses not only through the publication of fundamental and applied research, but also through the publication of case studies. This is demonstrated by the case histories of construction failures presented in Section 1.2 and the case studies in Chapter 9. Wherever possible, the publication of material in the scientific literature on the success or otherwise of a project must therefore be encouraged to avoid 'reinventing the wheel' (Griffiths 2014 ...
Article
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This chapter provides an introduction to the Engineering Group of the Geological Society of London (EGGS) Working Party book on the engineering geology and geomorphology of glaciated and periglaciated terrains. A summary of changes in the extent of glacial and periglacial conditions throughout the Quaternary to the present day is provided initially. The engineering difficulties associated with working in glaciated and periglaciated terrains are demonstrated through the inclusion of seven important case histories. The chapter then discusses the background to the Working Party, the scope and structure of the book, including abstracts of each chapter, before finally guiding the reader on how the book may be used at a site where glacial or periglacial conditions had formerly prevailed. In particular, the importance of updating the ground model at each stage of the project as an approach to risk management is emphasized. © 2017 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London.
... Although not explicitly dealing with the engineering geology of the Quaternary, several other Glossop Medal winners have made reference to Quaternary themes; for example, de Freitas (2009) and Griffiths (2014). ...
Article
Throughout the 50 years of the Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology papers have been published on case studies, site characterization and material geotechnical properties that have been influenced by the climatic and geomorphological environments experienced during the Quaternary. This period of geological time has left a significant legacy for ground engineering and construction projects with a complexity of ground conditions whose interpretation and understanding are crucial for the success of any such schemes. This review presents key papers that mainly focus on the effects of cold climates, both glacial and periglacial, developed during this time. Advances in landsystem description and ground model development published in the journal for these terrains are discussed.
... Moreover, with the publication of papers 'Online First', and an increasing number published under 'Gold Open Access', the full colour nature of many photographs and diagrams can be seen, as the journal is still published in the paper format with the content largely in monochrome and only a small number of the illustrations available in colour. QJEGH usually publishes the Glossop Lecture (with only 2 missing to date), and often publishes the Ineson Lecture, and in 2014 both were published ( Griffiths 2014;Younger 2014). While the Editorial Board works hard to attempt a speedy passage through the review process, some of the delay between submission and a decision is due to the essential leeway given to reviewers. ...
... In the vote of thanks following Professor Jim Griffiths' recent Glossop lecture (Griffiths 2014), a brief mention was made that his career path was heavily influenced by the early pioneers of engineering geomorphology in the UK. This note expands on that comment and describes the sequence of events in the early to mid-1970s that led to geomorphologists being employed by consulting engineers. ...
Article
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Engineering geomorphology is one of the key services that most major UK consulting engineers provide for their clients. But it was not always the case. In the late 1960s and early 1970s very few engineers were aware of the discipline, and there were no career opportunities for geomorphologists in ground engineering. In the UK, the transformation can be traced directly back to events in south Wales and the Himalayas in the early to mid-1970s, and the pioneering landslide mapping work of a handful of academic physical geographers (Denys Brunsden, David Jones and John Doornkamp). This technical note describes these events.
... The use of ground models and hydrological conceptual models based on hierarchical analysis of groundwater flow often provide significant contributions for understanding the complexity of Earth systems (e.g. Griffiths and Stokes 2008;Kresic and Mikszewski 2013;Chaminé et al. 2013;Griffiths 2014). In this context, good quality groundwater modelling requires hard-rock aquifer mapping and conceptualisation of hydrogeological systems Teixeira et al. 2013). ...
Article
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Hard-rock watersheds are essentially confined to fractured and weathered horizons, but they are a source of valuable water resources at a regional level, namely for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes, and public supply. They commonly exhibit complex geological bedrock and morphological features as well as distinctive gradients in rainfall and temperature. Hydromineral and geothermal resources have relevant economic value both for the bottled water/thermal spas industry and for energy supply. A comprehensive evaluation and integrated groundwater resources study has been carried out for the Caldas da Cavaca hydromineral system in Central Portugal, using hydrogeomorphology and GIS mapping techniques. Thematic maps were organised from a geodatabase comprising several layers, namely lithology, tectonic lineaments density, slope, drainage density, rainfall, net groundwater recharge and water quality. Normalised weights were assigned to all these categories according to their relative importance to groundwater potential, based on their effectiveness factors. Hydrogeochemistry, natural radioactivity and intrinsic vulnerability assessment (GOD-S, DRASTIC-Fm, SINTACS, SI indexes) issues were also cross-checked. Based on all the compiled information, a hydrogeomorphological map was produced. This multidisciplinary approach highlights the importance of hydrogeomorphological mapping as a tool to support hydrological conceptualisation, contributing to groundwater decision-making process in different stages, like water resources management and territory planning, and thus, to environmental sustainability.
