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Purpose: Outdoor walking groups can facilitate interaction with nature, social interaction, and physical activity, yet little is known about their efficacy in promoting mental, emotional, and social well-being. National group walk programs are especially underevaluated for these outcomes. The present study sought to identify the mental, emotional, and social well-being benefits from participating in group walks in nature. Design: Drawing on an evaluation of the Walking for Health pro-gram in England, a longitudinal study investigated the mental, emotional, and social well-being of individuals who did (Nature Group Walkers) and did not (Non-Group Walkers) attend group walks in nature. Both groups were statistically matched using pro-pensity score matching (n = 1,516). Between-group t tests and multiple regressions were performed to analyze the influence of nature-based group walks on depression, perceived stress, negative affect, positive affect, mental well-being, and social support. Findings: Group walks in nature were associated with significantly lower depression, perceived stress, and negative affect, as well as enhanced positive affect and mental well-being, both before and after controlling for covariates. There were no group differences on social support. In addition, nature-based group walks appear to mitigate the effects of stressful life events on perceived stress and negative affect while synergizing with physical activity to improve positive affect and mental well-being. Originality/Value: The present study identifies the mental and emotional well-being benefits from participation in group walks in nature and offers useful information about the potential health contribution of national outdoor group walk programs. Key Words: Group walks—Nature and health—Depression—Mental well-being— Emotional well-being—Social well-being—Walking.
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ORIGINAL ARTICLES
Examining Group Walks in Nature
and Multiple Aspects of Well-Being:
A Large-Scale Study
Melissa R. Marselle,
1,2
KatherineN.Irvine,
2,3
and Sara L. Warber
4
1
Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK.
2
Institute of Energy and Sustainable Development, De Montfort
University, Leicester, UK.
3
Social, Economic and Geographical Sciences Research Group,
The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, UK.
4
Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
Abstract
Purpose: Outdoor walking groups can facilitate interaction with
nature, social interaction, and physical activity, yet little is known
about their efficacy in promoting mental, emotional, and social well-
being. National group walk programs are especially underevaluated
for these outcomes. The present study sought to identify the mental,
emotional, and social well-being benefits from participating in group
walks in nature.
Design: Drawing on an evaluation of the Walking for Health pro-
gram in England, a longitudinal study investigated the mental,
emotional, and social well-being of individuals who did (Nature
Group Walkers) and did not (Non-Group Walkers) attend group
walks in nature. Both groups were statistically matched using pro-
pensity score matching (n = 1,516). Between-group t tests and
multiple regressions were performed to analyze the influence of
nature-based group walks on depression, perceived stress, negative
affect, positive affect, mental well-being, and social support.
Findings: Group walks in nature were associated with significantly
lower depression, perceived stress, and negative affect, as well as
enhanced positive affect and mental well-being, both before and after
controlling for covariates. There were no group differences on social
support. In addition, nature-based group walks appear to mitigate
the effects of stressful life events on perceived stress and negative
affect while synergizing with physical activity to improve positive
affect and mental well-being.
Originality/Value: The present study identifies the mental and
emotional well-being benefits from participation in group walks in
nature and offers useful information about the potential health
contribution of national outdoor group walk programs. Key Words:
Group walks—Nature and health—Depression—Mental well-being—
Emotional well-being—Social well-being—Walking.
Introduction
T
he projected global increase of depression, obesity, cardio-
vascular disease (CVD), and dementia (Department of
Health, 2011; Health and Social Care Information Centre,
Lifestyle Statistics, 2013; World Federation for Mental
Health, 2012; World Health Organization, 2008, 2013) presents
alarming public health problems. Stress can exacerbate mental and
physical ill health, as it is a risk factor of both depression and CVD
(Cohen & Janicki-Deverts, 2012; Kessler, 1997; Shevlin et al., 2007).
Prevention and low-cost amelioration of these health issues is nec-
essary in order to reduce health-care demands and treatment costs
(Council of Economic Advisers, 2009; Department of Health, 2012).
Undertaking physical activity in nature is a novel approach for the
prevention of these critical health issues (Bird, 2007; Frumkin & Fox,
2011; Maller et al., 2005). The UK Department of Health lists use of
nature as a determinant of public health (Department of Health, 2013)
with potential savings for the UK’s National Health Service of £2.1
billion per year (DEFRA, 2011, p. 46). Walking—an accessible, low-
risk, and inexpensive form of physical exercise (Department of
Health, 2011)—has been shown to reduce depression (Robertson et al.,
2012; World Federation for Mental Health, 2012) and physiological
134 ECOPSYCHOLOGY SEPTEMBER 2014 DOI: 10.1089/eco.2014.0027
stress (Hartig et al., 2003), prevent obesity (Morabia & Costanza,
2004; Pucher et al., 2010) and CVD (Boone-Heinonen et al., 2009),
and stabilize cognitive functioning for those at risk of dementia
(Smith et al., 2013). A small body of research suggests that walking in
a natural environment may provide additional benefits to well-being
when compared to walking indoors (Bowler et al., 2010; Thompson
Coon et al., 2011) or in an urban environment (Bowler et al., 2010;
Marselle et al., 2013). Indeed, research has shown that a single, short-
term walk in a natural environment provides greater reductions in
negative emotions (Berman et al., 2008; Hartig et al., 2003; Park et al.,
2011) and physiological stress (Hartig et al., 2003) and greater im-
provements in positive emotions (Berman et al., 2008; Hartig et al.,
2003) compared to an urban environment walk. Although walking is
the most common form of physical activity in the US and the UK
(CDC, 2012a; Hillsdon & Thorogood, 1996; National Institute for
Health and Clinical Excellence, 2012), less than half of adults in both
countries meet the recommended levels of physical activity (CDC,
2012b; Department of Health, 2011). Finding ways to increase the
uptake of moderately intense walking could contribute to meeting
physical activity guidelines.
