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Formal Semantics of Natural Language.
... Discourse, or text, deixis concerns the use of expressions within some utterance to refer to some portion of the discourse that contains that utterance (including the utterance itself) (Davidson & Harman, 1976 It is similar with anaphora, anaphora is a phenomenon in which one expressiontypically a pronoun -is interpreted, as co-referential with another expression, which in turn provides the referent (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, 1985). Without this co-reference, it would be impossible to determine the referent of the anaphoric expression. ...
... Social deixis concerns "that aspect of sentences which reflect or establish or are determined by certain realities of the social situation in which the speech act occurs", according to Fillmore, 1975:76 (Levinson, 1983. In other hand, referent to the relative social statuses of the speech act participants (honorific systems, etc.) (Davidson & Harman, 1976). In this finding, researcher found only one category that is partner. ...
This research is motivated by an interest in literacy particularly the script of films. This study aims to analyze the types of deixis on Zootopia movie scripts. This study is designed by using the quantitative and qualitative descriptive approaches. The data used in this study was the script of Zootopia film. Entirely, this research only focusing on analyzing the types of deixis in every scene of the movie. In this film, there are 41 scenes but only 15 scenes were selected for data analysis. The data was presented in tables and used diagrams in providing the tendency of deixis used on Zootopia movie script. The results showed that types of person deixis were 83%, discourse deixis 8%, time deixis 7%, spatial deixis 2% while other types 8%. In conclusion, there are all types of deixis were found in the Zootopia movie script, especially the type of time deixis found in various kinds of temporal category as many as 29 expressions such as next time, tomorrow, today, before noon, later, ago, soon, once a month, since, three hundred days, sixty-five days, five years, six years and a thousand years.
... It therefore corroborates Gomez's (2009) argument that a linguistic euphemism can be labeled as euphemism "through a certain context and given situation" when "the real sense of its intentions and it functions as a communicative function of language." Ad professionals use words or expressions that may sound impolite in a polite way so that they will be free from 'dispreffered expressions' (Allan;Burridge, 1991;Hoffman, 1967;Brown;Levinson, 1987;MCGlone;Batchelor, 2003). Cure for weak manhood ads has its distinctive features that make them different from others in one way or another (Brierley, 1995). ...
... Euphemism as a concept in literature, creates association with figures of speech (Allan, 2001;collocation (Zhou, 2015), political propaganda and public relations (Jackova, 2010), and manipulation of consumers that might lead to vagueness (Leech, 1966). Connecting those lines of defense to euphemism is an exposé of the behaviors of every language user, which is the motive for Bolinger (1987) to further posit"[...] euphemism is everyone's sin." ...
The study examined herbal medicines advertising discourse as unique terms of depicting weak manhood euphemistically in order not to sound vulgar. Twelve advertisements (ads) served as the data of investigation. The data were taken from Facebook advertisements (both texts and images) and analyzed from the purviews of Barthesian denotative and connotative annotations, Halliday's transitivity concepts, and critical discourse analysis. This study aims to examine how weak manhood is portrayed, the ideology behind its portrayal, and the persuasive techniques used in the ads. The study revealed concealments in form of sexual satisfaction (e.g. next match, lasting gbola, bigga gbola, better something, leg shaking) and power/activeness (e.g. big carrot, strongest bamboo, Manpower, 45 mins, inner chamber, excellence in the other room, power to do more, and extra time/large). The study suggested that further researches to analyze from a multimodal perspective on how different visual and linguistic choices deployed in the herbal cure for weak manhood ads contribute to the euphemistic and persuasive import of taboo-related advertising. Again, however acceptable euphemistic expressions may be in certain context; they are considered too explicit, pinged with negative connotation and therefore create war among readers.
... It thus has the scope of the "actor" macrorole in Role and Reference Grammar (Cf. Allan, 2001). slot of a conjoined noun phrase to the leftmost slot during recall (i.e. to recall "The pot and the plant were just the right size" as "The plant and the pot were just the right size"). ...
... Whilst the existence of such pragmatic roles has long been argued for by functional linguists (for an overview of this research Cf. Allan, 2001;Croft, 1991), they have not previously been incorporated into psycholinguistic accounts of conceptual planning. Crucially, expanding the set of conceptual information outputted by the conceptual planner to include pragmatic roles has significant implications for the interpretation of function assignment phenomena. ...
Contemporary models of sentence production characterise function assignment as a grammatical encoding process involving the assignment of lemmas to grammatical roles (i.e. Bock & Levelt, 1994; Garrett, 1982; Kempen & Hoenkamp, 1987). In support of such models, researchers have claimed that a wide variety of evidence demonstrates that the words and roles employed in function assignment are specified for grammatical features. The present article critically reassesses this body of data in order to determine whether the words and roles involved in function assignment are specified for grammatical or conceptual features. On the basis of this reassessment, it is argued that there is no evidence that the words and roles employed during function assignment are specified for grammatical features, that there is evidence that the words and roles employed during function assignment are not specified for grammatical features and that there is evidence that the words and roles employed during function assignment are specified for conceptual features. It is concluded, contra current models of sentence production, that function assignment is determined only by conceptual information and not by grammatical information such as lemmas and grammatical roles. Also, however, it is argued that crosslinguistic differences in function assignment demonstrate that the grammatical encoder does play some role in function assignment. Specifically, it is argued that such data indicates that function assignment is determined not only by conceptual information but also by the order in which the grammatical encoder receives conceptual output from the conceptual planner. In sum, the current article argues against contemporary models of sentence production and in favour of the view that function assignment is decided prior to the access of lemmas and grammatical roles during grammatical encoding.
... Podstawowe problemy z uporządkowaniem hiponimicznym dużych obszarów słownictwa polegają na: występowaniu luk leksykalnych, trudności znalezienia elementu nadrzędnego hierarchii (stanowiącego hiperonim wszystkich innych elementów hierarchii) i krzyżowaniu się różnych hierarchii (tzn. dany leksem może należeć do różnych hierarchii, wyodrębnionych na różnych podstawach) [Lyons 1984], [Cruse 1986[Cruse , 2000, [Allan 2001], [Miller 1993]. ...
... Hierarchie typu meronimicznego są mniej precyzyjne i regularne, niż hiponimiczne, co spowodowane jest m.in.: istnieniem relacji super-Investigationes Linguisticae, vol. XII, Poznań, December 2005 i hipomeronimicznych, zróżnicowaniem stopnia powiązania między częścią a całością, występowaniem różnych rodzajów relacji część -całość i, w konsekwencji, ograniczeniami przechodniości tej relacji [Cruse 1986[Cruse , 2000, [Miller 1993], [Saeed 1998], [Allan 2001]. Relację dominacji leżącą u podstaw hierarchii meronimicznych można traktować jako specyficzną odmianę relacji inkluzji, choć nie jest to inkluzja klas. ...
... Social media services become today the most popular communication tool among Internet users with a number of users reaching 2.34 billion in 2016. 1 Social media users post millions of messages daily on microblogging services such as Twitter, 2 Tumblr, 3 Facebook, 4 and online review sites. These messages express opinions about various topics. ...
... As BabelNet includes WordNet synsets, we have not included other features extracted using just WordNet or SentiWordNet 21 because that would not have brought to fair comparisons. • Semantic Frames are a collection of facts that specify "characteristic features, attributes, and functions of a denotatum, and its characteristic interactions with things necessarily or typically associated with it [2]". ...
With the increase use of microblogs and social media platforms as forms of on-line communication, we now have a huge amount of opinionated data reflecting people’s opinions and attitudes in form of reviews, forum discussions, blogs and tweets. This has recently brought great interest to sentiment analysis and opinion mining field that analyzes people’s feelings and attitudes from written language. Most of the existing approaches on sentiment analysis rely mainly on the presence of affect words that explicitly reflect sentiment. However, these approaches are semantically weak, that is, they do not take into account the semantics of words when detecting their sentiment in text. Only recently a few approaches (e.g. sentic computing) started investigating towards this direction. Following this trend, this paper investigates the role of semantics in sentiment analysis of social media. To this end, frame semantics and lexical resources such as BabelNet are employed to extract semantic features from social media that lead to more accurate sentiment analysis models. Experiments are conducted with different types of semantic information by assessing their impact in four social media datasets which incorporate tweets, blogs and movie reviews. A tenfold cross-validation shows that F1 measure increases significantly when using semantics in sentiment analysis in social media. Results show that the proposed approach considering word’s semantics for sentiment analysis surpasses non-semantic approaches for the considered datasets.