Article
The first Glossop lecture by Professor Fookes in 1996 established the importance of the geological model in predicting ground conditions in engineering geology. The concept of the geological model was expanded in his 2000 paper on ‘total geology’, and this becomes the ‘geomodel’ in a 2015 book. Fookes was clear that the a priori geological model/geomodel developed from existing knowledge and site observations and was fundamental to planning and interpreting the ground conditions data that emerged from investigations. A geological model was referred to in the first iteration (2007) of Eurocode 7 and fed into a geotechnical design model. This usage was reaffirmed in 2022 within an overall Engineering Geological Model Framework by IAEG Commission 25. In Hong Kong the 2007 engineering geology manual identified a geological model as feeding into a ground model and then into a geotechnical model. The expression ‘ground model’ has subsequently emerged as providing a synopsis of the ground conditions that feeds into geotechnical design. This is recognised in the second iteration of Eurocode 7 and is in the 2023 CIRIA guidance on Geotechnical Baseline reports. The Society for Underwater Technology 2022 Report refers to the ground model and defines it as a database of available information that encompasses written reports, the database of collated information and the geotechnical risk register. Given these different views it is necessary to agree what constitutes a ground model, as this has important implications for contract documentation and establishing the legal responsibilities of all ground engineering professionals.
Article
Hard-won development gains are under real threat due to climate change impacts on Rural Transport Infrastructure (RTI) and it is a major challenge, within normally available budgets, to ensure that rural access is made sustainably climate resilient. The ability of engineers and engineering geologists to identify problems and to devise solutions that provide sustainable cost-effective access for the rural poor is a key factor in overarching aims of poverty reduction and socio-economic development in Lower and Middle-Income Countries (LIMCs). Engineering Geology, through its inherent wide-ranging and inclusive approach to earth science, has an important role to play in providing an holistic and cross-sectorial framework to meet this challenge in a sustainable manner. This paper firstly emphasises the importance of RTI, then outlines the climate change risks to RTI and hence to socio-economic development in LIMCs. The paper then describes the key contribution that Engineering Geology can make to combatting this challenge through cost-effective climate strengthening measures aided by the practical application of sound earth science principles in a budget-constrained environment. Illustrative examples are taken from recent and ongoing LIMC projects funded by the UKAID Department of International Development (DFID), the Word Bank, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Kreditanstaltfür Wiederaufbau – the German Development Bank (KfW). Thematic collection: This article is part of the Climate change and resilience in Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology collection available at: https://www.lyellcollection.org/cc/climate-change-and-resilience-in-engineering-geology-and-hydrogeology
Article
Taking the 1950 Geological Society of America Berkey Volume on The Application of Geology to Engineering Practice as the baseline for the world-wide state of the art at that time, this paper examines some of the significant advances in engineering geological practice that have taken place over the intervening period in the UK. The central role of advances in site investigation for development and construction is emphasized, as this can be reasonably described as the core activity for engineering geologists. Here the changes in desk studies, remote sensing, field mapping and various facets of ground investigations are examined. However, it is also necessary to highlight how global developments in communications and computing power have had an enormous impact on engineering geological practice, notably through on-site links between field teams and head office, and the creation of data management systems that allow complex ground conditions to be analysed and modelled. There have also been important improvements in on-site health and safety, the creation of professional qualifications and the adoption of international and national standards for all facets of ground engineering. Finally, some of the challenges engineering geology and its practitioners face in the future are explored, notably the implications of Industry 4.0, the changes that climate change will bring to society, training the next generation and ensuring that engineering geology remains a vibrant and globally recognized profession.
Article
Establishing appropriate lines of evidence enables us to resolve the challenges faced in engineering geological practice. When considering the lines of evidence used to derive a conceptual site model (CSM), three interlocking themes are (1) multi-disciplinary working, (2) knowledge and experience and (3) lessons from the past. This is explored through case histories. There may be no standard approach and conventional engineering geological skills are not always sufficient – as during the decommissioning of cryogenic gas storage tanks at Canvey Island. Alternatively, there may be reservations about using a standard approach; which led to the unconventional use of chalk fill at Port Solent Marina. In the case of a major oil leak into the Permo-Triassic aquifer, understanding the basic science of the problem explained why the original CSM was too simplistic and informed a change of remedial strategy. Obtaining permits for an underground gas storage facility on a landslide complex on the Isle of Portland required numerous lines of evidence to assess the stability of the slope. Furthermore, new lines of evidence can be added to old datasets as technology develops, such as the use of LiDAR in mapping Cotswolds landslides.
