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Evaluation of Protein Concentration, Amino Acid Profile and Antinutritional Compounds in Hempseed Meal from Dioecious and Monoecious Varieties

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Hempseed meal from three dioecious and three monoecious varieties has been evaluated for content and quality of the protein and for the concentration of antinutritional compounds. Hemp seeds were obtained from plants grown in two experimental fields for two consecutive years (2011-2012). For all the varieties, hempseed meal resulted in a rich source of protein (34% mean content) with an amino acid profile extremely rich in arginine and slightly poor in lysine. Differences between dioecious and monoecious varieties were observed in the content of antinutritional compounds. They were more concentrated in monoecious varieties in comparison with those dioecious. The concentration of phytic acid in hempseed meal deserves attention in both groups, being 63 and 75.4 g • kg −1 of dry matter in dioecious and monocieous varieties, respectively. The results show that, besides the recognized value of hemp oil, also the hempseed cake could find application in animal feed as a substitute of other cakes (soybean, rapeseed). From this point of view, the dioecious varieties showing lower contents of antinutritional compounds with respect to the monoecious varieties would be preferred.
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American Journal of Plant Sciences, 2015, 6, 14-22
Published Online January 2015 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ajps
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2015.61003
How to cite this paper: Russo, R. and Reggiani, R. (2015) Evaluation of Protein Concentration, Amino Acid Profile and Anti-
nutritional Compounds in Hempseed Meal from Dioecious and Monoecious Varieties. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 6,
14-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2015.61003
Evaluation of Protein Concentration, Amino
Acid Profile and Antinutritional Compounds
in Hempseed Meal from Dioecious and
Monoecious Varieties
Roberto Russo, Remo Reggiani
Istituto di Biologia e Biotecnologia Agraria, CNR, Via Bassini 15, Milano, Italy
Email: reggiani@ibba.cnr.it
Received 2 October 2014; revised 5 November 2014; accepted 12 December 2014
Copyright © 2015 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Abstract
Hempseed meal from three dioecious and three monoecious varieties has been evaluated for con-
tent and quality of the protein and for the concentration of antinutritional compounds. Hemp
seeds were obtained from plants grown in two experimental fields for two consecutive years
(2011-2012). For all the varieties, hempseed meal resulted in a rich source of protein (34% mean
content) with an amino acid profile extremely rich in arginine and slightly poor in lysine. Differ-
ences between dioecious and monoecious varieties were observed in the content of antinutri-
tional compounds. They were more concentrated in monoecious varieties in comparison with
those dioecious. The concentration of phytic acid in hempseed meal deserves attention in both
groups, being 63 and 75.4 gkg1 of dry matter in dioecious and monocieous varieties, respectively.
The results show that, besides the recognized value of hemp oil, also the hempseed cake could find
application in animal feed as a substitute of other cakes (soybean, rapeseed). From this point of
view, the dioecious varieties showing lower contents of antinutritional compounds with respect to
the monoecious varieties would be preferred.
Keywords
Antinutritional Compounds, Amino acid Profile, Dioecious, Monoecious, Protein
1. Introduction
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to Cannabinaceae family known to have
R. Russo, R. Reggiani
15
played a historically important role in food, fiber and medicine production. For centuries, it has been considered
as one of the most important agricultural crops by providing necessities such as cordage, cloth, food, lighting oil
and medicines. In Europe, it was mainly utilized as a source of fiber and seed. In 1999, the EU produced about
27,000 t of hemp fiber and 6200 t of hemp seed, mostly in France, and 90% of this was used as animal feed. In
particular, the seeds have traditionally been employed as feed for bird and poultry [1]. In other parts of the world,
it was primarily used as a source of psychoactive drug [2]. Hemp has the greatest economical potential if grown
both for seeds and stems (fibers) as residual agricultural products [3].
Hempseed contains more than 30% oil of which more than 80% is polyunsaturated fatty acids [4]. Hempseed
oil is especially rich in two essential fatty acids-linoleic acid (18:2, omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (18:3,
omega-3). They are present in a ratio of about 3:1, considered optimal in healthy human adipose tissue [5], and
apparently unique among common plant oils [6]. This preferred omega-6/omega-3 ratio was successfully uti-
lized in animal feed to manipulate the fatty acid pattern in bovine adipose tissue and eggs [7] [8]. There are var-
ious benefits attributed to omega-3 and include anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombosis properties,
stimulation of general metabolism and promotion of burning fat [5] [9].
Hempseed oil is commonly extracted by solvents and, the resulting by-product, is known as hempseed meal
(HSM) which has good protein level ranging from 30% to 40% in dry matter (DM) of flour depending upon the
variety of hemp used [10]. HSM is a rich source of protein and energy and can represent a nutritious feed sup-
plement for livestock or used for production of a high-protein flour.
Identification and characterization of hempseed proteins showed that edestin, rich in valuable amino acids,
constituted the main protein component in isolate hempseed protein [11]. Another protein structure, rich in me-
thionine and cystine, was found in hemp seeds and subsequently characterized as an albumin protein family
member [12]. Numerous factors are known to influence the nutritional quality of plant proteins, as measured by
their amino acid composition and digestibility. The amino acid composition may be affected by genotypic varia-
bility or agronomic conditions such as soil fertility and postharvest processing that alters the ratio of seed com-
ponents (e.g. shelling). The digestibility of proteins may be affected by protein structure, the presence of antinu-
tritional compounds and high temperature processing [13].