... A relation is an association of pairwise or multiple objects as tuples and hyperstructures. Relations are not only a pervasive phenomenon in the natural world (Chomsky, 1956;Rapoport, 1962;Keenan, 1975;Klir, 1992;Ullman and Widom, 1997;O'connor and Robb, 2003;Dayan and Abbott, 2005;Wang, 2003Wang, , 2007bWang, , 2009aWang, /b, 2012bWang, , 2014aWang, , 2015bWang, , 2016a;Wang and Berwick, 2013;Wang et al., 2017), but also a fundamental mathematical concept in the abstract world (Russell, 1903;Zadeh, 1965;Artin, 1991;Kolman et al., 1996;Bender, 1996;Lipschutz and Lipson, 1997;Gallian, 2002;Gowers, 2008;Sibley, 2009;Wang, 2007aWang, , 2008aWang, , 2009aWang, , 2010aWang, , 2012aWang, , 2013bWang, , 2015aWang, /h, 2016cWang, Zadeh, et al., 2009a). Relations play an indispensable role in modeling neuroinformatics, human memory, and internal knowledge representation in brain science, cognitive science and neurology (Debenham, 1989;Marieb, 1992;Dayan and Abbott, 2005;Wang, 2003Wang, , 2010Wang, , 2012cWang, , 2014bWang and Fariello, 2012;Wang, et al., 2006Wang, et al., , 2009b). ...
... The modern cognitive knowledge bases (Wang, 2014cWang, , 2015d/i) are relational. Linguistics including both syntaxes and semantics are relational Wang (Chomsky, 1956;Keenan, 1975;Berwick, 2012, 2013). A set of relational models and operations on formal semantics is studied in denotational mathematics (DMs) (Wang, 2008aWang, , 2012aWang, ,c, 2015a) such as those of concept algebra (Wang, 2008c), semantic algebra (Wang, 2013a), and inference algebra (Wang, 2011). ...
Relations are one of the fundamental models across mathematics, neural networks, machine learning, knowledge science and computational intelligence. The mathematical framework and algebraic properties of formal relations are explored based on latest advances in denotational mathematics. This leads to an extended relation theory with a set of novel algebraic operators beyond traditional ones. A denotational mathematical framework of relation algebra is introduced encompassing operators in the categories of analytic, synthetic and generating operations on formal relations. Relation algebra provides a theoretical foundation for explaining the dynamic behaviors of pervasive relations in knowledge science, data science, neural networks, machine learning, cognitive computing and computational intelligence.
... The pragmatics of mis/representation gets folded into research ethics in order to analyse the implication of pragmatic mis/representation. Implicature is considered to be the aftermath of a successfully inferred meaning from utterances and past communicative experiences that seem to violate the four maxims of co-operative principles 19 . Despite not stating the violated principles in the definition, the definition emphasises past communicative experiences and communicative principles of co-operation between the speaker and the listener. ...
Like research itself, research ethics involves and as well requires language use with all levels of linguistics analysis. Pragmatics is one of the levels used for (re)presenting research activities and ethics. Regrettably in the course of representing research activities and ethics pragmatically, some misrepresentations arise. Leaning on some secondary sources of data, this study seeks to describe how context impacts on research ethics. The study is anchored on Grice Conversational Theory of Implicature, which highlights the implication of violating research ethics and what context implies in research. The analysis demonstrates that research ethics is both context-specific and general. Next, context is proven to be the base of pragmatic misrepresentation in research ethics. It also shows that pragmatic misrepresentations amount to ethical violations in research ethics and beyond. The study concludes that there is a correlation between research ethics and pragmatics, made manifest basically by context.
... Words are changed semantically and have different meanings from their lexical meanings as most of them are made according to the users' needs. On the other hand, Allan (2001) asserted that semantic changes do not only occur due to diachronic aspects but are also caused by the development of a language user's society. Semantic changes in a word occur as the word is continuously used and what speakers mean are not exactly the same in a certain period (Ariani et al., 2020b). ...
The This study is objected to describe the decomposition of meaning that includes distortion, narrowing and expansion as well as omissions in the translation of cultural terms in a novel titled alfu laylah wa laylah along with their impact on target text. This research utilized a descriptive method with a qualitative research approach. The data collection method used in several stages, as follow: 1) reading the entire contents of the novel; 2) identifying; 3) recording and; 4) giving code and page on each data. The data were subsequently analyzed in several steps including 1) classifying the types of cultural terms in the novel; 2) identifying the meaning of cultural terms in source language and target language; 3) comparing two words in source language and target language; 4) interpreting the findings in form of analysis. It was 29 data found, there were seven cultural terms that experience meaning distortion, twelve with narrowing and expansion of meaning, and ten others underwent omission. In conclusion, four factors of information reduction result in loss.
... These renditions, in one way or another, corroborate the view that the translatability of culture-related jokes does not require an obligation to linguistic structures more than it requires the translator's successful delivery of the joke. Allan (2001) interprets taboo words as "those considered offensive, shocking, or indecent when used in certain contexts" (p. 148). ...
Adapting advertisements across distant languages and cultures poses challenges due to their heavy cultural context. Complicating matters, some ads mix various text types and genres. This study explores strategies for translating a humor-laden, hybrid-text ad into Arabic through dubbing. It investigates the effectiveness of different Arabic variants. The case study is an audiovisual ad by standup2cancer.org, featuring a cartoon Homer from The Simpsons, created to raise colon cancer awareness. Animation often escapes criticism due to its surreal nature, unlike real depictions that might be distasteful. Using Skopos Theory, the translations were analyzed, focusing on the decision-making process in creating functionally suitable versions for Arab audiences. A Think Aloud Protocol gathered data on participants’ decision agency during translation, validating choices. Most translators (80%) preferred Arabic vernacular, employing domestication (adaptation) as a macro-strategy and cultural substitution as a micro-strategy. Humor transfer succeeded best in Arabic vernacular, reinforcing its suitability for various text types and genres.
Keywords:
transcreation; hybrid text; dubbing; strategies; Arabic diglossia
... Modern linguistics focuses not only on structural or semantic (Allan, 2006;Arhin, 2019;Cruse, 1986;Lyons, 1977;Uzunboylu & Altay, 2021) peculiarities of a language but also on pragmatic features of a language that enliven when a language is used either in oral or written speech. Therefore, pragmatics has been investigated as one of the main branches of linguistics since the 20th century. ...
Nowadays, pragmatic features of proverbs are of great interest to linguists as proverbs are often used in conversations to polish speech stylistically, semantically and, at the same time, pragmatically. Paradigms such as synonymy, antonymy and polysemy were investigated as lexical-semantic relations in proverbial content in recent works. This research is devoted to analysing another lexical-semantic relation in proverbial content: graduonymic relations and their types, which are frequently seen in proverbial content, and their role in the pragmatic peculiarities of proverbs in particular contexts. The empiric corpus-based analysis of proverbs containing graduonyms in the chosen text fragments that were created by native speakers of the English language served to disclose the pragmatics of proverbs such as graduonyms function as various types of deixis, emphasise the speech act steps of the proverb and increase the pragmatic potential of the proverb. The results of the paper are discussed in the context of theoretical and pragmatic perspectives. Keywords: Deixis, graduonymy, pragmatics, proverb, speech act;
... In other words, even if the speaker does not state it clearly, there are specific implicit meanings that the speaker intends to convey. Allan (2001) agrees that CI is the primary method for reducing the number of vocabulary speakers use. Non-truth functional components allow the addressee to infer the speaker's opinions and intentions based on the utterance's non-truth-functional elements. ...