Group walking
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and others, rec-
ommend walking in a group in order to increase physical activity in
the general population (CDC, 2012a; Kahn et al., 2002; Kassavou
et al., 2013). People are more likely to walk in the company of another
person (Ball et al., 2001) and prefer ( Johansson et al., 2011) and enjoy
(Plante et al., 2007) walking with others outdoors more than walking
outdoors alone. Several researchers have found that the social con-
nections of a walking group are a part of what attracts people to
initiate and maintain participation (South et al., 2013; Wensley &
Slade, 2012). Group walk programs increase walking behavior
(Kassavou et al., 2013) and have high retention rates (Gusi et al.,
2008). Proponents argue that walking group interventions are also
cost effective in that every £1 spent on a group walk program could
save the National Health Service £7 (Walking for Health, 2013a).
National group walking programs have been established throughout
Great Britain (e.g., Ramblers Association) and in England (e.g.,
Walking for Health), Scotland (e.g., Paths for All), and Wales (e.g.,
Let’s Walk Cymru). In the US, walking group programs are more
grassroots and city-based (Institute at the Golden Gate, 2010), al-
though there is at least one national program, the American
Volkssport Association, with more than 300 walking clubs (American
Volkssport Association, 2013). Walking for Health (WfH) is one of the
largest public health interventions for physical activity in the UK
(Fitches, 2011), with 70,000 people attending 3,400 group walks each
week (Walking for Health, 2013c).
National group walk programs have the potential to address
population public health through improved physical, mental, emo-
tional, and social well-being. Most quantitative investigations of the
effects of such programs have concentrated on physical well-being
(CLES Consulting, 2010; Dawson et al., 2006; Jackson, 2011; Paths
for All, 2013; Phillips et al., 2011, 2012; Walking for Health, 2013c).
Few studies have quantitatively evaluated the effect of national
group walk programs on depression, perceived stress, or mental or
social well-being. Doust and Tod (2007) found that individuals
maintained high levels of mental health through continued partici-
pation in Let’s Walk Cymru. Pretty et al. (2007) found an improve-
ment in emotional well-being and self-esteem immediately following
participation in two outdoor walking groups. Qualitative research
suggests that WfH group walks have a positive effect on social well-
being (Dawson et al., 2006; Hynds & Allibone, 2009; South et al.,
2013; Villalba van Dijk et al., 2012).
Much of the evidence about the well-being benefits of group walks
in nature comes from small-sample research studies. Compared to a
group walk indoors or in an urban environment, group walks in
natural environments significantly reduce depression (Roe & Aspi-
nall, 2011), perceived stress (Roe & Aspinall, 2011), and negative
affect (Peacock et al., 2007; Roe & Aspinall, 2011) and significantly
increase positive affect (Mayer et al., 2009; Nisbet & Zelenski, 2011).
A specific measure of positive mental well-being has not been used in
a group walk context.
Rationale for the present study
Most evaluations of national group walk programs are in the ‘gray
literature’ not published in peer-reviewed journals (e.g., CLES Con-
sulting, 2010; Coleman et al., 2011; Dawson et al., 2006; Doust & Tod,
2007; Fitches, 2011; Hynds & Allibone, 2009; Jackson, 2011; Paths
for All, 2013; Phillips et al., 2011, 2012; Villalba van Dijk et al., 2012;
Walking for Health, 2013c). These studies frequently lack a com-
parison group (e.g., Doust & Tod, 2007; Pretty et al., 2007); thus any
identified positive effects could be due to other factors, such as
physical activity, the natural environment, or being in a research
study (Bird, 2007; Newton, 2007). Brown et al. (2011) highlight the
need for such control or comparison groups. Additionally, insight is
needed into whether well-being benefits of nature-based group walks
occur independently of physical activity.
The lack of quantitative research on mental and social well-being
outcomes is noticeable, highlighting a need to broaden investigations
into well-being. Similarly, understanding the longer-term well-being
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ª MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC.
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effects from nature-interaction is under-researched, as the majority
of studies measure well-being immediately before and after en-
gagement in the activity (Thompson Coon et al., 2011).
It is essential for public health research to know whether the
findings from the small sample group walk studies can be found in a
large, general population sample. Research of national group walk
programs has the potential to satisfy the call for larger-scale studies
in nature and health research (Bowler et al., 2010; Thompson Coon
et al., 2011), as these studies would facilitate large sample sizes
( > 1,000) (e.g., CLES Consulting, 2010; Phillips et al., 2012).
Study aim and hypotheses
The present study aims to investigate the influence of nature-
based group walks on multiple aspects of well-being. The study tests
three hypotheses:
(i) individuals who take part in nature-based group walks would
experience significantly less (a) depression, (b) perceived
stress, and (c) negative affect compared to individuals who
do not take part in such walks;
(ii) individuals who take part in nature-based group walks would
experience significantly greater (a) positive affect, (b) mental
well-being, and (c) social well-being compared to individuals
who do not take part in such walks;
(iii) the positive well-being from such walks would be indepen-
dent of other covariates of well-being, such as physical ac-
tivity and stressful life events.
Method
Study design and participants
The study reported here draws
from a larger observational, lon-
gitudinal study about the mental,
emotional, and social well-being
from participation in WfH. Ethical
approval was obtained from De
Montfort University’s Human Re-
search Ethics committee. All par-
ticipants were recruited from a
sampling frame, provided by WfH,
of all individuals who had attended
at least one WfH group walk, pro-
vided an e-mail address, and gave
consent to be contacted for evalu-
ation purposes. Online questionnaires
were used to collect data at Time 1 (T1) and 13 weeks later at Time 2
(T2). Participants were invited to take part in the study via an invi-
tation e-mail with a Web link to the T1 questionnaire. Participants
gave informed consent prior to starting the T1 questionnaire. Non-
Group Walkers were defined as individuals who had not taken part in
any group walk in the 6 months prior to T1 (Phillips et al., 2011) and
confirmed at T2 their nonparticipation in a group walk during the 13-
week interim. Group Walkers were defined as individuals who had
attended at least one WfH walk in the 6 months prior to T1 (Phillips
et al., 2011) and continued to attend at least one WfH walk between
T1 and T2. All study participants were over 18 years of age and
resident in England. For the study reported here, additional eligibility
criterion for Group Walkers was that the main type of environment
for one’s WfH walks during the 13-week interim was nature (i.e.,
natural and seminatural places, green corridor, farmland, urban green
space, coastal area, or a mixture of any of the above) (see Marselle
et al., 2013). These participants are labeled Nature Group Walkers.