HSM contains antinutritional compounds that need to be considered when feeding this product. In hempseed,
among a vast number of antinutritional compounds, phytate has raised more attention [14]. Phytic acid (inositol
exaphosphate) is the main organic form of phosphorus present in plant seeds. Its presence reduces protein diges-
tibility and increases the excretion of endogenous nitrogen, amino acids and minerals, in particular bivalent ca-
tions [15]. Another nutritionally important group of compounds are the condensed tannins. Tannins (flavan-3-ol
based biopolymers) are known to negatively affect nitrogenous compounds uptake, absorption of minerals, and
reduce weight gain and feed consumption intake in broiler chicks [16]. In the case of sorghum, 1% of increased
tannin content reduced the dietary energy value by 10% [17]. Being protein precipitants, the tannins form com-
plexes with feed proteins and endogenous enzymes. Hence, the weight of the pancreas increases if the feed con-
tains high levels of tannins [18]. Other deleterious compounds considered by animal nutritionists are the sapo-
nins. These substances consist of a sugar moiety usually containing one sugar (glucose, galactose, glucuronic
acid, xylose, rhamnose or methylpentose), glycosidically linked to a hydrophobic aglycone (sapogenin) which
may be in nature triterpenoid or steroid [19]. Dietary saponins depressed growth, feed consumption and egg
production in poultry [20]. These negative effects have been ascribed to several properties of saponins such as
reduced feed intake caused by the astringent and irritating taste of saponins, reduction in intestinal motility and
reduction in protein digestibility, probably due to the formation of sparingly digestible saponin-protein com-
plexes [19]. Moreover, saponins have pronounced haemolytic properties and are responsible for bloat in rumi-
nats [21]. Trypsin inhibitors are considered one of the most important antinutritional factors and are found in
many species of graminaceous, cruciferous and leguminosae. In literature, there are few data about the trypsin
inhibitor activities in HSM [12]. Lastly, the metabolism of some substances contained in flour may lead to the
release of toxic products (e.g. cyanogenic glycosides to hydrogen cyanide) [22].
In the present study, HSM was evaluated as protein source (content and quality) and for the presence of the
main antinutritional compounds (phytic acid, condensed tannins, cyanogenic glycosides, trypsin inhibitors and
saponins). Two groups of hemp varieties were used. The first group was consisting of dioecious varieties (Car-
magnola, Carmagnola Selezionata [CS], Fibranova) and the second group of monoecious varieties (Fedora 17,
Felina 32, Ferimon). The dioecious and monoecious hemp varieties have strong differences in the flowering
time and seed filling [23]. The characterization of these biochemical features will help to better understand the
nutritional quality of HSM and its use as feed ingredient.
R. Russo, R. Reggiani
16
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Materials and Field Experiment
The experimental field trials on hemp were carried out for two consecutive years (2011-2012) in Italy in two
different locations of Lombardy region: Treviglio (45˚31'N, 9˚35'E; 125 m AMSL) and Cavriana (45˚20'N,
10˚35'E; 170 AMSL). The growing degree units were 579 and 645 for the two years (2011 and 2012, respec-
tively) in Treviglio, and 667 and 721 in Cavriana for the same years. The total rainfall during the growth period
of the hemp plants was 428 and 482 mm in the two years in Treviglio, and 498 and 344 for the same period in
Cavriana. In both sites, the experimental design included the evaluation of 3 dioecious (Carmagnola, CS and Fi-
branova) and 3 monoecious varieties (Futura 75, Felina 32 and Ferimon). The experimental design was a ran-
domized complete block with 3 replicate plots (10 m2/block) of each variety. Hemp plots were harvested at full
maturity stage. Seeds were forced-air dried (30˚C) in a ventilated chamber until 8% seed moisture was reached.
2.2. Oil Extraction and Protein Assay
Seeds were ground in a mortar and mixed with hexane (1:10, w/v). The solution was vigorously shaken for 30
min. After centrifugation, the upper-liquid was collected and the extraction procedure repeated. The dried flour
was used for analyses.
Protein was extracted from defatted flours by Plant Total Protein Extraction Kit (Sigma-Aldrich, Milan, Italy).
The kit includes two reagents, a plant specific protease inhibitor cocktail and a chaotropic reagent with increased
solubilizing power to extract more hydrophobic proteins. Protein content was determined by Quantum Protein
Kit (Euroclone, Milan, Italy) using Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) as standard.
2.3. Amino Acid Composition
In order to obtain the amino acid profile of the protein of the six varieties of hemp, the protein of each variety
was extracted from a mixture of flours from the various plots. Fifty µL of protein extract was subjected to acid
hydrolysis in 3 M mercaptoethanesulfonic acid containing 2 g∙kg1 NaN3 at 110˚C for 16 h. Hydrolysed samples
were then diluted ten times with HPLC quality water before amino acid analysis. The amino acid composition
was determined by HPLC analysis of the 9-fluorenyl-methoxycarbonyl chloride/1-aminoadamantane (FMOC/
ADAM) derivatives. An aliquot (150 μL) of sample was added to 150 μL of a 200 mM Borate buffer (pH 10.0).