According to linguistic theory, conversational Implicature (CI) is the original intent of the speech expressed by a speaker. The assumption is that both the speaker and the receiver understand and respect the communication rules. In conversation theory, this is the significant component that has been the subject of discussion. This study investigates the importance of CI in various contexts of daily conversations. The focus of this study is to identify the violation of Grice’s theory in the conversation. There is a shortcoming in literature to investigate CI in everyday conversations. Moreover, some studies focussed on specific discussions, which led to a literature gap. The study’s outcome will assist researchers in exploring new ideas in conversational implicatures. In addition, it reveals the shortcomings of the usage of implicatures. In this study, the researchers analyzed a set of 77 daily conversations. The study showed that context is critical in determining the meaning of a person’s thoughts. In addition, the finding suggests that particularized CI are primarily employed in daily conversations.
... He also claims that English modal verbs have been acquiring subjunctive mood functions since Old English. Aarts (2012), like Allan (2001) and Huddleston and Pullum (2002), finds that mood is a subjunctive clause type. Berry (1975) and Strang (1969) respectively suggest there are two terms in the system of mood (imperative and indicative), although some grammarians recognize a third, the subjunctive mood (Greenbaum, 1996). ...
The aim of the study was to find out the quantitative approach to the study of deviant usages of mood and modality in argumentative essays of second year students of Berekum College of Education in the Ashanti region of Ghana. The main objectives of the study were to investigate the causes of Berekum College of Education students’ inability to use mood and modality features appropriately to write good argumentative essays, identify the specific challenges the students are confronted with and the main causes of their lack of interest for argumentative essays. Data were collected from a purposive sample of 150 second year students of Berekum College of Education by way of questionnaires, an in-class essay test, summary test and objective test. These were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings reveal that there was no exposure to the appropriate use of mood and modality as well as argumentative essays at the pre-college level of their education. The findings also indicate that students were simply of the view that their tutors must serve as role models in the use of the features of mood and modality in all their discussions and deliberations to enable students learn the practicalities of the usage of the concepts from them. It also discloses that second-year students of Berekum College of Education lack interest in writing argumentative essays, and are unable to make appropriate use of mood and modality to be successful in the writing of such essays. It is therefore recommended that students should practise the concepts they are taught to enhance their understanding of mood and modality and their usage in argumentative essays while English tutors avail themselves for in-service training, workshops and seminars to abreast themselves of new trends of teaching language classes, especially in dealing with mood and modality in argumentative essays.
... This approach turns out to give detail configuration about the meaning of Balinese verbs related to water. As stated by Allan (2001; the language which a linguist uses to describe and analyze the object is called the metalanguage. ...
This article aims at displaying the way how to map the meaning of Balinese verbs related to water. The data are oral and written forms collected by observation, interview, and taking-note. The oral language was collected from the key-informant in three villages within two regencies in Bali, namely Klungkung and Buleleng. The written data was observed from the 4 novels using the modern Balinese language. The collected data was furthermore analyzed by the Metalanguage approach which manages to map all the meaning in the form of language description. Metalanguage approach based upon entity, process, instrument, and result is able to detect the subtle meaning difference among the verbs having a similar semantic field. From the scale of time-stability, the result shows that the mapping of action verbs: anyud, ngelangi, mandus, silem, mambuh imply the time reference change rapidly. The mapping of process verbs: aad, tiis, éncéh, and beku carry the time reference is less stable. The mapping of state verbs: bedak, belus, and tuduh is considered to imply the time reference is very stable.
... This approach turns out to give detail configuration about the meaning of Balinese verbs related to water. As stated by Allan (2001; the language which a linguist uses to describe and analyze the object is called the metalanguage. ...
This article aims at displaying the way how to map the meaning of Balinese verbs related to water. The data are oral and written forms collected by observation, interview, and taking-note. The oral language was collected from the key-informant in three villages within two regencies in Bali, namely Klungkung and Buleleng. The written data was observed from the 4 novels using the modern Balinese language. The collected data was furthermore analyzed by Metalanguage approach which manages to map all the meaning in the form of language description. Metalanguage approach based upon entity, process, instrument, and result is able to detect the subtle meaning difference among the verbs having a similar semantic field. From the scale of time-stability, the result shows that the mapping of action verbs: anyud, ngelangi, mandus, silem, mambuh imply the time reference change rapidly. The mapping of process verbs: aad, tiis, éncéh and beku carry the time reference is less stable. The mapping of state verbs: bedak, belus and tuduh is considered to imply the time reference is very stable.
... Segundo essa teoria, cada palavra evoca um frame semântico que representa o conceito específico ao qual a palavra se refere. Um frame semântico, por sua vez, é um conjunto de declarações que fornecem "características, atributos e funções de um conceito, e suas interações características com coisas necessárias ou tipicamente associadas a ele." (ALLAN, 2001). Por exemplo, na frase "Ele comeu o peixe rapidamente", a palavra "comeu" denota o frame que carrega o seu significado e seus atributos, que são definidos por papéis semânticos: a pessoa que comeu (i.e., o agente), o objeto que foi comido (i.e., o tema) e a forma como a ação se deu (i.e., maneira). ...
Os sistemas de Comunicação Aumentativa e Alternativa (CAA) são ferramentas importantes para sujeitos com distúrbios de comunicação (e.g., pessoas com Transtornos do Espectro Autista, Síndrome de Down e paralisia cerebral). Esses sistemas possibilitam a comunicação por meio de frases telegráficas (e.g., sem preposições, artigos e conjugação de verbos) que são construídas a partir da seleção de figuras com legendas. Para garantir uma boa comunicação, os sistemas de CAA devem dar suporte à construção de frases com sintaxe e semântica adequadas. Isto é, esses sistemas devem prover facilidades para a construção de frases telegráficas cujas palavras estejam dispostas corretamente e expressem ideias coerentes (e.g., Eu comer bolo ontem). Diversos estudos propõem maneiras de apoiar a construção de frases compreensíveis em sistemas de CAA. Contudo, esses estudos não fornecem apoio visual e semântico para este fim. Neste trabalho, um sistema de pistas visuais (i.e., cores) e semânticas (i.e., perguntas como Quem? Fazendo? O quê?Para quem? Como? Onde? Quando?) é usado como base para a construção de uma Gramática Semântica (GS) para dar suporte à construção de frases telegráficas sintática e semanticamente bem formadas. Inicialmente, realiza-se uma Revisão Sistemática da Literatura, a fim de levantar trabalhos que propõem e utilizam GS no contexto de CAA. Essa revisão fornece um panorama de como essas bases são usadas e quais as metodologias empregadas na sua construção. Em seguida, constrói-se a GS por meio de um método automático com base nos seguintes materiais: (i) frases extraídas de um conjunto de documentos de texto; (ii) uma gramática simples com pistas visuais e semânticas, chamada Colourful Semantics; e (iii) um vocabulário controlado para CAA construído com o uso de análises qualitativas e quantitativas. As etapas desse método consistem em: 1) seleção e extração de sentenças a partir dos documentos de texto; 2) análise semântica das sentenças usando técnicas de Processamento de Linguagem Natural (PLN); e 3) remoção das eventuais redundâncias presentes na GS. Por fim, a GS construída é avaliada a fim de medir a sua eficiência com relação à construção de frases com sentido. Essa avaliação é feita por meio da reconstrução de frases telegráficas extraídas de um corpus específico para CAA. A métrica utilizada é uma precisão modificada, na qual a frase de referência é comparada palavra a palavra com a frase reconstruída. Como resultados, obtêm-se uma GS com relações de predicado-argumento, que possibilitam a busca de palavras durante a construção de frases, com precisão média de 90% na reconstrução de frases telegráficas. A GS proposta fornece uma estrutura semântica, que pode ser usada por sistemas de CAA como base para o suporte visual e semântico à construção de frases telegráficas com sintaxe e semântica adequadas.
