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Reintroduction of the Scarlet Macaw ( Ara Macao Cyanoptera ) in the Tropical Rainforests of Palenque, Mexico: Project Design and First Year Progress
Abstract and Figures
There are 17 extant species of macaws in the Neotropics, most of them found in South America. Two subspecies of scarlet macaw (Ara macao) are distinguished in Mesoamerica: Ara macao cyanoptera, from Mexico to central Nicaragua, and Ara macao macao, from southern Nicaragua to South America. Habitat loss, hunting, and in particular illegal traffic have resulted in the local and regional extinction of this macaw within its historical range. In Mexico, the scarlet macaw has disappeared from about 98% of its indigenous range; it is extinct in El Salvador and occurs in very low numbers in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The IUCN recommends two tactics for population restoration: Reintroduction and Reinforcement. In this paper we report the design and first-year progress of a project to reintroduce the scarlet macaw (A. macao cyanoptera) in the tropical rainforests of Palenque, Mexico, where this macaw has been extinct for more than 70 years. The project is spearheaded by Aluxes Ecopark Palenque, bringing together Xcaret Ecopark (as donor of captive-bred scarlet macaws) and the Institute of Biology of Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM; provider of the scientific platform for the project). The design of the project adheres to the IUCN/SSC guidelines for reintroductions. A soft-release protocol was developed as a major axis of the reintroduction of the scarlet macaw. This includes a preparation phase to enhance survival in the wild and a long-term post-release monitoring program. Broad social support was considered essential for the success of the project, and a program was implemented to include the local inhabitants as partners in this initiative. Between April 2013 and June 2014, we conducted six successful releases of a total of 92 macaws. Survival to August 2014 was 92%. The reintroduction of the scarlet macaw in the tropical rainforests of Palenque will restore a seed-and fruit-eating avian species with important consequences for ecosystem functions and processes, in a project that reconnects people with their natural heritage.
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... Survival rates of released animals are often notoriously low, and, unfortunately, firstyear survival rates for released psittacines are often ≤50% ( [6][7][8][9][10], but see these noteworthy exceptions [2,[11][12][13]). The relatively low survival rates of psittacines are driven by a variety of factors, chief among them being predation and rapid dispersal from release sites [8,14,15]. ...
... Most parrots likely learn vital survival skills in the first few months post-fledging. However, in most psittacine release projects, the birds are held in captivity for at least one year or more [2,5,6,11,12]. In this way, most release candidates learn what it takes to survive and thrive in a cage during this critical post-fledging learning period. ...
... Across six releases of Ara spp. macaws, first-year survival ranged from 59% for Red-and-green Macaws in Argentina to 92% for Scarlet Macaws in Costa Rica, with a mean of 77 ± 16% survival for six projects [11,13,18]. Similarly, 14 wildcaught Blue-and-yellow Macaws released in Trinidad had a first-year survival of~71% [44]. ...
As habitat loss and other threats accelerate, ecological restoration and reintroduction science are becoming progressively more important. The psittacines are among the most endangered bird groups and are prime candidates for restoration through reintroduction. Unfortunately, post-release survival of captive-raised animals is often quite low because, in part, of high predation rates, low site fidelity, poor flight ability, and low flock cohesion. Current best practices in parrot release hold the birds in captivity for a year or more and include distinct methods to address each of these challenges. Here, we conduct a small-scale, proof-of-concept study using free flight methods and human-socialized trained adult birds to hand raise and release a group of six fledgling Blue-and-yellow Macaws in their historical range in southeastern Brazil. All six released birds showed strong flock cohesion and fidelity to the release site, avoided predation, and survived without supplemental feeding for over one year. One bird was captured by local people but was recovered and rereleased and it has reintegrated into the group and is still alive and doing well. The human-socialized trained adult birds modeled both desirable behaviors (flocking, foraging, reacting to predators) and undesirable behaviors and they were returned to captivity before the conclusion of this study. Our study suggests that free flight training has great potential to help captive-raised young attain a broad array of vital skills needed for survival post-release.