Individuals who stated they had walked in urban public spaces or an
unclassified environment were excluded from this analysis.
Measures
Measures included demographic and health data, covariates, and
outcome variables. See Fig. 1 for details of the time course for data
collection.
Demographic and health data. Participant characteristics assessed at
T1 included age, gender, marital status, highest level of education,
and social deprivation (Department for Communities and Local
Government, 2011). Additional information obtained from the WfH
Fig. 1. Time course of data collection indicating information collected at each time point. Items
collected ‘Before 1st WfH Walk’ came from the WfH database (Walking for Health, 2013b); items
from Time 1 and Time 2 were collected via online questionnaires.
MARSELLE E T AL.
136 ECOPSYCHOLOGY SEPTEMBER 2014
database (Walking for Health, 2013b) included ethnicity, whether the
participant was referred to WfH by their general practitioner (GP),
health screening conditions that may affect walking group partici-
pation (e.g., pain in chest when exercising, joint pain), diagnosed
medical condition (e.g., diabetes, heart disease), disability (e.g.,
physical, sensory), and number of days of 30 min of physical activity
in the week prior to starting WfH (‘‘past physical activity’’).
Covariates.
Stressful life events. The List of Threatening Experiences (Brugha
et al., 1985; Brugha & Cragg, 1990) collected information on the
number of stressful life events (0–11) experienced in the year prior to
T1 (‘‘past stressful life events’) and in the 13 weeks preceding T2
(‘‘recent stressful life events’’). Stressful events included serious illness
or injury to self or a close relative; death of a family member or close
friend; marital separation or relationship breakup; interpersonal
problems; unemployment; financial crisis; legal problems or property
loss (Office for National Statistics, 2002). The scale has been used in
previous nature and health research (van den Berg et al., 2010).
Frequency and duration of other nature walks. A single item at T2
assessed the frequency of other nature walks (i.e., nature walks outside
of a walking group) a participant had done in the 13-week interim,
which might be alone or with others. Participants were asked, ‘On
average, how frequently do you walk or hike in green space (such as a
local park, natural area, national park, countryside)? Nature Group
Walkers were instructed to exclude WfH walks. Responses were re-
corded on a 7-point scale (1 = never; 7 = daily). Average duration of
these walks was assessed with a single-item measure; responses were
on an ordinal scale with 15 min increments (range 0–195 min).
Physical activity. Frequency of engaging in 30 min of physical
activity in the week preceding T2 was assessed with a single item
(‘‘recent physical activity’’). Participants were asked, ‘In the last se-
ven days on how many days have you done a total of 30 minutes or
more of physical activity, which was enough to raise your breathing
rate?’ (Milton et al., 2011). All participants were asked to include any
‘sport, exercise, and brisk walking or cycling for recreation or to get
to and from places, but should not include housework or physical
activity that is part of your job.’ Nature Group Walkers could include
their WfH group walks. Responses were recorded on an 8-point scale
(0 = 0 days; 7 = 7 days).
Outcome measures. All six outcome measures were assessed at T2.
Depression. The 10-item Major Depressive Inventory (Olsen et al.,
2004) assessed how frequently participants felt symptoms of de-
pression (e.g., ‘Have you lost interest in daily activities? Have you
had trouble sleeping at night?’’) in the past 2 weeks on a 6-point scale
(0 = at no time; 5 = all the time). Total scores range from 0 (no de-
pression) to 50 (extreme depression) (Olsen et al., 2004). The measure
has been used in the UK in a previous nature and health study
(Marselle et al., 2013). Internal consistency (Cronbach’s a) of the
scale has been reported as 0.90 (Forsell, 2005).
Perceived stress. The 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al.,
1983) assessed how frequently participants experienced certain
thoughts and feelings (e.g., ‘Felt nervous or stressed? Felt you were
not on top of things?’’) in the past month on a 5-point scale (0 = never;
4 = very often). Total scores range from 0 to 40; higher scores indicate
greater psychological stress. This measure has been used in previous
nature and health studies in the UK (Marselle et al., 2013; Ward
Thompson et al., 2012). Internal consistencies of the scale range from
.78 to .91 (Cohen & Janicki-Deverts, 2012).
Negative and positive affect. The Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule (Watson et al., 1988) assessed both negative and positive
affect. Participants rated the frequency of experiencing 10 negative
(e.g., upset, guilty) and 10 positive (e.g., interested, excited) emotions
in the past 2 weeks on a 5-point scale (1 = very slightly or not at all;
5 = extremely). For each subscale, total scores range from 10 to 50;
higher scores demonstrate greater negative or positive affect. The
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule has been used in previous
nature and health studies (Berman et al., 2008, 2012; Marselle et al.,
2013; van den Berg & Custers, 2011). Crawford and Henry (2004)
report internal consistencies for the negative affect (a = 0.85) and
positive affect (a = 0.89) subscales.
Mental well-being. Participants rated statements on the 14-item
Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (Tennant et al., 2007) in
relation to their experience (e.g., ‘I’ve been feeling optimistic about
the future; I’ve been feeling useful’’) during the past 2 weeks on a 5-
point scale (1 = none of the time; 5 = all of the time). Resulting scores
range from 14 to 70; higher scores indicate higher levels of mental
well-being. This measure has been used in previous nature and health
studies in the UK (Marselle et al., 2013; Mitchell, 2013; Ward
Thompson et al., 2012). The scale has high internal consistency
(a = 0.91) (Tennant et al., 2007).
Social well-being. Social well-being was assessed using the 10-item
Appraisal subscale of the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL)
(Cohen et al., 1985)
1
, which measures perceived availability of emo-
tional social support (e.g., ‘There are several people that I trust to help
1
Items on the ISEL have been updated since 1985. For the updated version,
see http://www.psy.cmu.edu/*scohen.