Article
Ground affected by periglacial and glacial processes can be among the most variable formed by nature. Previous chapters have graphically illustrated this variability and explained the topographic and sedimentary associations to be expected within former and present-day cold regions. This chapter shows how that background is needed to design and execute an investigation for predicting either the ground response to engineering change or the volumes of material the ground contains. Such an investigation of the ground is also needed to explain its current and former state of stability on slopes and its natural groundwater flow. The starting point of any such investigation is a conceptual model of the ground which subsequent investigation tests and refines; investigations conducted without such a model can easily become sterile and expensive exercises in collecting data. Such a model starts with knowledge of landscape, cold climate processes and their products, initially refined with the aid of a desk study. This then develops with each phase of the investigation, starting with what is known via desk studies, and progressing through what can be readily seen by walkover surveys and shallow investigations, including surface geophysics and remote sensing, all leading towards a model that can be tested directly by various intrusive investigations. Techniques appropriate for such investigations, including sampling, in glaciated and frost-disturbed ground both onshore and offshore are reviewed. Great care must be taken with the description of coarse materials, glaciotectonic structures and the materials within them; a unique feature of this chapter is the correlation it presents between the engineering descriptions of glacial sediments, as used in ground engineering, and the descriptions used by glacial sedimentologists for the same materials. Water levels are also obtained during these investigations, and in these types of ground they are often misinterpreted by applying thinking more appropriate to aquifer hydrogeology. A surprising feature of glaciated ground is its low permeability overall, and the correct interpretation of heads measured in such environments is often that for aquitards rather than aquifers. The initial conceptual model starts with little more than an idea and a broad outline, and evolves as the investigation progresses. It should continue to evolve throughout construction as more and more of the ground is exposed and its behaviour is better known; in this way, the ground model can be thought of as a living document, especially appropriate in such variable ground. The chapter concludes with a review of how this information can be brought together as three-dimensional models that effectively communicate the knowns and unknowns of a volume of ground and their associated risks, in both deterministic and probabilistic ways.
Article
By now, geomorphological assessment should have become an important component of engineering geological investigation and modelling and yet there are concerns that its use lacks clear guidance. As a result, and for reasons of unfamiliarity, geomorphological assessment can be either under-utilised or not utilised at all, sometimes with adverse engineering outcomes. Four case studies are described that provide illustration of the inclusion of geomorphological assessment a) within engineering geological modelling and b) directly within the sphere of engineering decision-making and design. The discussion focuses on how geomorphological assessment can be utilised to 1) assist in the planning of ground investigations and the interpretation of subsurface ground conditions for ground modelling purposes, 2) assess the geohazard posed by slope, fluvial and other processes and 3) consider the sensitivity of geomorphological systems (geo-systems) to change, thus providing some insight into how geohazard mechanisms, locations and intensities might change during the operational lifetime of engineering schemes. Outline procedures are proposed for the development of geomorphologically inclusive approaches to engineering geological modelling.
Article
Practitioners of ground investigation all aspire to obtain, carry out and deliver good quality investigations and also all understand the basic requirement that these investigations are to be carried out in accordance with current standards of best practice, which are laid down within the national and international Standards. There are, however, variable degrees of adherence to and knowledge of what these standards and Standards are and what these quality aspirations actually are in practice. This perhaps arises because there are many definitions of the terms 'standards' and 'quality' and this feeds directly into actual day-to-day practice. It is the intention of this paper to try and demonstrate that practitioners need to embrace the whole ethos of Standards and standards to achieve what should be their aspiration for quality. Investigators are required to work to published Standards, various forms of specification and professional practice requirements. There is continuing argument as to whether the achievement of quality is constrained or enhanced by following the Standards, and whether Standards are necessary to achieve the required quality level. The author will try to draw all these strands together and navigate a route to achieving a best practice outcome, drawing on some historical case histories from the author's experience. The question of what effect following the Standards has on innovation in design will also be discussed.
Article
Currently about two-thirds of oil and gas worldwide is produced from onshore fields and transported via pipelines.Many of these pipelines traverse remote regions and difficult terrains, and yet count among the major economic infrastructurecorridors of the world, and therefore require a high level of integrity. Global energy supply depends on overcoming difficultterrains. Throughout much of the 20th century, traditional pipeline industry practice did not seriously address terrain risks inmany remote onshore regions. Pipeline landslide rupture data are presented to illustrate the historical risks. Modern safety andenvironmental standards require a step change, and orders of magnitude of risk reduction. Construction costs for remote regionpipelines are dominated by terrain, but often have little input from terrain specialists. The 15th Glossop Lecture addresses thesechallenges, and presents some experiences in building collaboration between the pipeliners and the various geotechnicalprofessions. The historical landslide figures are updated to illustrate the risk reduction that has been achieved by moderngeotechnical approaches. It is suggested that the main contributors are the working methods now used increasingly on majorprojects: risk management of geohazards; Geoteams and the emergence of subject specialists; and Ground Models andapproaches to terrain evaluation. The themes are illustrated by examples from pipelining in the Andes, the Sahara and theCaucasus regions. Cost issues, and the importance of quantifying terrain-driven costs, are illustrated by a detailed case record ofrock trench excavation.