... Data collection was divided into four items: (a) pre-release behavioral training and tests; (b) temperament assessment; (c) physical evaluation; and (d) parasitological evaluation, as described below: a) Pre-release behavioral training and tests: Animals were submitted to flight training (FT) and human aversion training (HAT), through adapted protocols from previous studies with Psittacidae (Estrada, 2014;Oliveira et al., 2014;White et al., 2021), including individuals from the Amazona genus (Collazo et al., 2003;Pedroso, 2013;White et al., 2005). The training occurred with all individuals together in the aviaries where they were kept (housing aviaries A and B), and no additional handling was needed to individualize the animals. ...
... Regarding the human aversion training, aversion to food offered by a human had a significant increase after the training sessions. Although human aversion training has been carried out for some macaw and parrot species, such as Anodorhynchus leari (Oliveira et al., 2014), Ara macao cyanoptera (Estrada, 2014), Amazona aestiva and Amazona rhodocorytha (Paulino et al., 2018), to date we do not know any published scientific papers approaching a systematic training of human aversion for Amazon parrots, such as the one used in the present study. The procedures used here aimed to associate the presence of humans with a situation that induced fear or aversion, as done by Oliveira et al. (2014), generating low and natural stress levels Table 2 Results of generalized linear mixed models with regression coefficients (coef.) of body weight and wing load on flight time. ...
... The protocol formulated aimed to avoid harm to the welfare of the animals, by applying the stressor instantaneously and with low intensity, providing the possibility of fleeing away from the aversive stimulus (and, therefore, having control of the situation), as they were housed in aviaries with large dimensions. Literature suggests that procedures involving conditioning with aversive stimuli should be applied in a few sessions, due to the possibility of habituating the animals to the conditioning stimulus, neutralizing or even reversing the expected results Estrada, 2014;Griffin et al., 2000;Oliveira et al., 2014). For antipredation training, Reading et al. (2013) reported the importance of periodic use when associated with reintroduction programs. ...
The maintenance of parrots in captivity, caused by the illegal traffic and illegal ownership of these animals, makes them lose essential abilities for free-living survival, such as flight capacity and human avoidance, which hinders the success of reintroduction programs. Here, we assessed the influence of physical features (body weight, wing load, and plumage condition), endoparasites, and a training protocol on flight capacity and aversion to humans in captive parrots which were candidates for reintroduction. In addition, we assessed the relations of flight capacity and aversion to humans with the parrots’ temperament. Therefore, 38 parrots were submitted to a flight training and human aversion training protocol for 10 weeks. The following variables were registered over time for each animal: human aversion score, flight score, flight time (in s), and latency to flight (in s). A GLMM was adjusted to analyze the flight performance of the parrots over time, as well as the effects of body weight, wing load, occurrence of intestinal parasites, and plumage condition. Pearson correlation coefficients were applied to evaluate the association of parrots’ temperament with flight capacity and responsiveness to humans. We have observed a significant increase in the flight time (P = 0.0016) and flight score (P < 0.0001), as well as in the human aversion score (P < 0.0001). Factors that influenced flight capacity were body weight, wing load, and plumage condition. The temperament dimension neophilia was negatively correlated to the human aversion scores, with neophiliac parrots showing less aversion. The risk-taking dimension was negatively correlated to flight capacity, i.e. risk-averse parrots had better flight capacity. Using the training procedures described in this study, it was possible to improve flight capacity and increase aversion to humans, these abilities are essential for the animals’ survivorship in wild. Furthermore, we identified factors (body weight, wing load, plumage condition, and the temperament dimensions neophilia and risk-taking) that must be treated cautiously and that aid in the selection of individuals which are suitable for reintroduction, an important process for the conservation of endangered species.