Then, 300 μL of FMOC-Cl (in acetonitrile) was added and derivatization occurred. After 5 min, the reaction was
stopped by the addition of 300 μL of 300 mM ADAM in water-acetonitrile (1:1, v/v) and the reaction lasted for
1 min to block the excess of FMOC through the formation of FMOC-ADAM complex. Then, the sample was
filtered and analyzed by HPLC. The separation of FMOC/ADAM derivatives was performed at a flow rate of
0.9 mLmin1 on a 150 × 4.6 mm Phenomenex Kinetex C18 2.6 µ reverse phase column. Two mobile phases
were used: a) 50 mM Na-acetate (pH 4.2); b) acetonitrile. Phase B was maintained at 28% (v/v) for 3 min, in-
creased linearly to 45% (v/v) over 24 min, increased linearly to 100% (v/v) over 5 min, remained to 100% for 5
min and then returned to 28% (v/v) in 2 min to regenerate the system. Fluorescence labelled amino acids were
monitored using a Jasco fluorescence detector (model FP-920) at an excitation wavelength of 263 nm and emis-
sion wavelength of 313 nm.
2.4. Analysis of Antinutritional Compounds
Phytic acid, condensed tannins, cyanogenic glycosides and trypsin inhibitors were extracted and assayed ac-
cording to Russo and Reggiani [24].
Saponins were extracted overnight from defatted flour with absolute methanol (1:20, w/v). The samples were
centrifuged for 15 min at 15,000 rpm and the methanol extract evaporated to dryness. Then the samples were
resuspended in water: n-butanol (1:2, v/v). After 1 h of agitation, the samples were centrifuged and the higher
alcoholic layer recovered. Saponin content was estimated according to Goel et al. [25] using Quillaja saponin
(Sigma-Aldrich, Milan, Italy) as a reference standard.
2.5. Statistical Analyses
All analyses were carried out in triplicate. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was applied to establish significant
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differences (P ≤ 0.01) between hemp varieties in the levels of protein and antinutritional compounds using SPSS
version 16.0 software. Mean separation was performed using Duncan’s test and referring to P ≤ 0.05 probability
level. Pearson’s correlations between antinutritional compounds were also calculated.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Hempseed Meal Protein Content
Figure 1 shows the protein content in six hemp varieties in the two years of cultivation (2011 and 2012) and in
the two experimental fields (Treviglio and Cavriana). The protein content in HSM was, on average, 340 g∙kg1
dry matter (DM). Substantial differences are evident between years of cultivation. In 2012, protein concentration
was higher respect to first year for all hemp varieties and in the two experimental fields. This was evidenced
also by ANOVA analysis that showed highly significant difference for year of cultivation (Table 1). In 2012,
the temperatures recorded during the seed filling were higher in comparison with 2011 (resulting in > growing
degree units in both sites), while rainfall resulted more abundant in the first year in Cavriana. As described in
literature, during seed formation hemp prefers high temperatures (27˚C) and mild climate [26]. Moreover, high
temperatures during seed filling intensify the protein synthesis with an increased protein content in meal due to a
better translocation of mineral salts (nitrogen and sulphur) into xylematic tubes [27]. Instead, no difference was
observed between dioecious and monoecious hemp groups in protein concentration (Table 2).
Table 1. F values from Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for biochemical compound contents in six varieties of hemp.
Source of variance d.f.a Protein Phytic acid Condensed tannins Cyanogenic glycosides Trypsin inhibitors Saponins
Variety (V) 5 12.37** 57.02** 1130.35** 169.80** 445.84** 202.13**
Field (F) 1 6.60* 2.94 10.18** 18.73** 0.48 0.01
Year (Y) 1 269.41** 83.31** 118.88** 140.50** 4.47* 22.07**
VxF 5 0.80 5.52** 0.79 7.83** 2.30 1.51
VxY 5 6.02** 5.08** 14.98** 5.48** 5.08** 2.55*
FxY 1 1.38 8.85** 23.68** 2.87 0.07 0.11
VxFxY 5 4.89** 5.12** 0.12 1.78 3.55** 1.44
aDegrees of freedom; *Significant at P ≤ 0.05; **Significant at P ≤ 0.01.
Table 2. Protein and antinutritional compounds in three dioecious and three monoecious hemp varieties.
