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Promises and Lies: Restoring Violated Trust
Abstract
Trust is critical for organizations, effective management, and efficient negotiations, yet trust violations are common. Prior work has often assumed trust to be fragile-easily broken and difficult to repair. We investigate this proposition in a laboratory study and find that trust harmed by untrustworthy behavior can be effectively restored when individuals observe a consistent series of trustworthy actions. Trust harmed by the same untrustworthy actions and deception, however, never fully recovers-even when deceived participants receive a promise, an apology, and observe a consistent series of trustworthy actions. We also find that a promise to change behavior can significantly speed the trust recovery process, but prior deception harms the effectiveness of a promise in accelerating trust recovery. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
... Understanding how an organization's potential customer base reacts to deceptive chatbot use is critically important for the organization's reputation 21 . Additionally, choosing not to disclose the use of a chatbot is an act of deception and although there is a myriad of ways in which trust can be violated, deception is a particularly potent way to do this [22][23][24][25] . Of course, organizations that deceive will wish that their transgressions are not known publicly, but these acts-for example due to whistleblowing 26 -can become public knowledge. ...
... When these deceptive actions become public knowledge, this has been shown to negatively affect relationships 27,28 , trigger retaliatory responses 29 , and produce negative emotions 30 . And, although research shows that reparations can be made when trust has been violated 31 , a violation of trust that involves intentional deception has been shown to produce an enduring harm to trust which may well be beyond repair 24 . ...
... To determine our effect size estimate, prior literature on the effects of deception on trustworthiness perceptions was consulted 24,25 , leading us to conservatively account for a medium effect size (Cohen's f = 0.3). An a priori power analysis suggests that approximately 144 total observations are required to achieve 90% power at an α of 0.05 89,90 . ...
The use of chatbots is becoming widespread as they offer significant economic opportunities. At the same time, however, customers seem to prefer interacting with human operators when making inquiries and as a result are not as cooperative with chatbots when their use is known. This specific situation creates an incentive for organizations to use chatbots without disclosing this to customers. Will this deceptive practice harm the reputation of the organization, and the employees who work for them? Across four experimental studies, we demonstrate that prospective customers, who interact with an organization using chatbots, perceive the organization to be less ethical if the organization does not disclose the information about the chatbot to their customers (Study 1). Moreover, employees that work for an organization which requires them to facilitate the deceptive use of a chatbot exhibit greater turnover intentions (Study 2) and receive worse job opportunities from recruiters in both a hypothetical experimental setting (Study 3) and from professional job recruiters in the field (Study 4). These results highlight that using chatbots deceptively has far reaching negative effects, which begin with the organization and ultimately impact their customers and the employees that work for them.
... For example, scholars have found that relationships of trust between coworkers are similar to those between managers and employees, with little variance between them (Colquitt et al., 2007;Knoll and Gill, 2011;Lau and Liden, 2008;Sherony and Green, 2002). The similarity of these two groups' perceptions likely stems from the fact that employees often look to their managers as role models who act as representatives of their organization and who play a significant role in shaping the judgments of employees within the workplace (Jiang et al., 2017;Liden et al., 2004;Schein, 1992). Lau andLiden (2008, p. 1135) argued further that not only do leaders influence their subordinates' perceptions of the work environment, but that "any examination of coworker interactions appears to be incomplete without acknowledgement of the role that leaders play in shaping coworker relationships." ...
... We used a five-item measure of social status developed by Djurdjevic et al. (2017) Interpersonal trust. In line with previous research that examined interpersonal trust (Maddux et al., 2008;Schweitzer et al., 2006;Soderberg and Howe, 2021), we asked participants to complete a single-item measure of trust in which they responded to the question "How much would you trust this person?" with responses ranging from 1 (do not trust at all) to 7 (completely trust). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to examine how individuals are perceived by their coworkers, specifically how individuals’ gender and parental status affect how much social status they are accorded in the workplace, and the extent to which they are trusted by their coworkers.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors recruited an online sample of adults across North America to respond to survey questions about one of their current or former coworkers. Information was collected to determine the gender and parental status of this coworker and their perceptions of this person’s social status and how much they trusted this person.
Findings
The results showed that having children can affect how individuals are perceived by their coworkers. Specifically, compared with working men without children, working fathers were perceived to have higher status and were trusted more by their coworkers. In addition, working mothers were perceived by their coworkers to have higher status than, and trusted as much as, working women without children. Exploratory analyses revealed that working fathers were also perceived to be warmer than working men without children.