NATURE-BASED GROUP WALKS AND WELL-BEING
ª MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC.
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SEPTEMBER 2014 ECOPSYCHOLOGY 137
solve my problems; There is no one I feel comfortable talking to about
intimate personal problems’’). Two items were modified to better fit the
sample
2
. Participants rated how true each statement was on a 4-point
scale (0 = definitely false; 3 = definitely true), with a possible total score
range of 0–30. Higher scores indicate greater emotional social support.
No time frame was used. The ISEL has been used in the UK general
population (Rees et al., 1999; Steptoe, 2000; Wood et al., 2008); this
was the first time it was used in nature and health research. The scale
has high internal consistency (a = 0.95) (Leo
´
netal.,2010).
Statistical analyses
Propensity score analysis. At the start of the study, group differences
on demographic, health status, and past stressful life events were
assessed with chi-square and independent samples t tests. Significant
differences ( p < .05) between Nature Group Walkers and Non-Group
Walkers existed on age, gender, ethnicity, education, disability, past
physical activity, and past stressful life events. These group differ-
ences could confound analyses of the influence of nature-based
group walks on well-being. To adjust for confounders and make the
groups comparable, propensity score matching (PSM) (Rosenbaum &
Rubin, 1983) was used. PSM has been used in public health research
investigations of outdoor physical exercise (Boer et al., 2007; Cohen
et al., 2013; Hendriksen et al., 2010). A propensity score is the con-
ditional probability that a study participant belongs to the treatment
group (i.e., Nature Group Walkers) given all the observed covariates.
Propensity scores were estimated using logistic regression with group
walk participation as the outcome variable and selected covariates (i.e.,
age, gender, ethnicity, education, disability, past physical activity, past
stressful life events) as predictors. Participants were matched using 1:1
nearest neighbor matching with replacement, the recommended ap-
proach when there are fewer ‘control’ than ‘treated’ participants (De-
hejia & Wahba, 1999). Each ‘ ‘control’ participant (Non-Group Walker)
was thus matched to one or more ‘ ‘treated’ participants (Nature Group
Walkers) with the most similar propensity score. ‘Control’ participants
‘receive a frequency weight that reflects the number of times they were
selected as a match’ (Stuart, 2010, p. 13). To ensure ‘good’ matches, a
caliper of .25 standard deviations of the logit of the propensity score was
applied (Ho et al., 2007); ‘‘control’ participants not identified as a ‘good’ ’
match for a ‘treated participant were ‘pruned from the sample (Stuart,
2010). The end result is a reduced sample of participants that have
similar propensity scores. The PSM procedure was performed using the
SPSS PSM plug-in ‘ ‘psmatching’ (Thoemmes, 2012).
The propensity-matched sample was assessed statistically, numer-
ically, and graphically to ensure that the two groups were similar on
the selected covariates after matching. The PSM output indicated that
matching improved covariate balance and reduced standardized mean
differences between the two groups (output available upon request).
Study analyses. All analyses were performed using SPSS 20.0 and
were weighted by the propensity score weight. The choice of statistical
analyses was influenced by available analyses in SPSS that can ac-
commodate fractional weights (Maletta, 2007; F. Thoemmes, personal
communication, 12 February 2013; UCLA: Statistical Consulting
Group, 2013). Chi-square and independent samples t tests evaluated
group differences on demographics, preexisting health, and covariate
variables on the matched sample. Effect size was calculated using
Pearson’s correlation coefficient r (Field, 2009).
Group differences on all six outcome measures were assessed with
independent samples t tests; negative affect and depression were log-
transformed prior to analysis due to substantial positive skewness.
Listwise deletion was applied in all independent t tests with Bon-
ferroni corrected significance levels of p < .008 (a = .05/6).
Standard multiple regression assessed the effect of nature-based
group walks on multiple aspects of well-being, after controlling for
covariates. Separate regression models were conducted for each
outcome variable using the same procedure. Health screening con-
ditions (0 = no health conditions; 1 = 1 or more health conditions),
recent stressful life events, frequency of other nature walks, duration
of other nature walks, recent physical activity, and group walk par-
ticipation (0 = Non-Group Walkers; 1 = Nature Group Walkers) were
entered as predictors. Following examination of residual plots, de-
pression and negative affect were both log-10 transformed, and social
support was reflected and square-root transformed (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2013). The reflected and transformed social support variable has
the opposite interpretation of the original variable. No multi-
collinearity was found in the predictor variables. Listwise deletion was
applied, and significance levels were set at p < .05.
Results
Characteristics of the study population
Figure 2 shows the participant flow through the study. Valid re-
sponses on both questionnaires were obtained from 1,991 participants.
2
The item ‘There is someone I could turn to for advice about making career
plans or changing my job’ was inappropriate for a sample that could contain
retired individuals. It was modified to ‘There is someone I could turn to for
advice about changing my job or volunteer focus’ (T. C. Leo
´
n, personal
communication, 23 July 2011). The item ‘There really is no one who can
give me an objective view of how I’m handling my problems’ was modified
by changing the word ‘objective’ to ‘honest’ (Leo
´
n et al., 2010).
MARSELLE E T AL.
138 ECOPSYCHOLOGY SEPTEMBER 2014
Following removal based on eligibility criteria, missing data, or PSM
pruning, the final propensity-matched sample consisted of 1,516
participants (n = 1,081 Nature Group Walkers, n = 435 Non-Group
Walkers).
Table 1 details the demographic, health status, and covariates of
the propensity-matched sample. The propensity-matched sample was
mostly aged 55 and over (88.3%), female (66.2%), of partnered
marital status (71.1%), of White ethnicity (96.8%), highly educated
(53%), and lived in the least socially deprived areas of England (51%).
After matching, the two groups remained significantly different on
health screening conditions only (Table 1); this was subsequently
included as a covariate in the regression analyses. Regarding planned
covariates collected at T2, Nature Group Walkers spent significantly
more time on other nature walks and engaged in more recent physical
activity than Non-Group Walkers (Table 1).