... The low socioeconomic indices among rural communities in semiarid areas, such as the Caatinga, can complicate efforts to restrain illegal captures and wildlife trade [88]. To maximize the probability of a successful reintroduction, the support of local communities is vital in our reintroduction approach [89,90]. The interactions between people and wildlife sharing the same space and resources are factors considered in our perspective. ...
... Accordingly, the hiring of adequately trained local residents can provide a means of direct communication and interaction with local communities and increase their involvement in, and support for, conservation efforts. People are more prone to engage positively with conservation if they are included in a participatory process [90,92,93]. ...
We describe efforts to reintroduce the extinct-in-the-wild Spix’s Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) within its historical range in eastern Brazil. Twenty captive-reared Spix’s Macaws were released, along with 15 Blue-Winged Macaws (Primolius maracana), as heterospecific flocks in two events during the dry and rainy seasons of 2022. We monitored the release groups through daily observation and telemetry tracking from early June 2022 to early June 2023. We documented an overall first-year survival of 58.3% (CI: 37.8–78.7%), with 65% of Spix’s Macaws establishing a stable area of activity within 5 km of the release site, excluding any temporary long-distance forays. Eighty-five percent of released Spix’s Macaws exhibited flock cohesion, including interactions with and integration into wild Blue-Winged Macaw groups at the release site. Several released Spix’s Macaws formed pair-bonds with conspecifics and engaged in nest cavity exploration, breeding behavior, and territorial defense of nest sites, with three females also laying and incubating eggs. One nesting pair successfully hatched and reared chicks in an artificial nest cavity. These releases employed a novel reintroduction strategy using a surrogate species model, the sympatric Blue-Winged Macaw, to “mentor” and facilitate post-release adaptation by the target species and increase the total number of individuals in the release cohort. Lastly, participatory monitoring by local citizens is considered a way to engage and involve local communities in species and habitat conservation and potentially create new employment opportunities in the region.
... Despite this popularity, research on the behavioral ecology of this species is still limited, with published in situ research focusing on feeding observations [16], nesting and parental behaviors [17,18], post-fledging movements [19], migratory patterns [20], and geophagy [21]. Other studies have also investigated the behavior of released captive-bred individuals, with the aim of assessing their adaptation to the natural environment [22,23]. Furthermore, some of the existing behavioral research on wild macaws (genus Ara) relies on qualitative observations alone (e.g., descriptions of food manipulation [16,24]) which, although useful to inform ex situ management, are of limited use for in situ-ex situ comparative studies. ...
The scarlet macaw (Ara macao) is a charismatic species that is native to Central and South America and commonly housed in captivity. Gaps in knowledge about these birds’ behavioral ecology in the wild hinders both in situ and ex situ management and conservation efforts for this species. We conducted seventeen days of observations of free-living scarlet macaws in two locations in Costa Rica, in February 2022, with the aims of (1) advancing our knowledge of this species’ natural behavioral ecology, and (2) generating data for comparison with captive macaws to help to inform their ex situ management (e.g., enclosure design and enrichment). Routes were walked within two locations—Bosque Escondido (BE), release area for captive-bred reintroduced individuals and no extant wild population, and Punta Leona (PL), an area of natural habitat within a resort inhabited by wild scarlet macaws—and focal interval sampling of multiple scarlet macaws in a group was used to record behavior and space use. The macaws at both locations were generally active, spent most of their time high in the tree canopy, relied on climbing to move within it, and used a wide variety of supports. The macaws at PL spent significantly more time feeding and locomoting, and less time perching, than those at BE, possibly due to differences in resource availability, rearing conditions, and age. Furthermore, the wild scarlet macaws at PL exhibited a variety of foraging strategies to acquire and manipulate food items within the tree canopy, including frequent use of their feet during manipulation. Despite limitations caused by a small sample size, a short period of observations, and differences between the two populations observed, this study provides insights into the behavioral ecology of scarlet macaws in the wild, which can be used for behavioral assessments of captive macaws while informing their ex situ management, with applications to animal welfare and captive breeding programs.