Originality/value
This study examines important workplace perceptions of parents from the perspective of their coworkers rather than from the employer perspective that is largely based on hypothetical scenarios as used in previous research.
... To maximize their own outcomes, negotiators sometimes rely on unethical tactics that are "illegal or morally unacceptable to the larger community" (Jones, 1991, p. 367), such as lying about alternatives or making false promises for future action (Robinson et al., 2000). Unethical negotiation behavior can destroy trust (Schweitzer et al., 2006), lead to impasses (Volkema et al., 2004), and impair relationships between organizations (Hill et al., 2009). But does everyone use unethical tactics to the same extent? ...
... Moreover, negotiating unethically can result in important interpersonal and economic costs if it is detected (for a review see, . For example, parties who negotiate unethically are perceived as less trustworthy (Bitterly & Schweitzer, 2020;Schweitzer et al., 2006), receive lower offers (Boles et al., 2000;Croson et al., 2003), are less likely to reach an agreement (Volkema et al., 2004), and realize lower economic outcomes (Boles et al., 2000;Côté et al., 2013;Croson et al., 2003) as compared to parties who negotiate ethically. Hence, the finding that women negotiate more ethically than men on average indicates a clear strength of women. ...
Based on role congruity theory, this preregistered meta-analysis examines whether women negotiate less unethically than men. We predicted that moderators related to the person (negotiation experience) and the negotiation context (e.g., advocacy, cultural gender-role inequality) influence the proposed gender difference. We conducted a Bayesian three-level meta-analysis to test our predictions on a sample of 116 effect sizes from 70 samples (overall N = 14,028, including employees, MBA students, undergraduate students). As predicted, women negotiated less unethically than men (Hedges' g = 0.25). The gender difference held for unethical judgements (Hedges' g = 0.29), unethical intentions (Hedges' g = 0.21), and unethical behaviors (Hedges' g = 0.17). The gender difference decreased when parties negotiated for others as compared to for themselves, when parties strategically used positive affect, and tended to decrease when parties were experienced as compared to inexperienced negotiators. We discuss implications for theory and research.
... Questions regarding vaccine hesitancy were added to the official WHO questionnaire used in the COSMO (for a more detailed description of the questionnaire, see [15]). It contains instruments to measure trust in sources of information and institutions [16,17], conspiracy perceptions [18], resilience [19], and altruism [20]. ...
... Information regarding age, gender, mother tongue (German, Italian, Ladin, other/more than one), residence, educational status on a 4-item scale, Italian citizenship, information about one's living situation, healthcare profession, chronic diseases, and economic situation over the last 3 months as ranked on a 3-point scale that included the option "I don't know" was asked for. Further, predictors for COVID-19 vaccination were taken from the literature and from the COSMO questionnaire: Trust in information sources and institutions [16,17] (health authorities and governments) was measured on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = "no trust" to 6 = "a lot of trust" (including a seventh "don't know" response option). In addition, we measured conspiracy perceptions (5 questions on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = "don't agree at all" to 6 = "completely agree") [18], resilience (3 items on a 6-point Likert scale from 1 = "don't agree at all" to 6 = " completely agree") [19], well-being within the last 2 weeks (5 items on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 = "always" to 4 = "never" [21]), and altruism (5 questions on a 6-point Likert scale from 1 = "don't agree at all" to 6 = "completely agree") [20]. ...
Background:
German is a minority language in Italy and is spoken by the majority of the inhabitants of the Autonomous Province of Bolzano, South Tyrol. Linguistic group membership in South Tyrol is an established determinant of health information-seeking behavior. Because the COVID-19 incidence and vaccination coverage in the second year of the pandemic in Italy was the worst in South Tyrol, we investigated whether linguistic group membership is related to COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy.
Methods:
A cross-sectional survey was conducted on a probability-based sample of 1425 citizens from South Tyrol in March 2021. The questionnaire collected information on socio-demographics, including linguistic group membership, comorbidities, COVID-19-related experiences, conspiracy thinking, well-being, altruism, and likelihood of accepting the national vaccination plan. Multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to identify the significant predictors of vaccine hesitancy.
Results:
Overall, 15.6 percent of the sample reported vaccine hesitancy, which was significantly higher among German speakers than among other linguistic groups. Increased hesitancy was mostly observed in young age, the absence of chronic disease, rural residence, a worsened economic situation, mistrust in institutions, and conspiracy thinking. In the multiple logistic regression analyses, linguistic group membership was not an independent predictor of vaccine hesitancy.