Variety Protein1 Phytic acid1 Condensed tannins1 Cyanogenic glycosides1 Trypsin inhibitors2 Saponins1
Carmagnola 337 (cd) 63.6 (cd) 2.14 (d) 0.09 (d) 22.6 (c) 0.47 (d)
CS 348 (ab) 64.8 (c) 2.49 (c) 0.08 (d) 21.7 (d) 0.53 (c)
Fibranova 351 (a) 61.5 (d) 2.21 (d) 0.05 (e) 10.8 (e) 0.49 (d)
Futura 75 342 (bc) 75.7 (ab) 4.56 (a) 0.12 (c) 27.3 (a) 0.65 (b)
Felina 32 351 (a) 76.7 (a) 4.42 (b) 0.17 (a) 26.2 (b) 0.68 (a)
Ferimon 331 (d) 73.9 (b) 4.40 (b) 0.15 (b) 27.7 (a) 0.70 (a)
Mean ± SE 343 ± 3.3 69.4 ± 2.8 3.50 ± 0.48 0.11 ± 0.02 22.7 ± 2.6 0.59 ± 0.04
P group 0.40 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
1Data expressed as g∙kg1; 2Data expressed as unitmg1; Means with different letters in parentheses within the same row differ significantly by Dun-
can’s range test (P ≤ 0.05).
R. Russo, R. Reggiani
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Figure 1. Protein content in flours of six varieties of hemp in the two experi-
mental fields (Treviglio and Cavriana) and two years of cultivation (2011 and
2012).
3.2. Amino Acid Profile in Hemp Protein
The Table 3 shows the amino acid (AA) concentration in hydrolyzed protein of six varieties of hemp. The nutri-
tional value of protein is determined by the profile of essential AAs (threonine, methionine, valine, phenylanine,
isoleucine, leucine, tryptophan, histidine and lysine). Among AAs, glutamate and arginine were predominant in
all hemp varieties with a mean of 17.2 and 12.0 g 100 g1 protein, respectively. Arginine in hemp protein results
higher respect to soybean and almost double than in rapeseed protein [28] [29]. This datum could be very inter-
esting for feed industries, since young mammals have a high dietary requirement for arginine due to its role as a
nitrogen carrier in tissue proteins and its key role in gastrointestinal growth and development. Some researchers
consider arginine as a key essential AA for maximal growth of young pigs [30], especially for piglet plasma
concentrations decline throughout a sow’s lactation [31].
Among the essential AAs, threonine content was higher in the group of monoecious varieties (Futura 75, Fe-
lina 32, Ferimon) than in dioecious varieties (Carmagnola, CS, Fibranova). Plant storage protein is often poor in
lysine (cereals) and solforated AAs (legumes). The mean content of lysine was 4.2 g 100 g1 protein, while the
content of methionine and cysteine was 2.4 and 1.7 g 100 g1 protein, respectively. Fibranova showed a methio-
nine content (2.8 g 100 g1 protein) significantly above the mean. Lysine and methionine have been identified
frequently as first limiting essential AAs in feedstuffs of growing cattle and lactating cows. Hemp protein results
deficient in lysine respect to soybean and rapeseed proteins [28] [29]. Instead, methionine content is higher than
in soybean and rapeseed proteins [28] [29]. Feedstuffs rich in methionine are very important for feed industries
that often use methionine additive analogues to ensure animal requirements. In fact, methionine is clearly recog-
nized as first limiting AA in poultry, high-yielding cows and third limiting AA in pigs [32].
As described by House et al. [33], the PDCAAS (protein digestibility corrected amino acid score) value for
hemp protein sources is about 0.5 - 0.6 and is positioned in the same range as the major pulse protein sources
(e.g. beans, lentils), and above cereal grain products, such as whole wheat. The PDCAAS value for hemp protein
will continue to remain in this range due to the limitation in lysine content. Future breeding efforts to increase
lysine content in hemp may be guaranteed if the value of the protein component for animal consumption will
lead to the development of a market for this crop. Therefore, HSM could partly replace soybean meal, in Euro-
pean feed industries, to reduce the expensive import costs of soy from South America. Hempseed derived-
products are already used as feed material for all species [32]. In Mustafa et al. [34], each sheep was feed up to
200 g∙kg1 of HSM and concluded that HSM is an excellent source of RUP (rumen undegraded protein), with
high post-ruminal availability, and may replace canola and soybean meal with no detrimental effects on nutrient
utilization by sheep. Data from feeding trials indicate that HSM could be used up to 20% in laying hens diets,
although Gakhar et al. [35] reported a reduction of body weight of hen after a 4 weeks diet.
R. Russo, R. Reggiani
19
Table 3. Amino acid content (g 100 g1 protein) in hydrolyzed proteins of six varieties of hemp.