... These fillers usually have the quality of the central vowels, e.g.: /, , or , etc./. Besides, verbal fillers perform in speech the following valuable functions; the speaker uses them: (1) to simultaneously plan what he/she is going to say next; (2) in order to concurrently monitor what he/she is saying as well as to observe an adequately correct manner of his/her pronunciation; (3) to simultaneously correct what he/she has said; (4) to choose a particular word in order to replace it by another one within the same syntactic structure; (5) to concentrate on whether what he/she is saying fits into the context of what he/she has just said as well as into the discourse as a whole; (6) to observe how the audience is reacting to what he/she is saying, modifying some warm expressions of opinion if he/she sees that he/she has lost their sympathy; (7) to fill the silence and maintain the speaker's right to speak while he/she is organizing what he/she wants to say, i.e. he/she gives him/herself time to prepare an ordered response before he/she begins to speak, taking the advantage of his/her position; besides, the fillers are used to give the co-converser time to think as well as to warn the listener that this is what is going on; (8) to be confident that he/she will not be interrupted if he/she fails to fill the pause immediately. In ordinary everyday conversations between equals it is important to note that this use of verbal fillers does not necessarily mean that a speaker is considered to be particularly hesitant. ...
A Concise Dictionary of Phonetic Terms familiarises the students with the terminology in phonetics and provides guidelines on how to grasp it and overcome difficulities in understanding and use of different phonetic terms. It is designed mainly for the students specialising in English as their future profession.
The dictionary will also be helpful for the general readers who need some information about the terms that occur in the sphere of phonetics and with which they are less familiar or have no prior knowledge.
A Concise Dictionary of Phonetic Terms integrates new findings, theories as well as updated references and resources on the subject.
... For example, Ulasma and Samhati (2017) study the variance of language in a talkshow program, Islam (2017) discusses critical discourse analysis of political TV Talkshows of Bangladesh, Setiawati (2018), discusses assertive speech acts in ILC, Astuti, Asharina, and Permana (2018) review the logic in Rocky Gerung's controversial expressions entitled "Kitab Suci adalah Fiksi (The Holly Qur'an is a Fiction)", and Wakaimbang, Rusminto and Ariyani (2019) discuss the politeness of speech in the Indonesia Lawyers Club (ILC) program. The results of these studies indicate that there is a phenomenon indicating the changes in the language function, language is not only considered as a communication tool (Allan, 2001), but also has broader functions such as function of protection (Runblad and Chen, 2015) and imaging tool (Runblad and Chen, 2015), and an instrument of power (Foucault, 2010). ...
... The theory is always considered be able in finding out the meaning configuration or so called meaning mapping of each action verbs. As Keith Allan said in his book entitled Natural Language Semantics "The language which a linguist uses to describe and analyse the object language is called the METALANGUAGE (Allan, 2001)" It turns out that the theory is successful because such modern approach in semantics relies upon entity, process, instrumen and result of the action done by the actor. The following ilustrations give clear ways: ...
The parts of the body is the most common location for the activity having notion to bring represented by verbs in Balinese Language. This article aims to map the meaning of the action verbs having to bring notion, represented by ngaba and makta. The oral data was collected from key-informen residing in two regencies in Bali, namely Klungkung and Karangasem. The written data are from the newspaper called Bali Orti published from March-May 2019. The method of collecting the spoken data was interviewing the key-informen in both regencies, however the written one was by observation and note-taking. Metalanguage applied to analyze the collected data, showed that there are two features found for the meaning of the action verbs to bring, namely generic and specific. The generic feature is represented by ngaba or makta mapped by ‘someone brings something in any parts of one’s body’, the specific one is characterized by the special location where the action to bring happens, e.g. nyuun ‘the activity of to bring happens on one’s head, negen ’bring something on one’s shoulder’, etc. Almost nearly all the specific data features the one’s part of body as the place of the action.
... Komentar-komentar terpilih akan dianalisis menggunakan analisis komponen makna guna mencari makna leksikal dari cyberbullying. Analisis komponen makna atau analisis komponensial bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan bagaimana sebuah makna kata terbentuk dari berbagai komponen; bisa satu atau lebih (Allan, 2001). ...
The cyberbullying in the comment section on social media tends to be a common phenomenon nowadays. Negative comments lead to bully being the dark side of social media, Instagram in particular, which is clearly visible in the comment section. Moreover, in uploaded photos of teen artists that have many followers on their Instagram. This study has three objectives. First, obtaining the lexical meaning of cyberbullying from negative comments in the comment section of some Indonesian teen artists uploaded photos on their personal Instagram. Second, describing the phenomenon of cyberbullying happened. Third, providing implications for increasing awareness of bullying based on findings. Purposive sampling was used to collect data by reading every single comment to get negative comments in the comment section. Semantic components were used to have the lexical meaning of cyberbullying, whereupon the result was classified into Willard (2007)’s cyberbullying types. The result reveals three things. First, the lexical component of cyberbullying consists of negative, rude, and not decent. Second, there are two types of cyberbullying occurred: harassment and cyberstalking. Third, the implication of this study is a tangible, sustainable, and comprehensive character building and sex education at all levels of society could be a solution to reduce cyberbullying.
Keywords: cyberbullying, semantic components, social media
PEMAKNAAN CYBERBULLYING PADA ARTIS REMAJA SERTA IMPLIKASINYA TERHADAP PENINGKATAN KESADARAN AKAN PERUNDUNGAN
Abstrak
Cyberbullying pada kolom komentar di media sosial cenderung menjadi fenomena yang biasa terjadi kini. Komentar negatif mengarah kepada perundungan menjadi sisi kelam media sosial, Instagram khususnya, yang terlihat jelas pada kolom komentar. Terlebih, pada berbagai unggahan foto para artis remaja dimana mereka memiliki banyak pengikut di laman Instagramnya. Penelitian ini memiliki tiga tujuan, yaiu untuk memperoleh makna leksikal cyberbullying dari komentar-komentar negatif pada kolom komentar beberapa foto artis remaja Indonesia yang diunggah di Instagram pribadi mereka; untuk menggambarkan fenomena cyberbullying yang terjadi; dan untuk memberikan implikasi terhadap peningkatan kesadaran akan perundungan berdasarkan temuan. Purposive sampling digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data yaitu dengan membaca satu per satu komentar guna menemukan komentar-komentar negatif pada kolom komentar artis-artis remaja. Analisis komponen makna digunakan untuk mengetahui makna leksikal cyberbullying, hasilnya diklasifikasikan ke dalam jenis cyberbullying Willard (2007). Hasil penelitian menemukan tiga hal. Pertama, komponen makna leksikal cyberbullying yang ditemukan adalah asusila, tidak baik, dan umpatan. Kedua, ada dua jenis cyberbullying yang terjadi: harassment dan flaming. Ketiga, implikasi dari penelitian ini adalah adanya pendidikan karakter dan pendidikan seks yang nyata, berkesinambungan, dan menyeluruh di seluruh lapisan masyarakat menjadi solusi untuk mengurangi cyberbullying.
Kata kunci: cyberbullying, komponen makna, media sosial
... support to the meaning of the frequent word. The argument is the collocation involved in a clause control the intended semantic meaning [15]. This means, the word before and after flavour the frequent word in delivering message to the readers. ...
... The technology codes used by the USPTO to classify inventions have been used in studies of technological change which aim to distinguish among different sources and types of inventive novelty-see, for example, Fleming (2001), Strumsky et al. (2012), Kogler et al. (2013), MacNamee (2013), Eusebi and Silberglitt (2014), Guan and Liu (2015), Rigby (2015), Strumsky and Lobo (2015), Youn et al. (2015), Kim et al. (2016) and Verhoven et al. (2016). However, it is important to note that the technology codes constitute a classification scheme, and as with any such scheme it is not uniquely determined by the observations to be classified, nor is it free of choices regarding the manner in which information is indexed, arranged and summarized (Allan 2002;Bishop 2006). This consideration is even more pressing in light of the recent change effected by the U.S. Patent Office regarding the classification system used to go from patent claims to indexing technologies. ...