Conclusion:
Although German is a minority language in Italy and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy was higher in the German native language group than in the Italian, linguistic group membership was not an independent predictor of hesitancy in the autonomous province. Known predictors of vaccine hesitancy are distributed unevenly across language groups. Whether language group-specific intervention strategies to promote vaccine hesitancy are useful requires further study.
... A control system, if transparent, provides the buyer an additional factor that can be blamed for a trust violation other than the trustworthiness of the supplier (Christ 2013;Irwin, Mulder, and Simpson 2014;Vlaar, Van den Bosch, and Volberda 2007). It allows room for the perception that the supplier's violation was unintentional or that something uncontrollable by the supplier caused the violation (Schweitzer, Hershey, and Bradlow 2006;Struthers, Eaton, Shirvani, Georghiou, and Edell 2008). This is consistent with research that shows the general result that victims are likely to determine blame based on the level of control that the offending party had over an unjust event (Tomlinson and Mryer 2009). ...
In this study, we show that a supplier’s internal controls (ICs) that lead to either falling short of or to exceeding buyer expectations play an important role in the trust a buyer has in its supplier. In a 12-round repeated trust game, we examine the impact of supplier ICs and the transparency of those ICs to the buyer on buyer trusting behavior across three phases of the buyer-supplier relationship: (1) trust formation, (2) trust violation, and (3) trust repair. We find that, although a supplier’s trust violation reduces buyer trusting behavior, the least amount of damage to trusting behavior occurs for suppliers whose ICs led to supplier actions that fell marginally short of buyer expectations before the violation and when the IC was transparent to the buyer. We refer to this as the IC transparency “immunization effect.” We show that suppliers can benefit from making IC choices known to partners.
Data Availability: Contact the authors.
JEL Classifications: C91; D91; M41.
... One laboratory experiment did show that untrustworthy behavioral actions undermine trust but that the trust can be regained through a consistent series of trustworthy actions. However, if deception is also associated with the untrustworthy actions, trust can never be fully restored (Schweitzer, Hershey, & Bradlow 2006). In terms of theoretical integration, our own study, conducted in the field and encompassing a much longer time frame, provides a richer context for these laboratory results. ...
Accurate project status reporting is important to avoid the problem of information technology (IT) project escalation and to successfully manage and deliver IT projects. One approach that some organizations have taken is to audit their IT projects to avoid surprises that are frequently associated with inaccurate status reporting. Little is known, however, about the effects that such auditing arrangements can have on the dynamics of project status reporting. To examine the process of IT project status reporting in this context, we followed a grounded theory inspired approach in which we investigated nine IT projects in one U.S. state's government agencies. All of the projects we studied were subject to the state's IT oversight board. Based on 118 interviews with a variety of stakeholders including technical personnel, managers, users, and contractors, we present a grounded theory of project status reporting dynamics in which the reporting process can best be characterized as a self-reinforcing cycle of distrust between the project team and the auditors. Specifically, in some projects, we observed a pattern whereby project teams interpreted the auditor's scrutiny as unfair and as not adding value to their projects. As a result, they responded by embracing some defensive reporting tactics. The auditors interpreted the project team's actions as indicating either deception or incompetence, and they then increased their scrutiny of the reports, thus exacerbating the situation and further fueling the cycle of distrust. We discuss implications for both theory and practice.
... Discovering you have been deceived can breed distrust and damage relationships 47,48 . The current research suggests that detection is unnecessary for this outcome to occur; from the perspective of the lie-teller, distrust occurs immediately and social connection may never form, even when interacting with an honest person. ...
Lies can have major consequences if undetected. Research to date has focused primarily on the consequences of deception for receivers once lies are discovered. We advance deception research and relationship science by studying the social consequences of deception for the sender—even if their lies remain undetected. In a correlational study of video conversations (Study 1; N = 776), an experimental study of text conversations (Study 2; N = 416), and a survey of dispositional tendencies (Study 3; N = 399), we find consistent evidence that people who lie tend to assume that others are lying too, and this impedes their ability to form social connections. The findings provide insight into how (dis)honesty and loneliness may go together, and suggest that lies—even when undetected—harm our relationships.