Article
The first issue of the Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology (QJEG) was published in 1967; the journal gained the strapline Encompassing Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology in 1979, and later became the Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology (QJEGH). The papers published in the journal cover all aspects of engineering geological and hydrogeological research and practice, and include some important cases studies as well as more fundamental papers. As the journal approaches its 50th anniversary, both 50 years and 50 volumes, this paper reviews that first half-century and acts as an introduction to a following series of review papers that will deal with the contribution of QJEGH papers to each of several important disciplines within the general ambit of the journal.
Article
An impressive dialogue with the Portuguese Hydrogeologist José Martins Carvalho, Emeritus Professor of Polytechnic of Porto (IPP), retired Professor of Hydrogeology, professional EuroGeologist (EurGeol.) and European Federation of Geologists (EFG) panel of experts on Hydrogeology, was highlighted in the scope of the thematic issue—Sustainability and Water Resources—in Environmental Earth Sciences journal honouring his long career over the last 50 years. This approach encompassed insights from his life-long outlook acting as a professional hydrogeologist and professor of groundwater science that contributed to the graduation of several generations of geologists and engineers. Moreover, Emeritus Professor J. Martins Carvalho served as mentor to numerous geo-professionals in environmental hydrogeology practice and research.
Article
Groundwater is a dynamic, finite, and vulnerable but resilient natural resource to be protected in an environmentally sustainable manner. Groundwater systems require a comprehensive understanding of climatology, geology, morphotectonics, hydrogeology, hydrogeochemistry, hydrodynamics, isotope hydrology, hydrogeomorhology, rock and soil hydrogeotechnics, and surface hydrology. Groundwater conceptual models (ground model, hydrogeological conceptual model, and numerical model)—from site investigations to regional watersheds and or global hydrological systems—based on earth systems make a major contribution to the sustainability and management of water resources. The thematic issue on “sustainability and water resources” includes a wide variety of unique contributions in environmental hydrogeology and water-related research and practice.
Chapter
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Engineering geology in the British Geological Survey (BGS) began, in a formal sense, with the creation of the Engineering Geology Unit in 1967. Virtually since its inception, despite changing research priorities and economic drivers, the survey and research work carried out by BGS engineering geologists can be conveniently divided into four broad research areas: engineering geological mapping and urban geoscience, geotechnical properties of soils and rocks, engineering geophysics and geohazards. Since the late 1960s engineering geologists have undertaken innovative research initiatives and continue to play an important role in ensuring the delivery of BGS research.
Article
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This article summarizes the events surrounding the catastrophic failure of the St. Francis Dam in March 1928 and the enormous impact this tragedy had on America, giving birth to the practice of engineering geology in California, professional registration for engineers, creation of a state agency for assessment of dam and reservoir safety, and a host of other outcomes too numerous to mention here. The flood that resulted from the dam’s untimely failure killed more than 432 people, making it the worst man-caused disaster in America during the 20th Century. The forensic work on the St. Francis Dam failure illustrates the complex and interdisciplinary nature of working with earth, water, and structural systems, and conveys the frailties engineers and geologists possess, based on the limitations of their training and professional experience.
Article
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Landscapes rarely reflect any one particular set of environmental conditions (process domain) or period of climate or geological change. Quaternary climate oscillations have left their imprint on desert landscapes such as the Sahara, where it is possible to define two main modes of desert behaviour since the Last Glacial Maximum, around 20 ka ago: an arid mode, dominated by 'desert' processes, and a humid mode, dominated by processes usually associated with semi-arid or temperate conditions. As the surface processes vary with the climate regime, so does the nature of the geohazard threat. Some hazards will change in magnitude and frequency as the climate shifts between humid and arid periods (e.g. wadi floods and associated channel erosion, salt aggressiveness), others will no longer be credible because of changes in sediment availability (e.g. stabilization of dunes by vegetation in humid periods) or sediment transport potential (e.g. mega-dunes are essentially stable under relatively weak interglacial wind regimes).
Book
In 1830–33, Charles Lyell laid the foundations of evolutionary biology with Principles of Geology, a pioneering three-volume book that Charles Darwin took with him on the Beagle. Lyell championed the ideas of geologist James Hutton, who formulated one of the fundamental principles of modern geology – uniformitarianism. This proposed that natural processes always operate according to the same laws, allowing us to understand how features of the Earth's surface were produced by physical, chemical, and biological processes over long periods of time. Volume 1 consists of 26 chapters, a comprehensive index and woodcut illustrations of various mechanisms of geological change. Lyell begins with a definition of geology and then reviews ancient theories of the successive destruction and renovation of the world. He mentions James Hutton's ideas in chapter four, and goes on to discuss the effects of climate change, running water, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes on the Earth's crust.