... By restoring habitats with suitable food plants, including protecting them, we can prepare for future release or reintroduction efforts, ensuring an environment that can sustain Blue-headed Macaws (e.g., Volpe et al., 2022). Ultimately, this approach promotes their ecological role (Estrada, 2014;Melo et al., 2020;Tella et al., 2020). ...
Dietary data are vital for understanding species' resource requirements and ecological roles and supporting conservation efforts. The Blue-headed Macaw, Primolius couloni, is a vulnerable and endemic species in the Amazon. Due to their rarity, elusive nature, complex forest canopy habitat, and occurrence in remote areas, we minimally know their dietary habits. To address this gap, we analysed photographs of Blue-headed Macaws posted on wildlife-focused social media platforms, specifically targeting images that capture foraging behaviour on plants. Photographs depicting the same foraging were included only once, and those where the plants were not identified were discarded. By doing so, we identified 36 distinct foraging events (or photos), primarily taken between July and October, concentrated in specific locations in Peru and Brazil, a potential seasonality in foraging. We documented 27 food plant species and items such as nectar (n = 9 photos), pulp (8), seeds (7), buds, bark (5 each), aril, and leaves (n = 1 photo each). Notably, floral resources, including nectar, are a potentially important food in the driest months. Using Levin's Index (Ba), we identified a broad dietary niche, indicating a generalist feeding strategy with a wide variety of plant species (Ba = 0.69) and food items (Ba = 0.88). Additionally, the study revealed interactions such as florivory, seed predation, bark consumption, and potential mutualistic roles like pollination and seed dispersal. Our photo-centric approach here expanded the known dietary spectrum of the Blue-headed Macaw from four to 31 plant species, offering new insights for conservation strategies. We recommend the preservation of identified food plants and suggest using these data to inform habitat restoration efforts that support the macaws' dietary needs and ecological functions. Future research should focus on continuous monitoring of these food plants to deepen our understanding of seasonal foraging trends and ecological interactions and refine conservation approaches. K E Y W O R D S Amazonian parrots, biodiversity conservation, parrot function, resource utilization, wildlife photography RESUMO Avaliar a dieta do maracanã-de-cabeça-azul, Primolius couloni (Sclater, 1876), psitacídeo vulnerável e endêmico da Amazônia, é crucial para a compreensão de suas necessidades de recursos e seus papéis ecológicos, elementos essenciais para estratégias eficazes de conservação. A escassez de dados sobre seus hábitos alimentares, provavelmente devido ao seu comportamento esquivo, à complexidade do dossel florestal e ao hábito de frequentar áreas remotas, impõe 2 of 16 | BRITO et al. "It may seem curious that in the 21st century we still don't know what these birds feed…" Toa Kyle (2008), from In search of the most mysterious macaw.
... Determining the sex in monomorphic species is essential in studies about the ecology, behavior, or genetics of free wild birds (Ágh et al., 2018;Barros et al., 2017;Bonilla-Ruz et al., 2011;Matta Camacho et al., 2009). In captive birds, sexing provides essential biological information to avoid the pairing of individuals of the same sex in breeding programs, and it allows for the selection of individuals of the appropriate sex to be released in reintroduction programs and to maintain viable populations (Estrada, 2014;Raigoza Figueras, 2014). In addition, prior knowledge of sex is a requirement for the exchange of individuals and for successful species conservation programs to be implemented. ...
... The ecological aspects behind the success and failure of rewilding projects have been thoroughly assessed (Torres et al., 2018). However the sociopolitical factors associated with rewilding, which have strong implications for the success or failure of rewilding projects (Estrada, 2014;Lorimer et al., 2015;Coz and Young, 2020), are often overlooked. ...