... Problematically however, efforts to address distrust by signaling trustworthiness, especially in controversial referents, tend to be much less effective, even when the effort itself is received positively (Sitkin and Roth 1993, Kim et al. 2004, Schweitzer et al. 2006). Some of the challenge lies in the fact that trustworthiness is not solely rooted in the objectively assessable characteristics of the trustee and is significantly impacted by the life experiences of the trustor (Singh et al. 2012), especially early in the relationship (Alarcon et al. 2016). ...
... Scienti c research over the last three decades has established that the honesty-to-trust causal linkage is evident among not only adults (Levine & Schweitzer, 2015;Schweitzer et al., 2006) However, one cannot simply assume that because honesty leads to trust, trust will automatically elicit honesty. It is possible that trust may lead to dishonesty. ...
Trust and honesty are essential for human interactions. Philosophers since antiquity have long posited that they are causally linked. Evidence shows that honesty elicits trust from others but little is known about the reverse: Does trust lead to honesty? Here we investigated whether trusting young children can cause them to become more honest using a naturalistic field study design (total N = 328 across five studies; 168 boys; M age = 5.67, SD age = 0.28). We observed kindergarten children’s cheating behavior after they had been entrusted by an adult to help her with a task. We found that children who were trusted cheated less than children who were not trusted. Our study provides novel evidence for the causal effect of trust on honesty and contributes to the understanding of how social factors influence morality. This finding also points to the potential of using adult trust as an effective method to promote honesty in children.
... People are often tempted to behave dishonestly when given a chance to obtain benefits and fulfill their desires. However, they may be motivated to restrain their behaviors because they foresee the undesirable consequences of dishonesty, such as the punishments for lying, for example being labeled as untrustworthy (Curtis, 2021;Schweitzer et al., 2006), or breaking valuable relationships (Wang et al., 2011), and view them as outweighing the benefits of lying (Behnk et al., 2018). Therefore, people often try to self-regulate and keep their dishonest urges in check to avoid being punished or negatively judged. ...
In daily life, women often experience various forms of sexual objectification such as being stared at in public settings and receiving unsolicited sexual remarks on social media. These incidents could have damaging effects on women’s physical and mental health, necessitating ways to respond to the experience. Researchers have provided burgeoning evidence demonstrating the effects of sexual objectification on various psychological, emotional, and cognitive outcomes. However, relatively few researchers have tested how sexually objectified people behaviorally react to the objectification experience. To address this knowledge gap, we aimed to test whether sexual objectification increases dishonesty among women and reveal one potential underlying psychological mechanism. We predicted that sexual objectification increases dishonesty serially through higher levels of relative deprivation and lower levels of self-regulation. We conducted two experiments (valid N = 150 and 279, respectively) to test the predictions and found that participants who experienced sexual objectification reported greater dishonest tendencies than those who did not (Experiments 1 and 2). Moreover, relative deprivation and self-regulation serially mediated the effect of sexual objectification on dishonesty (Experiment 2). In the current experiments, we highlight the essential role of relative deprivation and self-regulation in explaining how sexual objectification increases dishonesty and various related forms of antisocial behavior.
... Formed trust relationships are not always stable as trust is fragile and easily broken. As a result, trust violations occur frequently in a workplace and may lead to serious consequences, such as revenge (Aquino et al., 2001), distrust (Bijlsma-Frankema et al., 2015), and damaged trust (Schweitzer et al., 2006). These phenomena are representative of trust decay, referring to a process in which an existing trust relationship disappears, or wherein the level of trust in the relationship declines following the occurrence of trust violations . ...
This chapter focuses on the possibilities to develop and repair interpersonal trust in an organizational context from a social network perspective. Trust violations have been argued to be one of the major difficulties that plague organizational life and challenge effective workplace relationships. It is therefore important and meaningful to investigate how trust develops and decays, and how it can be repaired. Despite a surge of research in recent years that investigates trust dynamics from psychological and behavioral perspectives, less is known about how trust dynamics may be influenced by the social context. Drawing upon a systematic literature review in which we found a set of network-related factors that (potentially) influence trust formation, we build a conceptual framework that summarizes how these factors affect trust and which aspects require further attention from researchers. Based on this framework, we provide a set of recommendations intended for managers and executives navigating the social trenches of organizations.