Article
I came to the United States and hoped to discover the philosopher's stone by accumulating and coordinating geological information in the construction camps of the U.S. Reclamation Service.
Article
In this appendix some information on aggregate properties is given. First some properties of currently produced British aggregates, second some more generalized data on aggregate properties worldwide, and third some information on how weathering affects the properties of aggregates. It is strongly emphasized that all the information given in this Appendix must be regarded as providing only a general appreciation of aggregate properties and should not be relied upon for specific test values for particular rocks or sources. Table A1 gives some test results for 96 aggregates from quarries in Great Britain. The information is not exhaustive but comes solely from fact-sheets issued by the suppliers or from information provided to members of the Working Party by the suppliers. None of the data has been confirmed independently. Where the quarry is not named in the Table this omission is at the request of the supplier. Because aggregate properties are liable to vary, the test results in the Table should not be taken as an indication of present production for particular quarries; instead prospective users should seek up-to-date information from the suppliers. It should be borne in mind that suppliers will not usually work poor quality sources of aggregate, nor provide data on them. The rock descriptions are those of the suppliers, supplemented in some cases by reference to entries in directories of quarries (BGS 1984 and BACMI 1986). The classification in Table A1 is by the broad rock groups used in the aggregates industry, including many of the suppliers of
Book
Steve Hencher presents a broad and fresh view on the importance of engineering geology to civil engineering projects. Practical Engineering Geology provides an introduction to the way that projects are managed, designed and constructed and the ways that the engineering geologist can contribute to cost-effective and safe project achievement. The need for a holistic view of geological materials, from soil to rock, and of geological history is emphasised. Chapters address key aspects of • Geology for engineering and ground modelling • Site investigation and testing of geological materials • Geotechnical parameters • Design of slopes, tunnels, foundations and other engineering structures • Identifying hazards • Avoiding unexpected ground conditions The book is illustrated throughout with case examples and should prove useful to practising engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers and to MSc level students of engineering geology and other geotechnical subjects.
Book
Prepared by the Body of Knowledge Committee of the Committee on Academic Prerequisites for Professional Practice of ASCE. This report focuses on outcomes of proposed changes in the way civil engineering is taught and learned, including the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for entry into professional practice. The first Body of Knowledge report, published in 2004, outlined 15 areas of knowledge that, when fulfilled by means of formal education and experience, prepare an engineer for practice at the professional level. This new edition expands the 15 outcomes to 24 organized into three categories: foundational, technical, and professional. It also makes use of Bloom’s Taxonomy to describe minimum cognitve levels for each outcome. This report offers a detailed roadmap for engineering educators and professionals to change the way civil engineering is practiced by reforming the manner in which tomorrow’s civil engineers are prepared for tomorrow. The body of the report defines the body of knowledge, presents the means of fulfilling those requirements, and offers guidance for faculty, students, engineer interns, and practitioners. The numerous appendixes include ASCE Policy 465, Emergence of the Body of Knowledge; an explanation of Bloom’s Taxonomy; rubrics for measuring a student’s knowledge according to the taxonomy; and the importance of education in humanities and social sciences, sustainability, globalization, public policy, and personal attitudes. This report is essential reading for anyone involved in the education of student and younger engineers. © 2008 by the American Society of Civil Engineers. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter
The previous chapters have revealed both the changing nature of physical environments and the changing roles of physical geographers in studying them. In approaching the links between such studies and environmental management, two perspectives are fundamental: first, the perspective of the specialist physical geographer who seeks to serve the needs of a range of management agencies; second, the perspective of management agencies on what the physical geographer can provide. Both perspectives are commonly partisan, but they can be explored in a relatively detached way through an appraisal of recent geographical contributions. In this chapter the perspective of the specialist physical geographer is explored through the manifold links between geomorphology and the hierarchy of management agencies in which geomorphological work can and often does play a role. Geomorphology is not alone amongst the systematic branches of physical geography in seeking to develop some of its research in the context of management, but it has made useful, perhaps exemplary progress in recent years.
Book
Ground related problems and conditions can often adversley affect costs, completion time, profitability, and health and safety issues on a project of any scale. Geotechnical risk can affect all those involved in construction - including the client, designer and the constructor. These guidelines, produced in association with the Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions, provide best practice guidance on the management of geotechnical risk by all parties concerned, and also explain why such risks occur. Contents Introduction The key processes The essential principles The client's role The designer's role The constructor's role
Article
The first paperback edition of the book originally published in hardback in 1982, and abstracted as 83A/1735. Particular attention is given to the principal applied geomorphological problems in deserts and the book describes how the surface form, processes, and materials should be mapped and analysed in the context of the needs of planners, engineers, and other environmental managers before, during, and after urban development.-from Publisher
Article
Landslides have geological causes but can be triggered by natural processes (rainfall, snowmelt, erosion and earthquakes) or by human actions such as agriculture and construction. Research aimed at better understanding slope stability and failure has accelerated in recent years, accompanied by basic field research and numerical modeling of slope failure processes, mechanisms of debris movement, and landslide causes and triggers. Written by 75 world-leading researchers and practitioners, this book provides a state-of-the-art summary of landslide science. It features both field geology and engineering approaches, as well as modeling of slope failure and run-out using a variety of numerical codes. It is illustrated with international case studies integrating geological, geotechnical and remote sensing studies and includes recent slope investigations in North America, Europe and Asia. This is an essential reference for researchers and graduate students in geomorphology, engineering geology, geotechnical engineering and geophysics, as well as professionals in natural hazard analysis.