Results on multiple aspects of well-being
Table 2 details the mean scores for all six well-being outcome
variables for both groups. On average, Nature Group Walkers expe-
rienced significantly less depression, perceived stress, and negative
affect and significantly greater mental well-being and positive affect
compared to Non-Group Walkers; effect sizes were small to medium
(.19 to .24 range) (see Table 2). There were no significant group dif-
ferences in social support.
Results of the standard multiple regression analyses are shown in
Table 3. The variance explained by all six regression models signif-
icantly differed from zero. The variance explained by all predictors
combined was 10.4% in depression, 9.5% in perceived stress, 7.3% in
negative affect, 10.2% in positive affect, 6.6% in mental well-being,
and 1.8% in social support.
Depression
Controlling for other significant predictors, group walks in nature
were significantly associated with lower depression. Recent stressful
life events were significantly associated with an increase in depres-
sion. Increased frequency of other nature walks and recent physical
activity were both significantly associated with less depression.
Duration of other nature walks was a marginally significant predictor
of lower depression. The standardized regression coefficients are
directly comparable and provide insight into the relative rank of a
predictor in the model (Field, 2009). Group walk participation was the
strongest predictor of less depression (b =-.19), followed by the
positive predictor, recent stressful life events (b = .17) (Table 3).
Perceived stress and negative affect
Group walks in nature were significantly associated with less
perceived stress and less negative affect, controlling for other pre-
dictors. Recent stressful life events were significantly associated with
greater perceived stress and negative affect. Increased frequency of
other nature walks and recent physical activity were both signifi-
cantly associated with reduced perceived stress and negative affect.
Recent stressful life events was the strongest predictor of more per-
ceived stress (b = .21) and more negative affect (b = .19). Group walk
participation was the second strongest predictor of perceived stress
(b =-.15) and negative affect (b =-.16), in the opposite direction.
Positive affect and mental well-being
Controlling for other predictors, Nature Group Walkers were sig-
nificantly associated with greater mental well-being and positive
affect compared to Non-Group Walkers. Greater frequency of other
nature walks and recent physical activity were both significantly
Fig. 2. Composition of study groups: Group Walkers were removed
if they had not walked in nature; participants from either group
were removed if they had missing values on covariate measures;
and propensity score matching procedures ‘pruned’ Non-Group
Walkers that did not match Nature Group Walkers within .25
standard deviation of the logit of the propensity score.
NATURE-BASED GROUP WALKS AND WELL-BEING
ª MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC.
VOL. 6 NO. 3
SEPTEMBER 2014 ECOPSYCHOLOGY 139
associated with greater positive affect and mental well-being. Recent
stressful life events were significantly associated with less mental
well-being and positive affect. Duration of other nature walks was
significantly associated with greater positive affect only. Recent
physical activity was the strongest predictor for both mental well-
being (b = .13) and positive affect ( b = .20), followed by group walk
participation (b = .12, b = .14, respectively).
Social support
Due to transformation of the data, negative regression coefficients
indicate greater social support in Table 3. Group walk participation was
not a significant predictor of social support. The size and direction of
the regression coefficients suggest that having a health condition prior
to starting WfH or experiencing a recent stressful life event were as-
sociated with significantly less social support. Frequency of other
nature walks was significantly associated with greater social support;
this variable was the strongest predictor of social support (b =-.10).
Discussion
This study investigated the influence of nature-based group walks
on mental, emotional, and social well-being. A national group walk
program in England, Walking for Health (WfH), was evaluated. To our
Table 1. Characteristics of the Matched Sample
a
on Demographics, Health Status, Past Stressful Life Events, Past Physical
Activity, Along With Planned Covariates Used in the Analyses: Recent Stressful Life Events, Frequency and Duration
of Other Nature Walks, and Recent Physical Activity
DEMOGRAPHICS HEALTH STATUS
PLANNED COVARIATES
NATURE GROUP
WALKERS
n = 1081
NON-GROUP
WALKERS
n = 435
TOTAL
n = 1516 STATISTIC p VALUES
Age (55 + ) (%) 88.3 88.4 88.3 w
2
(1) = .000 .995
Gender (female) (%) 65.5 68.1 66.2 w
2
(1) = .952 .329
Marital status (partnered) (%) 71.3 70.4 71.1 w
2
(1) = .122 .727
Ethnicity (White) (%) 96.7 97.2 96.8 w
2
(1) = .314 .575
Education (tertiary/higher education) (%) 52.2 54.9 53.0 w
2
(2) = 3.560 .169
Social deprivation (least deprived) (%) 50.9 51.5 51.0 w
2
(2) = .224 .894
GP referral to WfH (yes) (%) 6.2 7.9 6.7 w
2
(1) = 1.369 .242
Health screening condition (%) 16.2 20.5 17.4 w
2
(1) = 4.039 .044
Diagnosed medical condition (%) 34.8 38.5 35.9 w
2
(1) = 1.904 .168
Disability (%) 8.9 6.7 8.2 w
2
(1) = 2.033 .154
Past stressful life events
b
(none) (%) 32.9 32.5 32.9 w
2
(2) = .061 .970
Past physical activity
c,d
[mean (SD)] 3.50 (1.94) 3.32 (2.13) 3.45 (2.00) t(740.02) = 1.502 .134
Recent stressful life events
e
[mean (SD)] .62 (.89) .59 (.82) .61 (.87) t(1514) = .702 .480
Frequency of other nature walks
d,e
[mean (SD)] 3.82 (1.47) 3.75 (1.71) 3.80 (1.54) t(706.50) = .810 .420
Duration of other nature walks
d,e
(walked for 1 hr) (%)
f
19.2 16.3 18.4 t(946.98) = 11.587 .001
Recent physical activity
d,g
[mean (SD)] 3.46 (1.79) 2.94 (2.11) 3.31 (1.90) t(689.96) = 4.504 .001
a
Propensity score matched sample; analysis weighted by propensity score weight.
b
One year prior to Time 1 questionnaire.
c
One week prior to first WfH walk.
d
Equal
variances not assumed.
e
Within 13 weeks between Time 1 and Time 2 questionnaires.
f
Statistic calculated on mean duration; percent walking for 1 hr, the mode,
presented in table.
g
One week prior to Time 2 questionnaire. GP, general practitioner; WfH, Walking for Health.