Variety Arg Ser Asx Glx Thr Gly Ala Tyr Pro Met Val Phe Ile Leu Cys Trp His Lys
Carmagnola 12.6 5.6 11.3 17.5 2.6 4.6 5.3 3.9 4.7 2.5 5.0 4.9 3.9 6.5 1.4 0.7 2.8 4.3
CS 11.6 5.4 11.3 17.2 2.6 4.8 5.1 3.4 4.8 2.3 5.5 4.7 4.2 6.9 1.8 0.8 2.8 4.0
Fibranova 11.5 4.9 10.3 17.3 3.1 5.0 5.2 4.0 5.1 2.8 5.0 4.6 3.9 7.1 1.9 0.9 3.1 4.4
Futura 75 11.9 5.4 11.1 17.7 3.6 5.0 5.3 2.9 4.9 2.1 5.1 4.8 4.0 7.1 1.4 0.8 2.8 4.0
Felina 32 12.5 5.3 11.0 16.7 3.7 5.0 5.1 3.0 4.1 2.4 5.5 4.6 4.4 7.1 1.8 0.9 2.9 4.0
Ferimon 11.6 4.9 10.5 17.0 3.9 4.9 5.0 3.8 4.5 2.1 5.7 4.6 4.1 6.9 1.9 0.8 3.2 4.6
Mean 12.0 5.3 10.9 17.2 3.3 4.9 5.2 3.5 4.7 2.4 5.3 4.7 4.1 6.9 1.7 0.8 2.9 4.2
SE 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.2
3.3. Antinutritional Compounds in Hempseed Meal
In Table 1 it shows ANOVA for phytic acid, condensed tannins, cyanogenic glycosides, trypsin inhibitors and
saponins for six varieties of hemp. ANOVA showed that is present a great significant variability for varieties,
year of cultivation and their interaction for all the antinutritionals. Instead, variability attributable to experimen-
tal fields was significant only for condensed tannins and cyanogenic glycosides. In Table 2 it shows the levels
of antinutritional compounds for the three dioecious varieties and the three monocieous varieties. For each group
is shown the significance of variability between groups (P). As can be seen, phytic acid was lower in dioecious
varieties than in monocieous varieties. This huge difference between the two groups was put in evidence by the
P value and the Duncan’s test. These elevated contents of phytic acid observed in defatted hemp flour are defi-
nitely higher than soybean (2%) or rapeseed (2.2%) [29] [36]. The main effect of phytic acid is the binding of
important mineral nutrients (iron, zinc, calcium, phosphorus) which is a major concern when HSM is fed to
monogastric animals lacking of the phytase enzyme. As a consequence of this, it is advisable to mix HSM with
other plant flours exhibiting lower levels of phytic acid (cereals) for its use in monogastric animal feed formula-
tions.
In Table 2 it shows the content of condensed tannins. The monocieous and dioecious groups of plants showed
great significant differences between them evidenced by the P value. The monocieous varieties showed a mean
content of condensed tannins (4.46 g∙kg1 DM) about double respect to dioecious varieties (2.28 g∙kg1 DM).
Despite the total amount of condensed tannins in HSM resulted higher respect to soybean (0.1 g∙kg1) [37], it
can be considered relatively low if compared with other feed sources like forage [38] and, therefore, a negligible
nutritional interference can be expected [39]. Moreover, the tannin level necessary for rejection by grazing ani-
mals is about 20 g∙kg1 DM [40]. Since Colombini et al. [41] found that low levels of dietary tannins were re-
lated to increased yields of fat-corrected milk and protein (possibly due to lower protein degradation in the ru-
men and lower N excretion for ruminants), feeding of varieties with the lowest content of condensed tannins
(dioecious) would be desirable.
As can be seen, the mean content of cyanogenic glycosides was low even if different between dioecious and
monocioeus varieties (Table 2). At levels above 100 ppm, the cyanogenic glycosides are dangerous for animal
and human health [42]. However, having to dilute HSM with other flours to reduce the content of protein and
other antinutritionals, the cyanogenic glycosides content falls below the threshold of 100 ppm.
The range of variation for trypsin inhibitor activities in hemp varieties was quite high (Table 2). Trypsin in-
hibitors are responsible for reduced digestibility of seed proteins, and, for this reason, constitute the main
antinutritional factors of plant seed [43]. In Table 2, the activities varied from 10.8 to 27.7 unitmg1 of defatted
flour. However the levels of trypsin inhibitor activities result lower in comparison with those observed in some
cereals and soybean [44] [45]. Among hemp varieties, fibranova exhibited the lowest trypsin inhibitor activity
(letter “e” by Duncan’s range test). Generally plant grains require heat processing to reduce trypsin inhibitors
before their use as food or animal feed [44]. However, the excessive heat may decrease protein solubility and
amino acid availability. Therefore, flours low in trypsin inhibitor activity could be interesting for feed industries
to avoid expensive heat treatments and reduced nutritional quality of feed. The content of saponins showed sig-
nificant difference among hemp varieties (Table 2). The dioecious group showed a mean content of saponins
(0.50 g∙kg1) lower than that observed in monocioeus varieties (0.68 g∙kg1). These levels of saponins are lower
than that observed in flax and soybean [24] [45].
In Table 4 it shows the correlation matrix calculated for the different antinutritional compounds. The Pearson
R. Russo, R. Reggiani
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Table 4. Pearson correlation coefficient (r) among antinutritional compounds in six varieties of hemp.
Compounds Phytic acid Condensed tannins Cyanogenic glycosides Trypsin inhibitors Saponins
Phytic acid 1
Condensed tannins 0.670** 1
Cyanogenic glycosides 0.442** 0.791** 1
Trypsin inhibitors 0.624** 0.719** 0.660** 1
Saponins 0.653** 0.933** 0.796** 0.680** 1
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.
correlation coefficients are given as a measure of linearity between two class of compounds. From Table 4 it is
clear that all the antinutritional compounds considered in the six varieties of hemp are positively correlated.