Chapter
During the past two decades, the development of risk assessment methodology in Britain for use in land use planning and decision-making in relation to the transport of dangerous substances has progressed in a number of related fields. The intention of this paper is to draw together the societal risk aspects of this work and present it for discussion at the workshop.
Article
A study by the Royal Society in London, UK has identified that the proportion of UK students on STEM postgraduate courses is not increasing as quickly as the number of overseas students on these courses. If this trend continues, it could lead to long-term skills shortages within the UK. Companies are less inclined to take on raw graduates and look for experience as well as qualifications. Sobhan Abolghasemi studied Materials Science and Engineering at Imperial College, London, works as a materials and corrosion engineer at Shell in the Netherlands. According to him, promoting awareness of materials science at school and university level could go a long way to introduce new talents to the field. Materials testing, analysis and consultancy group Ceram, based in UK, is one company actively hiring materials science and engineering graduates. Ceram uses a number of methods to source graduates, including university campus visits, Internet-based recruitment tools, direct advertising and graduate recruitment days at the company's offices.
Article
One of the principal uncertainties in geotechnical engineering is the risk of encountering unexpected geological conditions. This is because geological materials are often irregularly arranged and highly variable in their properties. Failure to anticipate ground conditions generally results from an inadequate geological understanding. This note forms a summary of a paper that presents an approach to site evaluation designed to assist anticipation of all potential geological conditions, from desk study to project construction, that is based on developing an understanding of the total geological history of the site. Ground conditions at any site are a product of its total geological and geomorphological history (generally abbreviated to "total geological history") which includes the stratigraphy, the structure and the past and present geomorphological processes and climatic conditions. The total geological history is responsible for the mass and material characteristics of the ground. To understand this history, the development of a site specific geological model is required, based on consideration of the regional and local geological and geomorphological history and the current ground surface conditions (Fookes, 1997). The engineering performance of the site during and after construction results from the influence of the engineering works on the total geological history.
Article
In determining the safety of proposed reservoir slopes, engineers and geologists must have a thorough understanding of the Vaiont slide. This geotechnical analysis study includes: first-hand field observations of the geology, an examination of pre-slide and post-slide airphotos, laboratory testing of samples of failure plane materials, and an examination and translation of geologic and other documents related to preslide and post-slide conditions. Another objective of this study was to perform stability analyses of the Vaiont Slide that were relatively consistent with all the observed facts.
Article
A comprehensive manual on GIS from the concept and purpose through the setting up of the computer side, staffing, etc to realization of projects. The main sections cover: term definition, mathematization, trends in GIS, decomposition, computational tools, projections, selected existing systems, utilization in geographic prediction, GIS and regional planning, the development of GIS in Czechoslovakia. There are many figures and two program examples. Also included is a Czech-English-Russian dictionary of selected relevant terms. -M.A.Bass (after English summary)
Article
Experience in South Africa, Nepal and the United Kingdom has shown that geomorphological mapping is able to supply a vast amount of relevant site information both quickly and at comparatively little expense. Such information to date has been used in route planning, site investigations, highway design and budget estimations. Geomorphological mapping involves three procedures, namely the mapping of surface form, the recognition, description and mapping of superficial and bedrock materials, and thirdly, the mapping of surface processes. The geomorphological map can be used to provide the engineer with valuable derivative maps (e. g. of drainage, hillslope instability, soil geotechnical characteristics).
Article
The competency-oriented approach for evaluating education and training issues defines professionalism and establishes international standards. Over the past decade, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) have assessed professional competency for civil engineering by utilizing recognized terminology used by education professionals to quantify 24 "outcomes" and 6 "levels of achievement" (or "competencies") required for professional recognition. The ASCE process can be readily adapted to represent the geo-engineering field. A geo-engineering competency matrix can be developed to reflect principles and professional standards of the geo-engineering community. Competency profiles can define the relative roles of different specializations and show how competency can be achieved through education or by training/experience. Individuals can use them to evaluate their competencies, develop life-long-learning plans, or evaluate specialist training courses at the post-Masters level. They may also help promote appropriate international professional recognition of geo-engineering.