An essential feature of a modern patenting system is a classification schema for organizing, indexing and coding the technical information contained in a patent. Patent classification systems make it possible for patent examiners and prospective inventors to search through existing patents in order to find information pertinent to evaluating a patent application’s purported novelty. Patent classification systems also support the construction of a taxonomy for the various sources of inventive novelty embodied in patented inventions. Until 2013 the U.S. Patent Office utilized the United States Patent Classification system and since then it has used the Cooperative Patent Classification (CPC) system; these two systems implement very different classification logics with the CPC aiming at greater granularity. Here we examine the extent to which the two patent classification systems generate similar historical narratives as to the sources of inventive novelty. Despite the differences in classification principles, common patterns are revealed regardless of which classification system is used to identify technologies. Invention is primarily a cumulative process where new inventions are developed from combining existing technologies. Refinements (the re-use of existing technologies) and combinations of previously existing technological functionalities predominate in the patent record, while inventions embodying previously unseen technologies are very rare. The rate at which inventions representing non-refinements have been introduced into the stock of inventions has kept pace with the generation of inventions representing refinements, thereby feeding the combinatorial process.
... Advertising gurus sometimes deploy indefinite lexicons to fascinate readers especially in Nigeria ('lyte' for light; 'luv' for love; 'kulture' for culture; 'ur' for your; '4rm' for from; etc.). Besides, euphemism creates association with figures of speech (Allan, 2001;Cruse, 2004), collocation (Zhou, 2015), political propaganda and public relations (Jačková, 2010), and manipulation of consumers that might lead to vagueness (Leech, 1966). Connecting those lines of defense to euphemism is an exposé of the behaviors of every language user, which is the motive for Bolinger (1987) to further posit that "[…] euphemism is everyman's sin." ...
Politeness is a concern and necessity in advertising because of sensitization goals to be achieved in the midst of cultural, legal and competitive challenges. Thus, this study examined the utilization of euphemistic devices that facilitate mild persuasion in advertisements. Ten advertisements served as the data of investigation. The theoretical explication rested on Barthesian denotative and connotative annotations and Halliday’s transitivity concepts. The study revealed concealments in forms of the socio-cultural affiliation and association (solo), domination (power, the Hero), distinction (made of more), and superiority (Indomitables). Also, personification and personalization (bigger boy; your world), self-worth (greatness), borrowing (Naija), and transfer of professional meaning (credit card) functioned as replacements for seemingly inappropriate lexicons. Advertisers hide behind the metaphor (a taste of black), discrimination (choose greatness), and comparison (more, bigger) to expedite recipients’ response. Therefore, as euphemisms are everyone’s linguistic behavior, the study suggested that their analyses and applications need to follow a similar course. That might assist language users to curb communication crises.
... Studies of the word semantics play an important role in modern theoretical and applied linguistics (Allan, 2002;Bloom, 2000;Boas, 2009;Cruse, 2000;Goddard, 1998;Loebner, 2002;Murphy, 2003;Shyrokov, 2005Shyrokov, , 2011Vakulenko, 2015Vakulenko, , 2017Vakulenko & Vakulenko, 2017;Vossen, 2004;Weigand, 1998;Wierzbicka, 1996), with a strong bias to interdisciplinary approaches. The semantic information is particularly significant in multilingual lexical resources (Boas, 2009, p. 4;Calzolari, Bertagna, Lenci, Monachini, et al., 2003, p. 74;Vakulenko, 2017). ...
A new approach to numerically measure the semantic distances between lexical units (words and collocations) based on the geometric analogies and analytical calculation, is put forward. Having considered the cases of equal and different weights of semes, we obtained exact algebraic formulas describing different levels of the meanings proximity, ranging from absolute synonymy to full antonymy. It was emphasized that absolute synonymy arises when the compared units contain equal numbers of semes that fully coincide and have equal weights in the corresponding pairs. Calculation of the semes weights helps to locate the unit more precisely on the semantic sphere. It was shown that the level of synonymy and antonymy decreases if different semes are accentuated, while the semantic distance between the units without identical semes cannot be influenced by seme boosting. It was observed that depending on the context, a word may wander over this sphere, thus modifying its lexical semantic relations with other units. As the proposed approach contributes to formalization of the units comparison procedure, it is advisable for incorporation into relevant automatic tools, particularly into WordNet and FrameNet. The obtained results may be useful for various linguistic and associated studies including automatic text analysis and processing, computer lexicography, information search and retrieval, machine translation and other NLP applications that are related to the artificial intelligence problem.
... A standard approach to formal semantics is to use an extensional model structure (Cann, 1993;Allan, 2001;Kamp and Reyle, 2013). We first define a set of 'individuals' (or 'entities') in the model. ...
Semantic composition remains an open problem for vector space models of semantics. In this paper, we explain how the probabilistic graphical model used in the framework of Functional Distributional Semantics can be interpreted as a probabilistic version of model theory. Building on this, we explain how various semantic phenomena can be recast in terms of conditional probabilities in the graphical model. This connection between formal semantics and machine learning is helpful in both directions: it gives us an explicit mechanism for modelling context-dependent meanings (a challenge for formal semantics), and also gives us well-motivated techniques for composing distributed representations (a challenge for distributional semantics). We present results on two datasets that go beyond word similarity, showing how these semantically-motivated techniques improve on the performance of vector models.
... As explained by , premodification is a valence relation of correspondence, i.e. a composite structure where the component structures share certain features. Scalar adjectives such as old require the existence of an implied norm to which the figure is matched against-somebody who is old falls beyond this implied norm (see Allan 1986Allan , 2001. However, the comparative suffix in older Australians implies that there is no fixed norm to which the figure is matched against. ...
This chapter applies a Cultural Linguistic perspective to survey the cultural conceptualisations of river in the context of love in Hungarian folksongs (Sharifian in Cultural conceptualisations and language: theoretical framework and applications. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 2011, The Routledge handbook of language and culture. Routledge, London/New York, 2015). In traditional folk cultural communities, experiences about nature are potential source domains for metaphorical imagery in communicating emotional states. Based on an analysis of the collected linguistic data, it is proposed that the conceptualisations of river in the folksongs can be traced back to the underlying cultural metaphor emotion is river water, which develops in several related metaphors and image schemas grounded in cultural experiences. Most importantly, the folksongs instantiate the cultural schema reservedness in expressing emotions, which derives from the norms of peasant morality. It is concluded that the images of nature in the folksongs have connection to emotion metaphors (Kövecses in Metaphor and emotion. Language, culture and body in human feeling. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000) but their explanation requires in-depth knowledge on the norms of love and morality in the traditional Hungarian folk culture.
... Concepts are the basic structural unit of human knowledge for denoting real-world entities and abstract artifacts (Berkeley, 1710;Chomsky, 1956;von Neumann, 1958;Montague, 1974;Codin et al., 1995;Ganter and Wille, 1999;O'Grady and Archibald, 2000;Berners-Lee et al., 2001;Taylor, 2002;Alani et al., 2003;Keenan, 1975;Liu and Singh, 2004;Evans and Green, 2006;Saeed, 2009;Wang, 2003Wang, , 2006Wang, , 2007bWang, /c, 2008aWang, , 2015aWang, /b/d, 2016aBerwick, 2012, 2013;Wang et al., 2011Wang et al., , 2016aValipour and Wang, 2015;Valipour et al., 2016). Concepts provide a stable semantic representation not only in threads of perceptions and thinking, but also in cognitive processes of learning and reasoning (McCulloch, 1965;Miller, 1995;Wilson and Keil, 2001;Wang, 2013Wang, , 2009aWang, /b, 2010Wang, , 2014bWang, , 2015aWang, , 2016a. ...
Concepts are a stable semantic representation of knowledge not only in threads of perceptions and thinking, but also in cognitive processes of learning and reasoning. Concept algebra is a denotational mathematical structure for rigorously manipulating formal concepts and their algebraic operations in knowledge representation, semantic analysis, machine learning, and cognitive computing. Properties of formal concepts and mathematical rules of concept algebra are formally studied in order to elaborate the nature of the basic structural unit of human knowledge and their algebraic operations. This leads to a comprehensive set of algebraic rules in the categories of relational, reproductive, and compositional operations supported by formal proofs and demonstrated by practical examples. This work enables a rigorous implementation of concept algebra for cognitive knowledge manipulationsand cognitive machine learning in cognitive computing, cognitive robotics, and cognitive systems. This paper is the first part of the work presented in the same issue due to its excessive length.