MARSELLE E T AL.
140 ECOPSYCHOLOGY SEPTEMBER 2014
knowledge, this is the first study to explore the multiple aspects of well-
being from participating in group walks in nature on a national scale.
Consistent with our hypotheses, individuals who attended group
walks in nature reported significantly less depression, perceived stress,
and negative affect and significantly greater mental well-being and
positive affect than individuals who did not take part in group walks.
No group difference was present on social support. Controlling for the
effects of health condition, recent stressful life events, frequency and
duration of other nature walks, and recent physical activity did not alter
the results. Our findings add to the limited base of evidence for the
positive well-being benefits of outdoor group walks for depression
(Armstrong & Edwards, 2003, 2004; Gusi et al., 2008; Robertson et al.,
2012; Roe & Aspinall, 2011), perceived stress (Roe & Aspinall, 2011), and
positive and negative affect (Hine et al., 2011; Mayer et al., 2009; Nisbet
& Zelenski, 2011; Peacock et al., 2007). The research on group walking,
to date, has not examined positive mental well-being as a specific out-
come variable; thus the results presented here add new insight.
Our results show that the strongest predictor of levels of depression
was group walking in nature, controlling for the effect of recent
stressful life events or recent physical activity. With depression
projected to be the number one cause of global burden of disease by
2030 (World Federation for Mental Health, 2012), the results suggest
that nature-based group walks could be used to help manage de-
pressive feelings in individuals and in the general population.
Recently experienced stressful life events were the strongest pre-
dictor of perceived stress and negative affect, contributing to an
increase in both. Group walks in nature—as the second strongest
predictor—were associated with significantly less perceived stress and
negative affect. The results suggest that nature-based group walks
may mitigate or ‘undo’ the increase in perceived stress and negative
affect associated with stressful life events, although additional re-
search is required to discern this. Previous research has found
working or living near a natural environment can buffer the rela-
tionship between stressful life events and well-being (Corraliza &
Collado, 2011; Leather et al., 1998; Ottosson & Grahn, 2008; van den
Berg et al., 2010; Wells & Evans, 2003). Qualitative studies suggest
that gardening can help individuals cope with stress (Hawkins et al.,
2013; Stuart, 2005). Future research could determine whether nature-
based group walks moderate the negative effects of stressful life
events on perceived stress and negative affect.
Physical activity was the strongest predictor of mental well-being
and positive affect. This is unsurprising considering the wealth of data
on the benefits of physical activity for psychological well-being (Biddle
& Mutrie, 2008). However, nature-based group walks were the second
strongest predictor of both variables, positively influencing mental well-
being and positive affect, controlling for physical activity. These results
suggest that both physical activity and group walks in nature benefit
these aspects of well-being. Further research could usefully investigate if
there is an additive benefit from the interaction of nature-based group
walks and physical activity on mental well-being and positive affect.
Our nonsignificant finding for group walks in nature on social
support is consistent with some previous literature (Armstrong &
Edwards, 2003, 2004; Hawkins et al., 2011; Irvine et al., 2013).
Nevertheless, it is unexpected, as qualitative research has identified
social benefits to participation in WfH (Dawson et al., 2006; Hynds &
Allibone, 2009; South et al., 2013; Villalba van Dijk et al., 2012). The
nonsignificant result from this study may be due to measurement
choice; the Appraisal subscale of the ISEL has been criticized for
measuring both tangible practical support and emotional support
(Parkinson, 2008) and may also tap intimate areas of support that
Table 2. Co mparison of Mean Scores of Time 2 Depression,
Perceived Stress, Negative Affect, Positive Affect, Mental
Well-Being, and Social Support for Matched
a
Nature Group Walkers and Non-Group Walkers
OUTCOMES
b
NATURE
GROUP
WALKERS
n = 1081
[MEAN
(SD)]
NON-GROUP
WALKERS
n = 435
[MEAN
(SD)] t TEST
c
EFFECT
SIZE r
d
Depression
e
6.53 (5.70) 9.78 (7.96) t(1514) = 8.47*** .21
Perceived
stress
f
11.27 (6.15) 13.54 (7.02) t(715.75) = 5.89*** .22
Negative
affect
e,f
14.38 (4.76) 16.26 (6.08) t(710.41) = 6.05*** .22
Positive
affect
f
34.80 (6.90) 31.87 (8.33) t(685.52) = 6.50*** .24
Mental
well-being
f
53.04 (7.27) 50.55 (8.87) t(680.92) = 5.18*** .19
Social
support
22.94 (6.44) 22.82 (6.47) t(1514) = .328 .01
a
Propensity score matched sample; analysis weighted by propensity score weight.
b
Higher scores indicate greater: depression (range 0–50), perceived stress (range
0–40), negative affect (range 10–50), positive affect (range 10–50), mental
well-being (range 14–70), and social support (range 0–30).
c
Independent samples
t test.
d
Effect size calculated as Pearson’s r.
e
Log-transformed variable,
untransformed means reported.
f
Equal variances not assumed. ***p < .001.
NATURE-BASED GROUP WALKS AND WELL-BEING
ª MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC.
VOL. 6 NO. 3
SEPTEMBER 2014 ECOPSYCHOLOGY 141
might not easily come up in a group setting. Other researchers have
investigated social well-being from nature-interaction with mea-
sures of loneliness and lack of social contacts (Maas et al., 2009).
Future quantitative investigations of group walks may want to use a
measure of loneliness, as recent research suggests that loneliness is a
risk factor of early death in older people (Sample, 2014). Alter-
natively, future studies investigating social support in nature and
health studies may need to use new measures of social well-being
grounded in the understandings revealed in qualitative research
(South et al., 2013; Wensley & Slade, 2012).