Probably, the biosynthetic pathways of these compounds in hemp are expressed simultaneously during the de-
velopment of the seed.
4. Conclusions
Feed industries need new rich-protein fodder for animal, to increase meat, milk and egg productions. The re-
maining hemp meal after extraction of oil (which has its own commercial value), could be a new rich protein
source available for use as animal feed. HSM shows a good protein content (34%), an interesting AA profile
with elevated levels of arginine (but slightly poor in lysine) and a discrete digestibility of protein. In ruminants,
heat treatment of hemp was shown to partially increase protein digestibility although such treatment leads to an
increase of costs [46]. Such costs for HSM need to be comparable to other protein feeds to become a viable al-
ternative on commercial farms [46].
The evaluation of antinutritional compounds in HSM varieties, put in evidence the extremely high levels of
phytic acid. From this point of view, HSM from dioecious varieties is better than that from monoecious varieties.
As mentioned above, the restricted limit of 20% of HSM in animal diet allows lowering the concentration of
antinutritionals and in particular of phytic acid. However, it is important to monitor phytate content in monogas-
tric animal, since exposure of animals to high level of phytate over the long term could cause important nutri-
tionally deficiencies, especially for iron and zinc [47]. To increase the use of HSM in feed would be desirable
breeding for low content of phytate. Otherwise, a research has to be undertaken to identify mutants with low-
phytic acid occurred in soybean [48].
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Regione Lombardia for financial support through project “VeLiCa” (no. 14840/RCC) and
“FilAgro” (No. 18093/RCC).
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... Edestin, a storage protein categorized in the legume family, is predominantly found in its 11S globulin form, constituting between 60% and 80% of the total protein in hemp seeds [35]. Particularly valuable, edestin stands out as an excellent source of amino acids [36] with high bioavailability, according to conducted research [33,37]. ...
... At pH 3.0, α-helix dominates, followed by β-sheets, whereas at pH 7.0, a lower amount of α-helix is observed. At neutral pH, hemp protein is dominated by β-sheets (41-47%) and α-helix (19-28%), showing similarities with other protein-rich legumes such as beans and peas [37]. ...
... Solubility, thermal stability, and emulsification properties are important characteristics of proteins in the food industry that influence technological processes and the quality of end products [48]. Understanding these aspects contributes significantly to optimizing technological processes and improving the quality of food products containing hemp proteins [19,37,42]. ...
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Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) has experienced a significant resurgence in popularity, and global interest in diversifying its use in various industries, including the food industry, is growing. Therefore, due to their exceptional nutritional value, hemp seeds have recently gained increasing interest as a valuable ingredient for obtaining high-quality foods and dietary supplements. Hemp seeds stand out for their remarkable content of quality proteins, including edestin and albumin, two distinct types of proteins that contribute to exceptional nutritional value. Hemp seeds are also rich in healthy lipids with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (omega-6), alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3), and some vitamins (vitamins E, D, and A). Polyphenols and terpenoids, in particular, present in hemp seeds, provide antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. This review examines the scientific literature regarding hemp seeds’ physicochemical and nutritional characteristics. The focus is on those characteristics that allow for their use in the food industry, aiming to transform ordinary food products into functional foods, offering additional benefits for the body’s health. Innovating opportunities to develop healthy, nutritionally superior food products are explored by integrating hemp seeds into food processes, promoting a balanced and sustainable diet.
... Hemp contains antinutritional components that need to be considered when used as animal feed. The presence of tannins, trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid and saponins in hemp products may reduce the protein availability and the absorption of some minerals and vitamins (Russo and Reggiani, 2015). Russo et al. (2013) reported that the levels of trypsin inhibitors and phytic acid depends on the variety of the plant and despite their high levels in some plants, the 20% participation of hemp by-products in concentrate animal feed is considered safe, especially for ruminants. ...
... Russo et al. (2013) reported that the levels of trypsin inhibitors and phytic acid depends on the variety of the plant and despite their high levels in some plants, the 20% participation of hemp by-products in concentrate animal feed is considered safe, especially for ruminants. The levels of congested tannins are non-toxic (< 1% of dry weight) and not so high as to reduce the palatability of the mixture (Russo and Reggiani, 2015). Notwithstanding, hemp antinutritional factors might have an effect primary on monogastric livestock animals that luck enzymes, acting as coping mechanisms such as phytase (Russo and Reggiani, 2015). ...
... The levels of congested tannins are non-toxic (< 1% of dry weight) and not so high as to reduce the palatability of the mixture (Russo and Reggiani, 2015). Notwithstanding, hemp antinutritional factors might have an effect primary on monogastric livestock animals that luck enzymes, acting as coping mechanisms such as phytase (Russo and Reggiani, 2015). ...