... Concepts are the basic structural unit of human knowledge for denoting real-world entities and abstract artifacts (Berkeley, 1710;Chomsky, 1956;von Neumann, 1958;Montague, 1974;Codin et al., 1995;Ganter and Wille, 1999;O'Grady and Archibald, 2000;Berners-Lee et al., 2001;Taylor, 2002;Alani et al., 2003;Keenan, 1975;Liu and Singh, 2004;Evans and Green, 2006;Saeed, 2009;Wang, 2003Wang, , 2006Wang, , 2007bWang, /c, 2008aWang, , 2015aWang, /b/d, 2016aBerwick, 2012, 2013;Wang et al., 2011Wang et al., , 2016aValipour and Wang, 2015;Valipour et al., 2016). Concepts provide a stable semantic representation not only in threads of perceptions and thinking, but also in cognitive processes of learning and reasoning (McCulloch, 1965;Miller, 1995;Wilson and Keil, 2001;Wang, 2013Wang, , 2009aWang, /b, 2010Wang, , 2014bWang, , 2015aWang, , 2016a. ...
Concepts are a stable semantic representation of knowledge not only in threads of perceptions and thinking, but also in cognitive processes of learning and reasoning. Concept algebra is a denotational mathematical structure for rigorously manipulating formal concepts and their algebraic operations in knowledge representation, semantic analysis, machine learning, and cognitive computing. Properties of formal concepts and mathematical rules of concept algebra are formally studied in order to elaborate the nature of the basic structural unit of human knowledge and their algebraic operations. This leads to a comprehensive set of algebraic rules in the categories of relational, reproductive, and compositional operations supported by formal proofs and demonstrated by practical examples. This work enables a rigorous implementation of concept algebra for cognitive knowledge manipulationsand cognitive machine learning in cognitive computing, cognitive robotics, and cognitive systems. This paper is the second part of the work presented in the same issue due to its excessive length.
... While we understand and make use of a great number of concepts on a regular basis, we necessarily prioritize certain systems of concepts to act upon in a given situation. Such systems of concepts are defined as frames (Allan, 2001). The process by which we select frames (i.e. ...
Extant organizational research into crises has focused on the efforts of different actors to defend and legitimate their ideologies towards particular actions. Although insightful, such research has offered little knowledge about the moral reasoning underlying such action. In this paper, we explore how moral reasoning from different ideological viewpoints can lead to polarised debates and stalemate within the context of ecological crises. We apply our conceptual framework in an analysis of the 19th Century French Phylloxera Epidemic (hereafter the Phylloxera Epidemic). Drawing upon this analysis, we argue that, by adapting their moral reasoning, opposing stake-holder groups could maintain their underlying ideology, while at the same time pragmatically changing their actions towards the crisis. We discuss the theoretical implications of our analysis for historical research in organizational studies and research on organizations and the natural environment. (135 words)
Theories like implicature in pragmatics persistently aim at explaining speaker's ability to interpret given utterances in given context and thereby to draw inferences. In general, what is conveyed by a given message may be far richer than what is said. The concepts in pragmatics such as implicature aim at bridging up such gap. The present research paper attempts to review the theoretical framework of the notion of implicature. It focuses on two types of implicature, that is, conventional and conversational implicature, with different definitions and various explanations of both the concepts. An implicature is something meant, implied, hinted or suggested which is different from 'what is said.'Grice is not the first to note that people can mean more than they actually say. This phenomenon was observed by John Stuart Mill at the end of nineteenth century. Even the classical rhetoricians like Aristotle, Horace and Quintillion were aware of the analogous norms.The conversational implicature is one of the crucial phenomena in pragmatics. It is used to elucidate how speakers mean more that they literally say in conversation. It facilitates understanding of unsaid meaning which the hearer is supposed to infer.
According to age studies expert Margaret Morganroth Gullette (2004) the social ideology of ageing as decline—and the concomitant anxiety—is affecting people increasingly early on in their lives. A linguistic way of coping is through minimising the threatening impact of words. This paper focuses on how life course scholars apply euphemisms to refer to age-related identities and issues. Additionally, in the background of our inquiry are two questions: (1) whether and how these authors engage in metalinguistic comment, and (2) whether they explicitly acknowledge the constitutive role of language and discourse. The conclusions suggest that there is some explicit recognition of the significance of language use for the social attitudes and behaviour related to ageing. Besides their personal choice of euphemisms, authors have used other discursive means to write non-evaluatively about ageing, as well as make informed comments about strategies present in the public sphere, perceived as euphemistic. Most importantly, this exploratory paper is to probe the interdisciplinary context of the ways scholars refer sensitively to ageing.
У статті на матеріалі творів А.П. Свидницького розглянуто фраземи із соматичним компонентом на позначення процесів мовленнєвої та розумової діяльності, а також фізичного та психологічного стану людини.Мова творів А.П. Свидницького насичена фразеологізмами (приказками, прислів’ями).Визначено, що фразеологічний фонд творів А.П. Свидницького багатий і різноманітний, а основна функція вжи- тих фразеологічних одиниць із компонентом-соматизмом – це уточнення, деталізація зображуваних ознак.У мові творів письменника такі абстрактні поняття, як горе, смуток, печаль ілюструються фраземами, образним центром яких є компоненти-соматизми сльози та очі, а ступені експресії чи гіперболізації вербалізуються дієсловами залитися, облитися, заплисти. Найбільшу фразеотвірну властивість має компонент-соматизм голова, який образно номінує здатність людини мислити, відображати і пізнавати об’єктивну дійсність; у семантичних структурах інших фразем образним ядром є асоціативні синоніми мозок, розум, ум. Різні вияви шкали емоції страху представлені фразе- мами, образний центр яких формують компоненти дух, душа, волосся, шкура, отже, образно закріплені словесні характеристики фізичного стану людини ґрунтуються і на абстрактній лексиці, і на соматизмах, які здатні якнайточніше передати фізичні відчуття людини.Широке використання сталих сполук є свідченням високої художньої майстерності автора, досконалого знання ним літературної та народнорозмовної української мови, розуміння важливості фіксації мовного рівня сприйняття світу, генетично закодованого у свідомості або підсвідомості українського етносу.
This essay shows that truth cannot be divorced from human experience and an individual’s world view, his or her weltanschauung. There exist different weltanschauungen that favour alternative truths. Thus, loosely speaking, truth is determined by context. It may be socially acceptable to prefer one among the alternative truths as truly true, but this goal necessarily involves taking an ideological perspective on what is perceived and accepted as the sole truth. In other words, it is prejudiced. The truth value assigned to the proposition God exists starkly illustrates this claim, but in the course of this essay I demonstrate that alternative truths are widespread and that conflicting truths can co-exist within a community even when they create dissension. A hegemonic group will assert a preference for one truth over its alternatives, but that does not eliminate the existence of alternative truths. Alternative weltanschauungen need to be managed somehow, and the recognition that alternative truths exist is one step in their management.
In daily conversation, sometimes dialogue includes terms that vary entirely from the common phrases. From a linguistic perspective, the conversational implicatures are the speaker's intended meaning of the utterance. Conversation implications are the specific conversations between the speaker and the receiver by following the communications principles. It is the most significant component that has undergone argumentation in conversation theory. Grice's theory of dialogue inference is the possibility of providing meaning to the literal. In other words, people apply certain cooperative principles to communicate cooperatively. Thus, conversational implicatures have become one of the top research areas in pragmatics. This paper intends to explore the importance of conversational implicatures in day-to-day conversations in various contexts. It focuses on certain dialogues collected and integrated from the routine conversation. The outcome revealed that context plays a vital role in interpreting utterances. Therefore, there is no possibility of a complete correspondence of one utterance to one context, which shows the conversational implicature cannot be context-independent. In addition, dialogues were classified into Generalized, Scalar, and Particular conversational implicatures.