Article
Geotechnical engineering is concerned with all aspects of the sites upon which civil engineering works are to be carried out. Geology is that branch of science concerned with the constituents of the earth's crust, their arrangement and structure, and the natural forces which tend to modify them. Study of the geology of engineering sites would therefore appear to be the logical starting point for all geotechnical site studies. In many cases it is, but in all too many cases in the past geology has been neglected, and others in which geological studies have aided design and construction, sometimes with substantial monetary savings. A brief review of some leading features of geological studies are listed. A sound balance between field and laboratory geotechnical studies is always desirable. This does not appear to be reflected in current geotechnical literature, either in volume or periodical form.
Article
Landslides have geological causes but can be triggered by natural processes (rainfall, snowmelt, erosion and earthquakes) or by human actions such as agriculture and construction. Research aimed at better understanding slope stability and failure has accelerated in recent years, accompanied by basic field research and numerical modeling of slope failure processes, mechanisms of debris movement, and landslide causes and triggers. Written by 75 world-leading researchers and practitioners, this book provides a state-of-the-art summary of landslide science. It features both field geology and engineering approaches, as well as modeling of slope failure and run-out using a variety of numerical codes. It is illustrated with international case studies integrating geological, geotechnical and remote sensing studies and includes recent slope investigations in North America, Europe and Asia. This is an essential reference for researchers and graduate students in geomorphology, engineering geology, geotechnical engineering and geophysics, as well as professionals in natural hazard analysis.
Article
The generation and use of engineering geological models should be a fundamental activity for any geotechnical project. Such models are an essential tool for engineering quality control and provide a transparent way of identifying project-specific, critical engineering geological issues and parameters. Models should also form the basis for designing the scope, the method and assessing the effectiveness of site investigations. However, whilst the idea of models in engineering geology has existed for several decades, there has been little published that systematically distinguishes the different model types and how and when they might be used. This paper presents the views of IAEG Commission C25 on the ‘Use of Engineering Geological Models’.
Chapter
This chapter reviews various types of spatial data used for geomorphological mapping, with reference to their basic characteristics, historical background and some examples of mapping using the data. Data types include text descriptions; hand-drawn illustrations; data from ground surveying using triangulation (plane table, level, global navigation satellite systems, total station, laser range finder and terrestrial laser scanner); existing topographic maps; ground and aerial photographs and videos for visual interpretation; satellite and aerial imagery for visual interpretation; height data from analogue, analytical and digital photogrammetry; height data from airborne/satellite light detection and ranging and interferometric synthetic aperture radar; and compiled digital elevation models. This chapter also discusses recent trends, problems and future perspectives concerning the use of data for geomorphological mapping, with reference to various aspects of data including format (analogue versus digital), spatial and temporal resolution, error and availability. Technical and strategic issues related to data selection and conversion, combined use of various data, application of manual and automated methods for mapping and labour/cost of work are also discussed.
Article
In this lecture, the process of reading the ground is explored, some of the necessary background is defined and ways of improving our present and future competence in this area are outlined. It acknowledges the world-wide scope of this activity, but employs mainly the narrower canvas of mass movements in NW European conditions to illustrate its nature. Some basic tools which can assist in this process are first noted, good databases, the techniques of initial site appraisal, comprising desk study, site reconnaissance and mapping (with the aid of stereoscopic air photo interpretation and other remote sensing techniques), terrain modelling and the use of associated well-logged and sampled trial trenches. The importance of the classification of mass movements, not least to develop an agreed terminology, is touched upon and the great value, even at this early stage, of the influence line approach in assessing rapidly the effects of proposed cuts and fills is noted. An attempt is then made to identify the relevant vocabulary for reading the ground, that is those physical phenomena which bear on site appraisal. These are divided into bedrock elements, of which lithology and tectonics are highlighted, and Quaternary elements, particularly those that occurred in areas of cold climate, i.e. past freezing and thawing, sea-level changes, hydrogeological features and glacial, periglacial, fluvial and marine erosional and depositional features. Abandoned cliffs and inland scarps in chalk and some clays are then identified as characteristic landforms, and their nature and development are also explored. Case records of successful and unsuccessful earthworks on clayey scarps are also reviewed, in relation to the quality of initial site appraisal undertaken. In conclusion, significant weaknesses in our current education and training in this area are identified, specifically a near-absence of geomorphology and insufficient Quaternary geology, and proposals made to remedy these.
Article
A current trend is the requirement for complex civil engineering projects to be carried out to very short time-scales. These projects often involve difficult and protracted planning consultations. This leads to increased pressure on all the professionals involved to work at a very fast, though erratic, pace that is dictated by others. This is particularly the case with the collection and utilization of information about the ground that is required for the design and construction phases of projects. Large changes in scope and detail often occur due to a wide range of environmental, technical, financial and other external factors. The engineering geologist plays a crucial part in the management of projects that are to be completed successfully to time and within budget. This paper discusses key areas in which engineering geologists can significantly affect the outcome of a project and also factors that may influence the professional development of engineering geologists in future years.