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Initially, the nutritional value of the three main by-products of Cannabis sativa (hempseed cake, second-rate quality hemp seed and hemp hay), cultivated under Greek conditions and collected from four plantations in the Macedonian region was estimated. A second part of the study was the investigation of the effects of diet inclusion with hempseed cake (HSC) on the performance of Holstein dairy cows. The HSC used for this experiment was the one analyzed in the first part of the study. A total number of 20 lactating cows were allocated into two equal groups in a randomized block design. Cows of both groups were offered a total mixed ration (TMR) on the same feed allowance. The diet of the experimental group was formulated with 3.5 % hemp cake, at a quantity of 1kg of hemp cake per cow per day. Milk yield was recorded individually, and feed refusals were recorded on a pen basis daily, during the first 40 days of lactation. Individual milk samples were analyzed for their chemical composition, lipid oxidative stability and fatty acid composition and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) content, as well as feed samples of each group. Individual blood samples were received for biochemical indices assessment. All data were subjected ANOVA statistical analysis. The results of hemp by-products chemical profile showed similar nutritional values among the different cultivation regions. The experimental results indicated that the inclusion of HSC did not affect milk production and composition (P > 0.05). However, diet inclusion with HSC favorably influenced milk fatty acid profile. Finally, serum NEFA concentration was lower for the HSC group while serum urea levels were higher (P < 0.05).
... Furthermore, the high levels of anti-nutrients in hemp, such as phytic acid, condensed tannins, cyanogenic glycosides, trypsin inhibitors, and saponins, hinder their suitability as foods or supplements. These compounds have been shown to reduce feed intake and cause an enlargement of the animal pancreas (Russo & Reggiani, 2015). Studies have highlighted the adverse effects of these compounds, labelling them as undesirable components in hemp, despite some, like saponins, having positive health impacts (Russo & Reggiani, 2015). ...
... These compounds have been shown to reduce feed intake and cause an enlargement of the animal pancreas (Russo & Reggiani, 2015). Studies have highlighted the adverse effects of these compounds, labelling them as undesirable components in hemp, despite some, like saponins, having positive health impacts (Russo & Reggiani, 2015). Although hemp is generally considered a low-allergenic food source, there are reports that its derived products, especially proteins, may induce mild symptoms when consumed (Shen et al., 2021). ...
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Hemp seeds are gaining increasing attention in the realm of research due to their multifaceted nutritional and pharmaceutical properties. Notably, these seeds offer a rich source of protein, carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, making them a valuable addition to one’s diet therefore, growing interest among researchers globally. A comprehensive literature review was conducted on the prominent databases Scopus, Elsevier, and PubMed using the keywords "Hempseed," "Phytochemistry," "Nutraceuticals," and their food and feed applications. Studies suggest that these compounds exhibit therapeutic potential against conditions such as epilepsy, certain neurological disorders (Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases), and cardiovascular issues. Additionally, hemp seeds possess other notable properties, such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects. They are also used as a dietary supplement to alleviate headaches, insomnia, high cholesterol levels, and premenstrual syndrome symptoms in women. Hempseed oil, powder, and flour are utilized to enhance the phenolic activity and antioxidant properties of food products. Additionally, hempseed cake, generated after cold pressing, boasts a high protein concentration, making it a valuable feed for ruminants. However, further research and clinical trials are necessary to fully understand and harness the potential of hemp seeds for functional foods and nutraceutical applications.
... Monitoring phytate content in monogastric animals is critical, as long-term exposure to high phytate levels could lead to significant nutritional deficiencies. (Russo & Reggiani, 2015). Phytic acid (PA) is the primary way phosphorus is stored in seeds, accounting for up to 80% of the total phosphorus and comprising as much as 1.5% of the seed's dry weight (Bohn et al., 2008). ...
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... The Hemp plant, scientifically classified as Cannabis sativa L., which is a member of the Cannabinaceae family, has been widely recognized and acknowledged for its significant contributions throughout history in the realms of food production, medicinal applications, and the provision of various types of fibre (Russo and Reggiani, 2015). Hemp, a widely distributed and extensively cultivated plant, carries substantial industrial importance owing to its diverse applications as a source of whole seeds, dehulled seeds, seed flour, oil, and fibre (Callaway, 2004). ...
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The rapid increase in the human population has also increased the demand for raw materials in many fields. The increasing population has brought along the problem of opening agricultural areas to settlement. For this reason, versatile plants that bring high efficiency from the unit area without harming the existing natural resources and can contribute in many fields such as food, textile, biofuel and animal nutrition arouse excitement among scientists. Industrial plants also provide the diversification of agriculture, enable the simultaneous development of plant and animal production, and make significant contributions to local economies, especially in developing countries. Industrial crops play a crucial role in various aspects of human society, economy, and sustainability. Their importance extends beyond food production and consumption, as they contribute to a wide range of industries and offer several benefits. One of these sectors which affected by industrial plants is poultry nutrition. Industrial crops are utilized to meet the energy, protein, vitamin, fibre, Omega-3, antioxidant, phytochemicals, phosphorous and mineral requirements of poultries. Such as soybeans, sunflower, maize, cottonseed and flax are widely used in the feeding of poultries. They serve as high-energy and protein sources, promoting healthy growth and productivity. These crops are specifically cultivated to provide essential nutrients and meet the dietary needs of poultries. As a conclusion, industrial crops serve as essential ingredients of poultry feeding methods, providing the crucial nutrients, energy, and protein required for the appropriate growth, development, and productivity of poultries. Their inclusion in diets ensures the optimal health and well-being of poultries in various agricultural settings. This review article has examined some important industrial plants as poultry feed.