The ecological aspects behind the success and failure of rewilding projects have been looked at in literature and case studies, but rarely have sociopolitical factors been included in these classifications. To truly determine which factors lead to success in rewilding projects, inclusive of sociopolitical factors, we created global models that analyze 120 case studies from IUCN's "Global Re-introduction Perspectives" that fit under IUCN's definition of rewilding. Models included the ten guiding principles for rewilding from IUCN's Rewilding Thematic Group, success factors, and threats to success as defined from existing literature. We measured the self-reported "level of success" from the case report examples against the guiding principles, success factors and threats to determine which were more likely to be associated with successful rewilding projects. Local awareness of the benefits of rewilding and illustrating a proof of concept of rewilding were the factors that were most strongly associated with higher levels of success in rewilding projects, as self-reported by case report authors, as well as Guiding Principle 9 "rewilding recognizes the intrinsic value of all species". Our results indicate that both ecological and sociopolitical factors are critical to successful rewilding projects and both need to be accounted for and included in future planning of rewilding projects to maximize the possibility of successful rewilding.
... In recent decades, a number of species have recovered due to reintroductions (see Destro et al. 2018;Fischer & Lindenmayer 2000 for reviews). Among birds, for example, reintroductions have successfully supported Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus (Cade et al. 2003), Crested Ibis Nipponia nippon (Yu et al. 2015), and Scarlet Macaw Ara macao (Estrada 2014). Among cranes, reintroductions have enhanced a dwindling population of Mississippi Sandhill Cranes Grus canadensis pulla (Ellis et al. 2000). ...
... In general, citizens of Palenque are aware of the value of conserving wildlife and their habitats, due to three main reasons: a) the creation of Palenque National Park in 1981 (1,771.95 ha;SEGOB, 1993), which is home to several charismatic mammal species (e.g., Eira barbara, A. pigra, Leopardus pardalis, L. wiedii, Galictis vittate) and includes a Mayan archaeological site; b) the economic importance of tourism associated with Palenque National Park (~200,000 visitors/year); and c) a recent conservation project that reintroduced the scarlet macaw (Ara macao), an emblematic bird that has been regionally extinct for more than 40 years (Estrada, 2014). ...
The outcomes of human-wildlife interactions depend largely on how animals are perceived by humans. All American primates are forest specialists, but due to habitat loss they are increasingly using urban areas. However, relatively little is known about people’s perceptions of urban primates in American cities. Our goals were to (1) determine the locations used by black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) in the city of Palenque, Mexico; (2) describe the perceptions of citizens about the monkeys; (3) identify current and potential risks faced by the monkeys; and (4) describe the opinions and actions of key stakeholders regarding the management of the urban monkeys. We administered questionnaires to 85 citizens, verified howler monkey locations, and interviewed key stakeholders. Citizens identified >40 locations and identified several risks to the monkeys, including electrocution, road accidents, and dog attacks. Most people (58%) mentioned that howler monkeys were food-provisioned; tourism was the most-commonly identified benefit of the urban monkeys to the community. Key stakeholders reported that the risks faced by urban monkeys are worrying because of the new railway project (“Tren Maya”), which is likely to cause urban expansion in the region. In general, citizens’ perceptions of urban howler monkeys in Palenque are currently positive. These results indicate that human-howler monkey coexistence in Palenque might be possible if context-specific policies concentrate on minimizing the risks to both primates and humans and involve multiple stakeholders in decision-making. Policy recommendations that arose from our case study include insulating electricity cables, increasing arboreal connectivity, and promoting peer-learned positive practices.
... Martínez, E. Jiménez;G. Reyes;Escalante et al 2019;Estrada 2014;Milenio 2020;United Corridors 2022;OVIS 2022;Busteros 2016. el aviturismo enfocado a loros y guacamayas tuvo la participación de 86,870 avituristas dejando una derrama económica de 18 millones de dólares (Cantú et al., 2021). ...