Interestingly, other nature walks did significantly affect social
support. There are several possible reasons for this apparently
anomalous result. First, these other nature walks may not be alone;
one could be accompanied by friends or family not involved in WfH
group walks. Second, these walks may bring the individual in social
contact with other people, which may foster friendship or a sense of
community in the neighborhood (Toohey et al., 2013) and thus social
support. Third, other nature walks may be done with an intimate
other (e.g., partner, best friend) with whom the participant may have
the sort of intimate discussions that address items on the ISEL scale.
Table 3. Standard Regression Analyses of Matched
a
Sample of Nature Group Walkers and Non-Group Walkers for Time 2
Depression, Perceived Stress, Negative Affect, Positive Affect, Mental Well-Being, and Social Support Adjusted for Health
Screening Conditions, Recent Stressful Life Events, Frequency and Duration of Other Nature Walks, and Recent Physical
Activity (n = 1490
b
)
PREDICTORS DEPRESSION
c,d
PERCEIVED
STRESS
d
NEGATIVE
AFFECT
c,d
POSITIVE
AFFECT
d
MENTAL
WELL-BEING
d
SOCIAL
SUPPORT
e
Constant B = 1.03 15.39 1.209 28.24 46.74 2.77
SE B = .03 0.56 .011 0.63 0.68 .103
p =<.001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001
Health screening conditions
f
b = 0.03 0.02 0.02 - 0.04 - 0.02 .08
p = 0.21 0.53 0.51 0.12 0.53 .002
Recent stressful life events
g
b = 0.17 0.21 0.19 - 0.07 - 0.05 .06
p =<.001 < .001 < .001 0.01 0.04 .02
Frequency other nature walks
g
b =-0.10 - 0.11 - 0.08 0.06 0.11 - .10
p =<.001 < .001 .003 0.02 < .001 .001
Duration other nature walks
g
b =-0.05 - 0.05 - 0.01 0.07 0.04 .03
p = .06 .09 .74 0.01 0.10 .35
Recent physical activity
h
b =-0.10 - 0.07 - 0.06 0.20 0.13 - .01
p = 0.001 0.02 0.03 < .001 < .001 .74
Group walk participation
i
b =-0.19 - 0.15 - 0.16 0.14 0.12 - .01
p =<.001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 .62
Adjusted R
2
.104*** .095*** .073*** .102*** .066*** .018***
a
Propensity score matched sample; analysis weighted by propensity score weight.
b
Number reduced due to listwise deletion of participants with missing values on
any variable.
c
Log-transformed.
d
Higher scores indicate greater depression, perceived stress, negative affect, positive affect, or mental well-being.
e
Reflected and
square root transformed; negative regression coefficients indicate greater social support.
f
Health screening condition prior to first WfH walk: 0 = no health conditions,
1 = 1 or more health conditions.
g
Within 13 weeks between Time 1 and Time 2 questionnaires.
h
Within 1 week prior to Time 2 questionnaire.
i
Group walk
participation: 0 = Non-Group Walkers, 1 = Nature Group Walkers. ***p < .001. B, unstandardized regression coefficient; SE, standard error; b, standardized regression
coefficient; WfH, Walking for Health.
MARSELLE E T AL.
142 ECOPSYCHOLOGY SEPTEMBER 2014
Indeed, one might anticipate that such discussions may be more
likely with one other person rather than in a walking group.
The frequency of other nature walks was significantly associated
with less depression, perceived stress, and negative affect and greater
positive affect and mental well-being. Duration of other nature walks
was significantly associated with greater positive affect only. The
findings suggest that frequency of walking in nature may be more
predictive of well-being than the amount of time spent in it. National
guidelines recommend 30 min of physical activity—which can include
walking—5 days a week to improve health (Department of Health,
2011). Our results suggest that recommending short but frequent na-
ture walks may also improve multiple aspects of well-being.
Limitations and strengths
This study has a number of limitations. First, while the PSM method
ensured there were no significant group differences on measured
covariates, it remains possible that differences existed on unmeasured
confounding variables (Harder et al., 2010). Second, although we
controlled for the effect of other predictors of well-being in the re-
gression model, other explanatory variables could account for group
differences. Third, due to eligibility criteria, it is possible that Nature
Group Walkers may not have attended a WfH walk during the as-
sessment of their well-being. However, the majority (83.3%) of Nature
Group Walkers did indicate attending a WfH walk in the previous
fortnight. Fourth, the measure of physical activity by self-report can be
imprecise (Tucker et al., 2011), although participants specifically were
asked about number of days of the week when they engaged in physical
activity lasting 30 min or more that is enough to raise the breathing
rate, giving an approximation of intensity. Fifth, the low overall pre-
dictive power of the final models is likely due to unmeasured variables
influencing these complex outcomes, such as genetics, temperament,
or social interactions (Kendler et al., 1993), but could be influenced by
any remaining mismatch in sample selection or the methods chosen for
variable measurement. Sixth, reverse causality cannot be resolved in
this research design. Finally, participants were mostly female, older,
White, and affluent; while likely to be unrepresentative of the adult
general population living in England, participants were representative
of the population involved in WfH (Fitches, 2011).
This study makes an important contribution to the literature on the
effects of nature-based group walks on mental, emotional, and social
well-being. The large sample of adults from the general population of
England, engaged in a national walking program, enabled statistical
control of other significant predictors of well-being and sufficient
power to detect a small yet significant effect. Use of PSM technique
improved the ability to investigate the effect of participation in a
national outdoor group walk program on mental and emotional
well-being.
Future research
Future exploration of the effects of nature-based group walks on
mental and emotional well-being could utilize quasi-experimental
pre-post or randomized research designs that would have better in-
ferential potential and reduce limitations of sampling and reverse
causality. Further research is needed to discern whether nature group
walks moderate, or buffer, the relationship between stressful life
events and multiple aspects of well-being. Future studies could also
usefully investigate if there is an optimum frequency and duration of
contact with green space—whether alone or in groups—for mental
and emotional well-being. The mechanisms through which nature-
based group walks affect these aspects of well-being could also be
explored. Three proposed mechanisms of the nature-health rela-
tionship include physical activity, social interaction, and restorative
benefits of nature (Hartig et al., 2014). Future research could usefully
investigate whether these mechanisms explain the positive rela-
tionships reported in this study. Future studies may also want to
assess whether the type and quality of the natural environment for a
group walk have any impact on well-being. Qualitative studies may
explore the individual differences in well-being benefits from nature
group walks, based on familiarity, attachment, and childhood ex-
perience with both the natural environment and walking.