... Trust in information sources and institutions [28,29] (health authorities and politics) was measured on a 6-point Likert scale from "no trust" to "big trust", and a seventh item, "don't know", was investigated as well as conspiracy perceptions (5 questions on a 6-point Likert scale from "don't agree at all" to "completely agree") [30], resilience (3 items on a 6-point Likert scale from "don't agree at all" to " completely agree") [31], and well-being within the last 2 weeks (5 items on a 4-point Likert scale from "always" to "never" [32]). The sum of these variables is considered a potential predictor of altruism during the COVID-19 pandemic. ...
Background:
During the coronavirus pandemic, altruism has been linked to personal protective behavior, vaccine development, and vaccination intention. Studies of the moderating effects of age on altruism in pandemic preparedness have not yet been conducted.
Methods:
A representative cross-sectional survey of residents of South Tyrol, Italy, was conducted in March 2021. Among the participants, 1169 were aged 18-69 years, and 257 were aged ≥ 70 years. The questionnaire collected information on sociodemographic and individual characteristics, including comorbidities, COVID-19-related experiences, trust in information, the likelihood of accepting the national vaccination plan, and altruism. A linear regression analysis was performed.
Results:
Among 1426 participants, the median altruism sum score was 24 (interquartile range, 20-26). In the participant group aged ≥ 70 years, the median altruism score was significantly higher than that in the younger group. Participants living in a single household were significantly less altruistic than other participants, while participants working in the health sector, living in a household at risk from coronavirus disease 2019, or suffering from a chronic disease were found to be more altruistic. Altruism showed significant positive correlations with age and agreement with the national vaccination plan and was negatively correlated with well-being. Trust in institutions was positively correlated with altruism only in the younger age group but not in the elderly. Linear regression models confirmed female gender and identified trust in institutions as a positive predictor of altruism. In the younger age group, increased well-being and restricted individual sports activities were associated with reduced altruism, whereas support of compulsory self-isolation after contact with a SARS-CoV-2-positive person and handwashing as a personal protective measure were positively associated.
Conclusion:
Altruism is associated with various predictors of pandemic behavior and traits. The strengths of the identified positive and negative correlations support the modifying role of age in the effects of altruism on pandemic attitudes. Interventions that are likely to enhance altruism to improve pandemic preparedness in certain age groups require further study.
... In addition, as parents always preach honesty in children's moral education and parenting by lying about money reveals an inconsistency between parents' words and behavior, children may identify hypocrisy and their belief about their parents' honesty may be threatened. Moreover, children may develop distrust about life and the world through interactions with their dishonest parents (Schweitzer et al., 2006;Cargill and Curtis, 2017), which may generate anxiety about coping with difficulties in life. Adolescents are not yet able to be completely independent, so they need the support of their parents in many aspects, especially when encountering pressure and emotional turmoil from family, school and society. ...
Background
Extant research has indicated that parenting practice, such as harsh parenting, rejection, and neglect increases the risk of mobile phone addiction. However, no research to date has examined the association between parenting by lying about money and adolescent mobile phone addiction.
Objective
The current study used a survey to test whether parenting by lying about money may be associated with adolescent mobile phone addiction. The mediation of anxiety and moderation of socioeconomic status were also examined.
Materials and methods
We recruited 971 adolescents from five secondary schools in a city in central China. Of the participants, 448 (46.14%) were boys and 523 (53.86%) were girls ( M age = 13.63, SD age = 1.01).
Results
The results of mediation analysis indicated that parenting by lying about money positively predicted mobile phone addiction ( B = 0.144, p < 0.01); parenting by lying about money positively predicted anxiety ( B = 0.126, p < 0.01) and mobile phone addiction ( B = 0.107, p < 0.01). Anxiety positively predicted mobile phone addiction ( B = 0.293, p < 0.01). Moreover, the bias-corrected bootstrapping mediation test indicated that the process by which parenting by lying about money predicted mobile phone addiction through anxiety was significant (indirect effect = 0.037, SE = 0.011, 95% CI = [0.017, 0.059]).
Conclusion
The current study suggests that parenting by lying about money may lead to mobile phone addiction through the mediation of anxiety. However, the effect was stronger for adolescents with higher level of socioeconomic status than their counterparts.
... For the self-assessed probability and susceptibility of contracting COVID-19, validated items were adapted from Brewer et al. [28]. COSMO contains instruments to measure trust in sources of information and institutions [29,30], conspiracy perceptions [31], resilience [32], and altruism [33]. Sociodemographic questions were adapted to the South Tyrolean context, including items for the municipality and mother tongues of German, Italian, and Ladin. ...