The primary lowland rainforest around the Mayan ruins of Palenque, in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, has been the focus of much study. The second growth and the mosaic of pasture and farmland surrounding the protected area of Palenque National Park also have received some attention by researchers and visitors. Until now though, a complete avifaunal list for this area had not been compiled. In our judgment, 353 species have been recorded reliably, a hundred more than previously reported. An additional 27 species have been reported at the site on multiple occasions but for which we feel there is no definitive evidence. There are 202 regular breeders, most of them resident, and 87 migrants that winter or pass through regularly. Relative capture rates for understorey birds indicate that Phaethornis longirostris and Henicorhina leucosticta are most often caught, and some rarely seen birds, such a Geotrygon montana, are less rare than previously thought. In a state in which habitat destruction is routine, in which national parks are increasingly becoming forested islands, we need baseline data such as these to get a clearer idea of what occurs there if we are to understand anthropogenic effects on forests.
The Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) is a widely distributed parrot that has suffered reduced abundance and increased isolation in Mesoamerican populations. Understanding environmental and temporal factors that influence nest survival may assist efforts to increase annual recruitment for this species, improving population viability. We examined nest survival of Scarlet Macaws in the Maya Biosphere Reserve of Guatemala and Chiquibul Forest of Belize in 2010. Our results suggest that connecting tree canopies have the greatest negative influence on daily nest survival, reducing the probability of a nest surviving the entire nesting period from 0.89 to 0.42. This is likely due to facilitating nest access to predators. Nine of 20 nests in Belize, but no nests in Guatemala, were poached. The majority of poached nests were located in close proximity to a reservoir, which may facilitate access to nests. Based on previous estimates of nest survival required for this population to remain stable, our 2010 data suggest that the population in Guatemala could be growing, but that poaching has reduced nest survival below the threshold for population stability in Belize. Reducing habitat loss in Guatemala and nest poaching in Belize would most benefit this historically connected population.
INTRODUCCIÓN: Las consideraciones genéticas son un componente integral de cualquier programa de manejo de vida silvestre. Esto es especialmente cierto cuando se plantean iniciativas de reintroducción o translocación para el aumento poblacional, cuando individuos liberados intentarán reproducirse con la población silvestre. Antes de iniciar programas intensivos de manejo de metapoblaciones las necesidades y objetivos del proyecto deben ser claramente identificados, incluyendo una determinación cuidadosa del estado genético de las poblaciones históricas o restantes en vida silvestre y las potenciales poblaciones fuente (silvestres o de cautiverio). Es posible diseñar estrategias para introducir variación genética que incremente y complemente la composición genética de la población silvestre. Para nuestra investigación utilizamos técnicas de genética molecular a múltiples niveles jerárquicos para desarrollar un plan de manejo genético de las guacamayas rojas en la Selva Maya, considerando aspectos de taxonomía, remanente de flujo genético entre los sitios reproductivos en Belice, Guatemala y México, y toda la variación genética entre la población silvestre y en cautiverio. Este trabajo proveerá de datos empíricos críticos para los manejadores locales para guiar el desarrollo del monitoreo de los impactos genéticos de los esfuerzos intensivos del manejo de la metapoblación. A pesar de que nuestro proyecto se enfoca en la Selva Maya, estos resultados tendrán implicaciones importantes para otros programas de conservación de guacamayas rojas, como los esfuerzos propuestos por SalvaNatura para la reintroducción de guacamayas rojas en El Salvador. OBJETIVOS: Objetivo # 1: Utilizar datos de genética molecular para determinar patrones amplios de variación genética intraespecífica e identificar caracteres diagnósticos para linajes evolutivos únicos. Estos datos serán comparados con la taxonomía de las subespecies (Ara macao cyanoptera y Ara macao macao) para determinar si las designaciones actuales representan unidades de conservación operacionales.
We live amid a global wave of anthropogenically driven biodiversity loss: species and population extirpations and, critically,
declines in local species abundance. Particularly, human impacts on animal biodiversity are an under-recognized form of global
environmental change. Among terrestrial vertebrates, 322 species have become extinct since 1500, and populations of the remaining
species show 25% average decline in abundance. Invertebrate patterns are equally dire: 67% of monitored populations show 45%
mean abundance decline. Such animal declines will cascade onto ecosystem functioning and human well-being. Much remains unknown
about this “Anthropocene defaunation”; these knowledge gaps hinder our capacity to predict and limit defaunation impacts.