The prophet's cartoon is an immense controversy for France and a country with a Muslim majority. As the France President, Emmanuel Macron has rarely gained critic toward the use of language when conveying his political discourse in the prophet cartoon case. Thus, this study aims to explore Macron's euphemism expressions in his political interview with Al Jazeera on the prophet cartoon. This paper also examines the effect (perlocutionary act) of Macron's euphemism and then uses them as a means of teaching inferential reading comprehension in secondary school. This qualitative study employed transcription and documentation techniques to obtain the data. Macron's euphemism was taken from his political interview on October 31, 2020 with Al-Jazeera, and comments of Macron's political interview on YouTube are also used for the sample of the perlocutionary act. Moreover, Macron's euphemism in YouTube is associated with euphemism in Jakarta Post online newspaper to be used as a means of teaching inferential reading comprehension. This study relied on the kind of euphemism by Rawson (1981), euphemism formation by Šebková (2012), perlocutionary act by Austin (1962), and inferential reading theory by Westwood (2008). The findings found that Macron utilized many positive euphemisms with widening formation to maintain his ideology and to shape the views of the world's Muslims. Two perlocutionary acts (expression of acceptance and rejection) were also discovered, and Macron's euphemism could be used as a means of teaching inferential reading comprehension.
Qisqartma (abrevatsiya) lar uzoq tarixga ega bo'lib, butun bir so'zni yozib bo'lmaslik uchun yaratilgan. Bu vaqtni tejash, shuningdek maxfiylikni ta'minlash uchun amalga oshirilishi mumkin. Yunonistonda ham, Rimda ham so'zlarni bitta harflarga qisqartirish odatiy hol edi. Rim yozuvlarida "So'zlar odatda bosh harf yoki so'zlarning harflari yordamida qisqartirilgan va ko'pgina yozuvlarda kamida bitta qisqartma mavjud". Biroq, "ba'zilari o'zlarining kontekstiga qarab bir nechta ma'noga ega bo'lishi mumkin edi. Akademik Britaniyada filologik lingvistik nazariyaning o'sishi davrida qisqartirish juda moda bo'lib qoldi. Ammo yillar o'tishi bilan ba'zi uslubiy qo'llanmalarda konventsiya yo'qligi yoki ikki so'zli qisqartirishlarni nuqta bilan qisqartirish kerakligini va qaysi birini qisqartirish kerakligini aniqlash uchun uni qiyinlashtirdi. Zamonaviy ingliz tilida qisqartirish uchun bir nechta konventsiyalar mavjud va tanlov chalkash bo'lishi mumkin. Umumjahon qabul qilingan yagona qoida shundan iboratki, u izchil bo'lishi kerak va buni osonlashtirish uchun noshirlar o'zlarining afzalliklarini uslubiy qo'llanmada ifodalashadi. Tug'ilgan savollarga quyidagi bo'limlardagi savollar kiradi. Agar asl so'z katta harf bilan yozilgan bo'lsa, unda uning qisqartmasining birinchi harfi katta harfni saqlab qolishi kerak. Agar so'z bir harfdan ko'proq qisqartirilsa va dastlab kichik harflar bilan yozilgan bo'lsa, unda katta harf bilan yozishga hojat yo'q. Biroq, har bir so'zning faqat birinchi harfi olinadigan iborani qisqartirganda, barcha harflar katta harflar bilan yozilishi kerak, masalan, YTD da yilga, bosma elektron karta uchun tenglikni va sizning ma'lumotlaringiz uchun. Ushbu maqola shuni ko'rsatadiki, hozirgi kunda har bir kishi kundalik ishlatadigan so'zlarni qisqartirish mumkin. Qisqartirish tilni soddalashtirishning umumiy tendentsiyasini aks ettiradi va bu butun dunyo bo'ylab kompyuterga ega bo'lgan odamlarga tegishli.
An online survey of 654 Australians found that the NP seniors is associated with positive personal characteristics of health and well-being such as ‘like to travel’, ‘lead an involved and active life’, ‘are vibrant and full of purpose’. Older people is also associated with positive characteristics, but somewhat less so than seniors and more socially (other) oriented. Older people are seen to ‘benefit the workforce through their experience’, ‘have wisdom and can always be turned to for advice’, ‘play an important role in their extended family’s life’. By contrast, the characteristics of those typically referred to by the elderly are negative in that the referents are incompetent or impose a burden on society, cf. ‘are frail and fall more often’, ‘are often victims of mental and physical abuse’, ‘are unable to look after themselves and depend on others for help’. The referents of old people and oldies have no particular set of characteristics assigned to them; perhaps that is why they only figure in the one (negative) characteristic ‘are tight-fisted with money’ that itself is not strongly associated with any one of the five NPs.
This article presents a definitional structure for the notion of 'proxy war' organised around three components: (1) a material-constitutive feature, (2) a processual feature and (3) a relational feature. First, the article evaluates the multiple usages of the term of 'proxy war' in light of its contested character. Second, it proposes a way of making sense of the literature's conceptual turmoil by analysing the different attempts at defining the notion. To this end, it adds an important link to the methodology of concept analysis, namely the 'semantic field', which it reintroduces as a heuristic to identify 'military intervention' as a root concept for defining proxy wars. The article does so by identifying a type of semantic relationship between 'proxy war' and 'military intervention', namely sub-type inclusion.
This essay surveys and critically comments upon four lexicographic (semantic) descriptions offered for the English noun cup. Labov (New ways of analyzing variation in English. Georgetown University Press, Washington D.C., pp. 340–73, 1973), Katz (Philos Stud 31: 1–80, 1977), Wierzbicka (Aust J Linguistics 4: 257–281, 1984), Goddard (Semantic analysis: a practical introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011), all restricted themselves to tea/coffee cups. The Oxford English Dictionary allows for other kinds of cups as well, including acorn-cups, and bra-cups. This essay offers an alternative account of what is common to the different denotata for the word cup: all but one kind are hollow hemispheroids. It speculates on the relevance of cupped hands in the sizing of cups, and finally proposes that a proper semantics for cup should be cognisant of the lexical extensions discussed here.
This thesis is a study on quantification in the formal logical system of Labelled Deductive Systems as applied to Natural Language Understanding (LDSNL for short). Chapter 1 starts with a discussion on the treatment of quantification in the GB framework, followed by an examination on branching quantification. Then, in Chapter 2, details of LDSNL are introduced in a way that its logical motivations are explained in the context of natural language understanding. Chapter 3 first discusses Game-theoretic Semantics and its treatment of quantifiers. This is followed by discussions of some other procedural treatments of quantification alternative to the first-order treatments. After that, detailed treatments of quantification in English by LDSNL as proposed by Gabbay & Kempson (1992b) are presented in Chapter 4. Instead of viewing quantifiers as operators, I have followed the works of Gabbay and Kempson in treating them as words projecting meta-variables over the labels, whose values are to be instantiated in the dynamic process of utterance interpretation, which is conceived as a procedural, proof-deductive process. Instantiation of variables will bring about the construction of dependency relation, the varieties of which lead to ambiguity of scope. Chapter 5 first presents the crucial data in Chinese and a short survey of the past literature. It then gives an analysis of Chinese quantification in LDSNL as well as a comparative study of the phenomenon between Chinese and English. Different properties of quantification between English and Chinese are attributed to a delaying mechanism which is at work in English but not in Chinese. A deeper linguistic motivation is given in the form of the Kempson and Jiang Hypothesis. Additional supporting evidence for the hypothesis is also provided from the study of double-object constructions and dative/locative constructions. A comparative discussion between LDSNL and treatments in Categorial Grammars and Discourse Representation Theory is given in Chapter 6. The thesis also attempts to relate the notions, mechanisms and findings in LDS to other linguistic frameworks, notably the Government-Binding Theory, Montague Semantics, Categorial Grammars, Discourse Representation Theory, Game-Theoretical Semantics and Branching Quantifier Theory.
According to Adams (Inquiry 8:166–197, 1965), the acceptability of an indicative conditional goes with the conditional probability of the consequent given the antecedent. However, some conditionals seem to be inappropriate, although their corresponding conditional probability is high. These are cases with a missing link between antecedent and consequent. Other conditionals are appropriate even though the conditional probability is low. Finally, we have the so-called biscuit conditionals. In this paper we will generalize analyses of Douven (Synthese 164:19–44, 2008) and others to account for the appropriateness of conditionals in terms of evidential support. Our generalization involves making use of Value, or intensity. We will show how this generalization helps to account for biscuit conditionals and conditional threats and promises. Finally, a link is established between this analysis of conditionals and an analysis of generic sentences.