Article
This Glossop Lecture is about landslides and their slip surfaces at residual strength in clays. Particularly in southern England, but also elsewhere, landslides in infrastructure cuttings and many natural slopes are commonly found to be slowly moving compound landslides with a component of their basal shear surfaces following a particular bed (or 'slide-prone horizon'). A selection of both historical and modern case records of this type of landslide are presented briefly. The geotechnical conditions that give rise to this occurrence are discussed, and the dominant factor relates to the dip of the strata, which must be of low inclination for the landslide mass to remain in place over the critical clay bed in the geological sequence after sliding has been initiated. Observations of the slip surfaces in the field lead to the conclusion that the bedding-controlled elements of this type of landslide develop along thin, slide-prone or slide-susceptible, horizons in the bedding. The question of what caused the formation of those horizons in the first place is answered by putting forward two hypotheses to explain why bedding-controlled slip surfaces form where they do, and considering the evidence for or against each of them. The conclusion is reached that despite the attractiveness of the concept that these slip surfaces form by a progressive failure mechanism at the junction of two materials with dissimilar properties, the alternative concept that they occur where there is a bed of slightly enhanced smectite content better fits the observations. The mechanisms for such local changes in clay mineralogy are linked to inputs of volcanic ash at the time of deposition. Definitive proof of concept is, however, lacking, but taking into account how clay sediments are deposited in sedimentary basins, this paper makes suggestions for future lines of enquiry. Even now, nearly a half-century after Skempton's seminal Rankine Lecture that introduced the concept of residual strength of clays to the wider geotechnical profession, the corpus of data is rather limited. Some of the datasets are shown to exhibit remarkable similarities, and the implications of this tend to support the preferred explanation of the origin of slide-prone horizons.
Article
1. Introduction 1.1. general Many engineering geologists devote a significant proportion of their time to the logging of boreholes and, specifically, to the interpretation of rock cores in engineering terms. A variety of techniques have been devised for logging such cores but in the United Kingdom the systems which have been adopted are often inadequate in relation to modern requirements. The Code of Practice for Site Investigations (C.P. 2001 1957, 94) provides a minimal statement on the methods of preparing logs from borings; no specific advice is given on rock core description. It is apparent, also, that the maximum potential yield of data from many boreholes is not attained and, in consequence, the benefit from drilling not fully realized. 1.2. purpose This Working Party of the Engineering Group of the Geological Society of London was set up with the objective of recommending methods which can be used in the logging of rotary cored boreholes sunk primarily for civil engineering purposes. It was agreed that the report should deal with the description of cores, and methods of handling and storage; only aspects of the drilling technique and programme relevant to the appreciation of the ground conditions would be included. Detailed consideration of drilling, in-situ testing and borehole inspection methods would be omitted. 1.3. application The Report is intended to provide a review of the information which can be obtained from borehole cores and guidance as to the manner in which this information can be recorded. The Report has not the authority
Article
Extensive geomorphological investigations of the Channel Tunnel UK portal and terminal site were commissioned by TML during 1986/87, prior to the commencement of the detailed ground investigations. These studies were primarily concerned with identifying and delimiting the spatial extent of landforms, superficial materials and in particular the evidence for contemporary or relict slope instability. The investigations took the form of large-scale (1:500) geomorphological mapping of the proposed development area. This paper describes the results of the mapping and how the information was incorporated into the site investigation and subsequent construction programme. In addition, some conclusions are drawn about the geomorphological evolution of the landslides that had developed off the chalk escarpment in the study area.
Article
Engineering construction dates from the dawn of civilization. Although both geology and civil engineering have existed in a reasonably modern form for only about 250 years, for thousands of years some individuals with an awareness of rock and soil conditions offered counsel on excavations, site conditions, and construction materials. The closeness of partnerships between geologists and engineers has varied over time and reflects a natural tension between the inductive approach of geological investigations and the deductive approach of engineering design. Both science and engineering have periods in which their governing paradigms, the generally accepted set of practices that define a discipline during a particular period of time, are subject to rapid change. Some of these 'paradigm shifts' have fostered closer collaborations between geologists and engineers; others have resulted in a weakening of such interactions. Society now demands that both geologists and engineers increasingly undertake complex predictions. Engineering projects have become much more complex; bridges and tunnels have become longer and larger, and high-speed transportation links have become common. Population growth has pushed developments into more complex geological locations where site conditions are less than optimal and geohazards more likely. New and ever more challenging environmental and economic issues make the design of new facilities increasingly dependent on accurate predictions of geological conditions. Decision-making under uncertainty (prediction) requires an increasingly multi-disciplinary approach, and thus continued close interactions between geologists and civil engineers.