Background:
The demographic determinants of hesitancy in Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) vaccination include rurality, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. In the second year of the pandemic, in South Tyrol, Italy, 15.6 percent of a representative adult sample reported hesitancy. Individual factors responsible for greater vaccination hesitancy in rural areas of central Europe are poorly understood.
Methods:
A cross-sectional survey on a probability-based sample of South Tyrol residents in March 2021 was analyzed. The questionnaire collected information on sociodemographic characteristics, comorbidities, COVID-19-related experiences, conspiracy thinking, and the likelihood of accepting the national vaccination plan. A logistic regression analysis was performed.
Results:
Among 1426 survey participants, 17.6% of the rural sample (n = 145/824) reported hesitancy with COVID-19 vaccination versus 12.8% (n = 77/602) in urban residents (p = 0.013). Rural residents were less likely to have post-secondary education, lived more frequently in households with children under six years of age, and their economic situation was worse than before the pandemic. Chronic diseases and deaths due to COVID-19 among close relatives were less frequently reported, and trust in pandemic management by national public health institutions was lower, as was trust in local authorities, civil protection, and local health services. Logistic regression models confirmed the most well-known predictors of hesitancy in both urban and rural populations; overall, residency was not an independent predictor.
Conclusion:
Several predictors of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy were more prevalent in rural areas than in urban areas, which may explain the lower vaccine uptake in rural areas. Rurality is not a determinant of vaccine hesitancy in the economically well-developed North of Italy.
... In many business situations, this strategy captures the relationship between business partners in a reasonable way. Besides the practical examples outlined in the introduction, Fehr et al. (1997) and Yao (2012) provide empirical evidence, and Schweitzer et al. (2005) provide experimental evidence, of the significant harm to relationships caused by deceptions such that the relationship is permanently terminated. ...
... As a result of individual differences, people can develop honest or dishonest reputations [55]. Targets should expect deception from communicators with dishonest reputations, communicators who have lied to them in the past, or communicators who appear selfish or aggressive [26,56]. If, even after knowing about a communicators' reputation or likelihood of engaging in dishonesty, targets fail to anticipate the likelihood of being deceived, observers are likely to evaluate the targets as more responsible for being deceived. ...
Deception scholarship has focused on deceivers and has largely conceptualized targets as passive victims. We integrate the articles in this special issue, along with a broad body of literature on deception, moral judgment, and blame, to introduce the Shared Responsibility Model of deception (SR Model). The SR Model conceptualizes deception as a social process to describe how both communicators and targets are responsible for deception. Observers’ perception of the targets’ responsibility is a function of (1) whether targets should have expected deception, (2) whether targets took preventive actions, (3) targets’ inferred motives, and (4) targets’ characteristics. The SR Model also challenges the implicit assumption that as communicators’ responsibility for deception increases, targets’ responsibility decreases. The SR Model has important implications for research on ethics, communication, and behavioral decision making.
... Previous research has shown that pedestrians trust an autonomous vehicle that is equipped with an eHMI more than they do a vehicle that is not [169], especially when having been provided with information about its performance, processes, and purpose prior to the initial interaction [170]. Interestingly, unlike trust in another [171], trust in eHMIs appears to be very robust, as an incident of interface malfunction will only momentarily reduce trust in the interface and the acceptance of autonomous vehicles [158,172] An anthropomorphic eHMI is likely to increase the potential for overtrust, as previous work has shown that anthropomorphism positively affects perceived trustworthiness [173]. Moreover, a VHC displayed on the windshield of an oncoming autonomous vehicle is likely to elicit curiosity or even astonishment in bystanders, potentially distracting them in their attempt to navigate regular traffic or interact with the vehicle effectively [145]. ...