... The Hemp plant, scientifically classified as Cannabis sativa L., which is a member of the Cannabinaceae family, has been widely recognized and acknowledged for its significant contributions throughout history in the realms of food production, medicinal applications, and the provision of various types of fibre (Russo and Reggiani, 2015). Hemp, a widely distributed and extensively cultivated plant, carries substantial industrial importance owing to its diverse applications as a source of whole seeds, dehulled seeds, seed flour, oil, and fibre (Callaway, 2004). ...
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The rapid increase in the human population has also increased the demand for raw materials in many fields. The increasing population has brought along the problem of opening agricultural areas to settlement. For this reason, versatile plants that bring high efficiency from the unit area without harming the existing natural resources and can contribute in many fields such as food, textile, biofuel and animal nutrition arouse excitement among scientists. Industrial plants also provide the diversification of agriculture, enable the simultaneous development of plant and animal production, and make significant contributions to local economies, especially in developing countries. Industrial crops play a crucial role in various aspects of human society, economy, and sustainability. Their importance extends beyond food production and consumption, as they contribute to a wide range of industries and offer several benefits. One of these sectors which affected by industrial plants is poultry nutrition. Industrial crops are utilized to meet the energy, protein, vitamin, fibre, Omega-3, antioxidant, phytochemicals, phosphorous and mineral requirements of poultries. Such as soybeans, sunflower, maize, cottonseed and flax are widely used in the feeding of poultries. They serve as high-energy and protein sources, promoting healthy growth and productivity. These crops are specifically cultivated to provide essential nutrients and meet the dietary needs of poultries. As a conclusion, industrial crops serve as essential ingredients of poultry feeding methods, providing the crucial nutrients, energy, and protein required for the appropriate growth, development, and productivity of poultries. Their inclusion in diets ensures the optimal health and well-being of poultries in various agricultural settings. This review article has examined some important industrial plants as poultry feed.
... De igual forma, se aprovechan como uso terapéutico las semillas, aceites y harina (Vonapartis et al., 2015). Integrar el cáñamo en la alimentación animal contribuye a enriquecer la dieta del ser humano mediante el consumo de omegas en la carne, leche y huevos (Russo & Reggiani, 2015). Asimismo, la semilla es usada para la alimentación de aves de corral y pájaros (Karus, 2002). ...
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El presente texto se estructura en cuatro capítulos. El primero resalta la importancia de los metabolitos secundarios o fitoquímicos del cannabis y su potencial acción farmacológica en animales de compañía. Además, se describen las investigaciones y potencialidades de esta planta hasta la actualidad. En el segundo capítulo, se destacan los cannabinoides y sus aplicaciones en salud. También, se revisó la literatura sobre los usos y alternativas de los cannabinoides en la medicina. En el tercer capítulo, se hace referencia a la alimentación en animales, con base de cáñamo, y se mencionan sus ventajas, composiciones y suministros. Finalmente, el último capítulo profundiza en los aspectos productivos y competitivos del Cannabis sativa L. idóneos para el departamento del Huila.
... The Hemp plant, scientifically classified as Cannabis sativa L., which is a member of the Cannabinaceae family, has been widely recognized and acknowledged for its significant contributions throughout history in the realms of food production, medicinal applications, and the provision of various types of fibre (Russo and Reggiani, 2015). Hemp, a widely distributed and extensively cultivated plant, carries substantial industrial importance owing to its diverse applications as a source of whole seeds, dehulled seeds, seed flour, oil, and fibre (Callaway, 2004). ...
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Full-text available
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Supply problems and rising soybean meal prices have an impact on increasing feed costs. Hemp seed meal (HSM) with high protein content has the potential to be used as an alternative to soybean meal. This study evaluated the impact of dietary HSM of Narlı Sarayı variety as a substitute for soybean meal on productive performances, egg quality and yolk fatty acid composition. A total of 120 Lohmann Brown laying hens aged 50 weeks were allocated into 4 groups and 10 repetitions. Birds received treatment without HSM (control group), or soybean meal substituted with 4%, 8% and 12% HSM. Dietary 4% significantly increased (p < 0.05) egg production and decreased FCR compared with 8% and 12% HSM group but did not differ from the control group in an overall period of 6 weeks. The inclusion of the 12% HSM group significantly decreased (p < 0.05) egg production. Meanwhile, there was no influence of hemp seed meal (p > 0.05) on feed intake, egg weight, body weight change, egg shape index, albumen index, albumen weight, Haugh unit, yolk weight, yolk index and eggshell thickness. Dietary 8% and 12% HSM significantly increased (p < 0.05) eggshell weight and yolk colour compared with control and 4% HSM groups. There was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in omega-3 fatty acid concentration and a decrease in yolk omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids ratio with an increase in dietary HSM. It was concluded that dietary up to 12% HSM of the Narlı Sarayı variety decreased egg production and increased FCR. Increasing dietary levels of HSM increased eggshell weight, yolk colour and omega-3 fatty acids content and decreased the omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids ratio.
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