Clearly, however, defaunation is both a pervasive component of the planet’s sixth mass extinction and also a major driver
of global ecological change.
The rate of biodiversity loss is not slowing despite global commitments, and the depletion of animal species can reduce the stability of ecological communities. Despite this continued loss, some substantial progress in reversing defaunation is being achieved
through the intentional movement of animals to restore populations. We review the full spectrum of conservation translocations, from reinforcement and reintroduction to controversial conservation introductions that seek to restore populations outside their indigenous range or to introduce ecological replacements for extinct forms. We place the popular, but misunderstood, concept of rewilding within this framework and consider the future role of new technical developments such as de-extinction.
In Mexico, the Scarlet macaw Ara macao cyanoptera has been extirpated from the states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Oaxaca (with the possible exception of a subpopulation of c. 50 birds in the Chimalapas region, although there have been no recorded sightings of these birds in the last decade), Tabasco and Campeche. At the time of writing, the wild population comprises only 150–250 birds mainly located in the Lacandon Jungle in Chiapas. The drastic reduction in the Scarlet macaw population in Mexico is related to an accelerated loss of their habitat and anthropogenic factors, such as illegal trade. It is evident that the Scarlet macaw is currently subject to very high pressures with clear indications that wild populations will disappear from the Jungle in the next 10 years. In 1993, Xcaret began a programme of Scarlet macaw reproduction in captivity, developing and using the best protocols for hand rearing, and establishing new procedures to facilitate parental rearing of the chicks without human intervention. The aim is to rear captive-bred macaws that will adapt to the wild successfully and not require post-release supplemental feeding. Endoscopy techniques have been used to determine gender and match the pairs in more than 100 enclosures. Since 2007 reintroduction procedures, developed in partnership with Acajungla A. C., Aluxes Ecoparque Palenque and some scientists of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, have culminated in the release of 36 Scarlet macaws in 2013 in three events, on 21 April (17), 29 June (11) and 11 August (8).
We use the phylogenetically based statistical method of independent contrasts to reanalyze the Wolf et al., 1996translocation data set for 181 programs involving 17 mammalian and 28 avian species. Although still novel in conservation and wildlife biology, the incorporation of phylogenetic information into analyses of interspecific comparative data is widely accepted and routinely used in several fields. To facilitate application of independent contrasts, we converted the dichotomous (success/failure) dependent variable (Wolf et al. 1996, Griffith et al. 1989. Translocations as a species conservation tool: status and strategy. Science 245, 477–480) into a more descriptive, continuous variable with the incorporation of persistence of the translocated population beyond the last release year, relative to the species' longevity. For comparison, we present three models: nonphylogenetic multiple logistic regression with the dichotomous dependent variable (the method used by Wolf et al. 1996and Griffith et al. 1989), nonphylogenetic multiple regression with the continuous dependent variable, and multiple regression using phylogenetically independent contrasts with the continuous dependent variable. Results of the phylogenetically based multiple regression analysis indicate statistical significance of three independent variables: habitat quality of the release area, range of the release site relative to the historical distribution of the translocated species, and number of individuals released. Evidence that omnivorous species are more successful than either herbivores or carnivores is also presented. The results of our reanalysis support several of the more important conclusions of the Wolf et al. (1996)and Griffith et al. (1989)studies and increase our confidence that the foregoing variables should be considered carefully when designing a translocation program. However, the phylogenetically based analysis does not support either the Wolf et al. (1996)or Griffith et al. (1989)findings with respect to the statistical significance of taxonomic class (bird vs mammal) and status (game vs threatened, endangered, or sensitive), or the Griffith et al. (1989)findings with respect to the significance of reproductive potential of the species and program length.