Pedestrians base their street-crossing decisions on vehicle-centric as well as driver-centric cues. In the future, however, drivers of autonomous vehicles will be preoccupied with non-driving related activities and will thus be unable to provide pedestrians with relevant communicative cues. External human–machine interfaces (eHMIs) hold promise for filling the expected communication gap by providing information about a vehicle’s situational awareness and intention. In this paper, we present an eHMI concept that employs a virtual human character (VHC) to communicate pedestrian acknowledgement and vehicle intention (non-yielding; cruising; yielding). Pedestrian acknowledgement is communicated via gaze direction while vehicle intention is communicated via facial expression. The effectiveness of the proposed anthropomorphic eHMI concept was evaluated in the context of a monitor-based laboratory experiment where the participants performed a crossing intention task (self-paced, two-alternative forced choice) and their accuracy in making appropriate street-crossing decisions was measured. In each trial, they were first presented with a 3D animated sequence of a VHC (male; female) that either looked directly at them or clearly to their right while producing either an emotional (smile; angry expression; surprised expression), a conversational (nod; head shake), or a neutral (neutral expression; cheek puff) facial expression. Then, the participants were asked to imagine they were pedestrians intending to cross a one-way street at a random uncontrolled location when they saw an autonomous vehicle equipped with the eHMI approaching from the right and indicate via mouse click whether they would cross the street in front of the oncoming vehicle or not. An implementation of the proposed concept where non-yielding intention is communicated via the VHC producing either an angry expression, a surprised expression, or a head shake; cruising intention is communicated via the VHC puffing its cheeks; and yielding intention is communicated via the VHC nodding, was shown to be highly effective in ensuring the safety of a single pedestrian or even two co-located pedestrians without compromising traffic flow in either case. The implications for the development of intuitive, culture-transcending eHMIs that can support multiple pedestrians in parallel are discussed.
... In the current study, the unethical AT continued exhibiting unethical actions after providing trust repair. Prior work has found that trust repair without subsequently improving behaviors is ineffective at repairing trust (Schweitzer et al., 2006). Therefore, combining trust repair with a change in ethical behavior may prove more effective at restoring trust and ethical perceptions. ...
Objective
Determining the efficacy of two trust repair strategies (apology and denial) for trust violations of an ethical nature by an autonomous teammate.
Background
While ethics in human-AI interaction is extensively studied, little research has investigated how decisions with ethical implications impact trust and performance within human-AI teams and their subsequent repair.
Method
Forty teams of two participants and one autonomous teammate completed three team missions within a synthetic task environment. The autonomous teammate made an ethical or unethical action during each mission, followed by an apology or denial. Measures of individual team trust, autonomous teammate trust, human teammate trust, perceived autonomous teammate ethicality, and team performance were taken.
Results
Teams with unethical autonomous teammates had significantly lower trust in the team and trust in the autonomous teammate. Unethical autonomous teammates were also perceived as substantially more unethical. Neither trust repair strategy effectively restored trust after an ethical violation, and autonomous teammate ethicality was not related to the team score, but unethical autonomous teammates did have shorter times.
Conclusion
Ethical violations significantly harm trust in the overall team and autonomous teammate but do not negatively impact team score. However, current trust repair strategies like apologies and denials appear ineffective in restoring trust after this type of violation.
Application
This research highlights the need to develop trust repair strategies specific to human-AI teams and trust violations of an ethical nature.
Companies face increasing pressure to adopt social responsibility initiatives while simultaneously providing shareholder value. However, consumers may respond negatively to ‘win-win’ initiatives that benefit society while bringing financial gain to the corporation, producing a backlash effect. Previous researchers have attributed this backlash effect to the violation of a communal relationship norm that companies trigger in consumers when communicating their win-win initiatives. We propose the alternative hypothesis that the backlash derives from people's deception aversion. We find evidence supporting deception aversion in three preregistered studies showing that companies are evaluated negatively when their actions differ from those implied by their stated prosocial policy and not, as predicted by the communal norm violation hypothesis, when they merely earn a profit. Our results suggest that companies should not fear that earning a profit from prosocial activities will carry reputational risk, so long as they are transparent.
Purpose
This study aims to examine how the appraisal of both incidental and direct positive other-agency emotions (vs self-agency emotions) enhances brand trust and, subsequently, brand attitudes.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper presents three experiments that examine the effect of other-agency emotions (vs self-agency emotions) on brand trust and brand attitudes by both Australian and USA consumers. Studies 1 and 2 compared the effect of self- and other-agency emotions evoked through an irrelevant reflective task. Study 3 used real-world marketing communication to evoke self- or other-pride.
Findings
Gratitude (Study 1) and other-pride (Study 2) evoked through an irrelevant, reflective task enhanced brand trust and attitudes for both familiar and unfamiliar brands. The authors replicated these effects using marketing communications that evoked other-pride (Study 3) and showed how these findings can be applied in a marketing context.
Research limitations/implications
There are contradictory findings in the literature on how positive emotions influence brand trust and attitudes. The findings show that other-agency appraisal is a crucial appraisal within a marketing context and reveals why not all positively valenced emotions increase brand trust and brand attitudes. The findings highlight the importance of examining the effects of emotions on brand trust and attitudes beyond the consideration of their valence.