Implications
The research presented here provides support for national outdoor
group walk programs as a public health intervention. Such programs
have previously been shown to increase levels of physical activity
(Kassavou et al., 2013), and our study suggests that the benefits go
beyond those from physical activity only. Group walks in nature were
associated with less depression, negative affect, and perceived stress,
as well as greater positive affect and mental well-being. These pos-
itive psychological results may be useful for motivating participation
in an outdoor walking program (Williams et al., 2008). Public health
walking programs could utilize these findings to communicate the
positive well-being outcomes from participation in nature-based
group walks. Such positive framed messages may foster greater be-
havior change (Kobau et al., 2011).
Likewise, health care professionals, who are in position to identify
individuals at risk for depression, life stress, or negative emotions,
may welcome this additional nonpharmacological approach as part
of a comprehensive package of care. In fact, WfH was originally
initiated by a GP, Dr. William Bird, who realized the potential for
NATURE-BASED GROUP WALKS AND WELL-BEING
ª MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC.
VOL. 6 NO. 3
SEPTEMBER 2014 ECOPSYCHOLOGY 143
group walks in improving the health of individuals as well as the
public (Walking for Health, 2010). We note that only 6.2% of Nature
Group Walkers were referred to WfH by their GP; thus there may be
scope for outreach to GPs and other health professionals about the
benefits of group walks in nature.
Conclusion
The present study found that group walks in nature were as-
sociated with significantly less depression, perceived stress, and
negative affect and greater positi ve affect and mental well-being.
Given the increase in mental ill health and physical inactivity in
the population in the developed world, group walk programs in
local natural environments may make a potentially important
contribution to both public health and individual well-being with
benefits in mental health, coping with stress, and improved
emotions.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the participants for their time;
Dave Stone, Tim Fitches, and Fiona Taylor for their support; and two
anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful critique of the manuscript.
Melissa Marselle was supported by a De Montfort University PhD
Studentship. Katherine Irvine was supported by the Scottish Gov-
ernment’s Rural and Environment Science and Analytical Services
Division (RESAS). Sara Warber was supported by a Fulbright Scho-
larship from the US-UK Fulbright Commission.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist for all authors.
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Address correspondence to:
Melissa R. Marselle
Department of Psychology
Edge Hill University
St Helens Road
Ormskirk, L39 4QP
UK
E-mail: melissa.marselle@gmail.com
Received: March 17, 2014
Accepted: June 15, 2014
NATURE-BASED GROUP WALKS AND WELL-BEING
ª MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC.
VOL. 6 NO. 3
SEPTEMBER 2014 ECOPSYCHOLOGY 147
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Recognising the advantages of connecting with nature there is a growing trend, in using Nature-based Interventions (NBIs) to enhance health and well-being. These interventions, such as prescriptions and urban green spaces aim to tackle the issues brought about by urbanisation and modern lifestyles by rekindling the bond between individuals and the natural world. In today’s society, where city life and environmental deterioration limit chances for encounters NBIs have become increasingly important. These interventions involve changing environments through features like hospital gardens and city parks as influencing behaviours through structured programs like wilderness therapy and forest schools. These methods have successfully improved mental and social well-being. For example, green prescriptions that recommend spending time in nature as part of treatment have shown effectiveness in alleviating symptoms of depression and anxiety. Similarly, wilderness therapy has boosted resilience and mental health among youth populations while forest schools have nurtured development in children. The implementation of NBIs varies across regions due to economic factors. While some areas have a standing tradition of integrating nature into life others encounter obstacles due to urban limitations. Successful endeavors like Japan’s shinrin yoku practices showcase how engaging, with forests can contribute to health. Cities worldwide are improving spaces to address the lack of areas. While nature-based interventions (NBIs) are becoming popular some critics suggest they may be a passing trend, without evidence backing them. This underscores the importance of research to confirm the benefits of NBIs rather than just superficially addressing environmental concerns. The future success of NBIs depends on overcoming access barriers and filling research gaps to ensure that everyone, in marginalised communities can enjoy nature. In essence, NBIs provide an approach to improving health and well-being through natural qualities. Given the challenges in health and environmental issues, these initiatives play a role in building healthier and more interconnected societies. Research implementation efforts and policy backing are vital for NBIs to have an impact, in promoting resilient and healthy communities globally.
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Interacting with nature may promote mental and physical health. There are multiple ways to interact with nature: indirectly, incidentally, and intentionally. How these types of interactions with nature may be associated with mental and physical health status and health behaviors is unclear. The purpose of this narrative review is to (1) describe the relationship between interactions with nature (indirect, incidental, and intentional) and mental and physical health outcomes and behaviors, (2) identify gaps in the literature, and (3) provide recommendations for future research. Considerable evidence suggests that interacting with nature, indirectly and intentionally, is associated with improvements in mental health and physical exhibitions of mental status. Furthermore, intentionally interacting with nature is associated with engagement in physical activity and gardening is associated with fruit and vegetable consumption. Research suggests that incidentally interacting with nature may be associated with positive mental health status. More research is needed to understand the relationships between incidental interactions with nature and physical health status and behaviors; as well as among all types of interactions with nature and physical health disorders, sleep, and dietary behaviors.
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Nature contact may benefit health, a relationship supported by both theoretical and empirical considerations. Nature contact may take many forms in the built environment, such as plantings in buildings, views out windows, biophilic building design, community gardens, and parks and greenspace. Evidence supports many benefits of such nature contact, ranging from stress reduction to improved recovery from illness and surgery. Much remains to be learned about the benefits of nature contact, such as what kinds of nature contact offer the greatest benefit, at what “dose” and frequency, and for which people. Providing nature contact may not only improve health but also yield co-benefits such as more energy-efficient buildings, improved access to healthy foods, and conservation of natural resources.
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