Subtitling and dubbing foreign animation in Arabic have been growing since TV screens reached Arab homes. This imposes stricter control and ethical supervision of the used language. This study examines the cultural constraints in subtitling the American animated sitcom Family Guy into Arabic. Family Guy addresses sensitive matters, such as sex, alcohol, religion, and politics, and so it is viewed with concern and caution in the Arab world. The researchers classified the cultural constraints in translation into three main categories: religious remarks, jokes & humour that revolve around proper nouns, and taboos. The analysis shows that the strategies used in translating religious remarks were scene deletion, words omission, and words omission with justifications. For jokes and humour, the translator opted for three strategies, namely, retain unchanged, retain unchanged with added guidance and retain unchanged with detailed explanation. Euphemistic expressions and word omission were the two strategies followed in translating taboos. The study concludes that the target audience has a vital role in determining the appropriate constraints on translation that go in line with their ideology and culture.
In this chapter, I propose a lexical semantics with interlaced pragmatic elements for three potential slurring terms: bitch, cunt, and nigger. These controversial lexical items are worthy of attention because each can be used without the utterance being either intended or interpreted as a slur or even felt to be a slur. To specify the differing potentials of such terms, I postulate a cocktail of interlaced semantic and pragmatic components. I first hinted that pragmatic components be included in lexicon entries in Allan (Linguistic meaning. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1986/2014: 170–174) and subsequently confirmed the idea and developed it substantially in Allan (The lexicon-encyclopedia interface. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 169–218, 2000; Natural language semantics. Blackwell, Oxford, 2001; Salience and defaults in utterance processing. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 2011; Cambridge handbook of pragmatics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 227–250, 2012). Something similar, at least in spirit, is proposed in Copestake and Briscoe (Lexical semantics and knowledge representation. Springer, Berlin, pp. 107–119, 1992), Copestake and Lascarides (Proceedings of the 35th annual meeting of the association for computational linguistics (ACL97). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, pp. 136–143, 1997) and more recently in Carston (Thoughts and utterances: the pragmatics of explicit communication. Blackwell, Oxford, 2002: Chap. 5) and Wilson and Carston (Pragmatics. Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills, pp. 230–259, 2007). What I am proposing in this new chapter is that the triggers for the potentially diverse interpretations of the terms bitch, cunt, and nigger are specified in the lexicon for the various identifiable classes of contexts in which such words are used.
Automatic text summarization attempts to provide an effective solution to today’s unprecedented growth of textual data. This paper proposes an innovative graph-based text summarization framework for generic single and multi document summarization. The summarizer benefits from two well-established text semantic representation techniques; Semantic Role Labelling (SRL) and Explicit Semantic Analysis (ESA) as well as the constantly evolving collective human knowledge in Wikipedia. The SRL is used to achieve sentence semantic parsing whose word tokens are represented as a vector of weighted Wikipedia concepts using ESA method. The essence of the developed framework is to construct a unique concept graph representation underpinned by semantic role-based multi-node (under sentence level) vertices for summarization. We have empirically evaluated the summarization system using the standard publicly available dataset from Document Understanding Conference 2002 (DUC 2002). Experimental results indicate that the proposed summarizer outperforms all state-of-the-art related comparators in the single document summarization based on the ROUGE-1 and ROUGE-2 measures, while also ranking second in the ROUGE-1 and ROUGE-SU4 scores for the multi-document summarization. On the other hand, the testing also demonstrates the scalability of the system, i.e., varying the evaluation data size is shown to have little impact on the summarizer performance, particularly for the single document summarization task. In a nutshell, the findings demonstrate the power of the role-based and vectorial semantic representation when combined with the crowd-sourced knowledge base in Wikipedia.
Neurolinguistic and Psycholinguistic Perspectives on SLA is a collection of twelve chapters, reporting on research results and presenting theoretical insights into the processes of language acquisition. It is divided into two major sections: the first part demonstrates the ways in which the latest developments in non-invasive techniques of brain monitoring allow researchers to test hypothesis related to biological foundations of language acquisition, including also accounts of emotional factors, limbic communication and evidence from language disorders. The second part offers psycholinguistic modelling of a number of components of second language competence, such as the acquisition of reading and writing, handling of foreign language vocabulary and the nature of bi- and multilingualism. It is a valuable collection for active researchers in the field, as well as for postgraduate students in language acquisition, psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics. © 2010 Janusz Arabski, Adam Wojtaszek and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved.
One of the most evolving areas of euphemisms in present-day society is ageing. As baby boomers are reaching retirement age and wish to remain active for many more decades, they are redefining the concept of ageing considerably. This redefinition is all the more relevant in Australia, which has the third highest proportion of people aged over 65 in the world. Our main hypothesis is that this reconceptualisation of ageing is manifested in: (1) the emergence of novel cultural categories (the degree of entrenchment of successful ageing as compared to healthy ageing in Australian English; (2) category extension (analysis of the phrase older Australians, which is producing dynamic growth rates in the media as compared to the more established seniors); and (3) novel metaphors and cultural schemas (as evidenced in the naming practices of aged care facilities). Overall, the findings of the present study reveal that the analytical framework of Cultural Linguistics provides fruitful tools for the study of culturally sensitive topics such as ageing.
The ideophone, a word class not unique to but highly characteristic of the Bantu languages, presents particular challenges in both monolingual and bilingual lexicography. Not only is this part of speech without a counterpart in most other languages, the meaning of ideo-phones is highly elusive. In this research article these challenges are studied by means of an analy-sis of the treatment of ideophones in a corpus-driven Zulu–English school dictionary project.
Keywords: lexicography, dictionary, bilingual, corpus, frequency, bantu, zulu (isizulu), english, ideophone, semantic import, paraphrase, part-of-speech mismatch
An article, irrespective of its distribution across natural languages, dialects and varieties, is a member of the class of determiners which particularizes a noun according to language-specific principles of grammatical and semantic structuring. Definite articles in Indo- European languages – in those grammatical systems where they are present – are derived from ancient demonstratives through a grammaticalization process: given that demonstratives are deictic expressions (i.e. they depend on a frame of reference which is external to that of the speaker and of the interlocutor) with the role of selecting a referent or a set of referents, it is easy to understand what the role of “universal quantifier” of the, which is in English the prototypical – but questionable – example of definiteness, is due to. Demonstratives are frequently reanalyzed across languages as grammatical markers (very often as definite articles, but also as copulas, relative and third person pronouns, sentence connectives, focus markers, etc.). In this article I concentrate on the grammaticalization of the definite article in English, adopting a comparative-contrastive approach (including a wide range of Indo- European languages), given the complexity of the article.
An article, irrespective of its distribution across natural languages, dialects and varieties, is a member of the class of determiners which particularizes a noun according to language-specific principles of grammatical and semantic structuring. Definite articles in Indo- European languages – in those grammatical systems where they are present – are derived from ancient demonstratives through a grammaticalization process: given that demonstratives are deictic expressions (i.e. they depend on a frame of reference which is external to that of the speaker and of the interlocutor) with the role of selecting a referent or a set of referents, it is easy to understand what the role of “universal quantifier” of the, which is in English the prototypical – but questionable – example of definiteness, is due to. Demonstratives are frequently reanalyzed across languages as grammatical markers (very often as definite articles, but also as copulas, relative and third person pronouns, sentence connectives, focus markers, etc.). In this article I concentrate on the grammaticalization of the definite article in English, adopting a comparative-contrastive approach (including a wide range of Indo- European languages), given the complexity of the article.
Generics exhibit genericity, and though a theory of generics is closely connected to a theory of genericity, the two are distinct. They raise a host of interesting linguistic and philosophical issues, both separately and in their interaction. This chapter begins with a fairly manifest phenomenon one can observe in natural language. There is a range of sentences that, speaking intuitively, one can use to talk about kinds. It argues that there's no simple statistical criterion that systematically captures the patterns of the truth and falsity of generics. Generics seem to not just be substantially independent of statistical facts in the world and at the time with respect to which they are evaluated. The chapter points-out a likely form of context dependence in generics, and argues that on a quantificational approach to generics, the restrictor of the generic quantifier must be determined at least in part by the predicate at issue.
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