Practical implications
The research provides significant implications for marketers to improve brand trust and brand attitudes through the elicitation of other-agency emotions. The findings also demonstrate that different components of emotions, such as appraisal structure, may influence consumer trust and attitudes towards marketing and branding communications.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this research is the first to empirically demonstrate how other-agency appraisals of emotions can influence consumer brand trust and attitudes in a marketing context.
Studies on third‐party punishment (TPP) have shown it promotes cooperation and prosocial behaviour, albeit at a cost to the punisher. Contrary to the view that such punishment is entirely altruistic, recent research suggests that punishers gain reputational benefits from third‐party punishing in the form of increased trustworthiness. Nevertheless, both how the signal is determined and the honesty of the signalling function of TPP have not been fully examined. Here we present the results of four experiments ( n = 1695, prolific.co) in which we examined how TPP signalling varies as a function of its deservedness and severity. Experiments 1A and 1B use incentivized economic game paradigms to show how deservedness, impacts the trustworthiness signalled by the punisher. Experiment 2A expands on traditional dichotomous punishment decisions to show how signalled trustworthiness depends on different levels of TPP severity. Experiment 2B isolates the signalling effectiveness of severity by decoupling it from the corresponding incurred cost to punish and examines its impact on signalled trustworthiness. Overall, we found that punishment signalling is sensitive to deservedness and severity but not independent of other factors such as the cost to punish.
Trust is the foundational element of any relationship. At its core, trust is the action demonstrated by someone who chooses the risk of making something they hold valuable and vulnerable to another (Feltman, 2021). This act of vulnerability is the building block of the Followership relationship. It emboldens the follower with “the ability to competently and proactively follow the instructions and support the efforts of their superior to achieve organizational goals” (Agho, 2009, p. 159). Without trust, the drive/motivation of the follower to expend their human ability and freely offer their support to someone other than themselves to achieve an organizational goal would not exist. To fully understand the presence and impact of trust in Followership, this chapter will explore what trust is; what it means to trust in a followership relationship; the elements of trust; the neuroscience behind trust; how to know when trust is present in a followership relationship; benefits and barrier to trust; building and sustaining trust; how to repair trust when it has been broken; and modeling trust to others. This chapter will explore trust in the followership relationship from both the leader’s and follower’s perspectives.KeywordsTrustFollowershipVulnerabilityLeadership trustDistrust
Background
Social trust in medical students is trust in the cluster of medical students and not individual medical students. Social trust in medical students seems critical in clinical practice since citizens often face unknown medical students for the first time. However, most previous research has focused on interpersonal trust in particular medical professions, and social trust in medical students has not been addressed sufficiently. In social science, the Salient Value Similarity model has demonstrated that the value similarity between professionals and citizens is associated with social trust. This research aimed to explore the relationship between social trust in medical students and the perception of value similarity. This study also aimed to determine whether the information of medical students strengthens social trust in them.
Methods
We conducted a cross-sectional study to investigate how the perception of value similarity affects social trust. The participants answered the social trust questionnaires before and after reading a brief summary of the medical education curriculum and certification via the internet in Japan. The model structure of social trust in medical students, including the perception of value similarity, was investigated using SEM. A paired t-test was used to examine the effect of informing citizens about the knowledge, skills, and professionalism requirements of students attending medical school on social trust by reading the brief summary.
Results
The study included 658 participants, who all answered a web questionnaire. Social trust in medical students was associated with the perception of ability and value similarity. Social trust in medical students, the perception of ability, and value similarity were improved by information about medical students.
Conclusions
The perception of ability and value similarity seem to affect social trust in medical students. Information on medical education regarding the knowledge, skills, and professionalism of medical students may improve social trust in these students. Further research is required to sophisticate the model of social trust in medical students by exploring social trust in the medical students’ supervisors in clinical settings.
Can trust be meaningfully attributed to technology? If so, under which conditions? By first presenting a conceptual analysis of trust, which differentiates between reliability and affective trust, we explore these intentionally broad questions through the analysis of the specific case of trusting social robots equipped with artificial emotional intelligence. Given their emotional capacities, which arguably strengthen the potential for deception, AEI social robots are considered the most likely candidates for experiencing trust-like attitudes towards technology. Determining whether, and what kind of, trust applies to relationships between humans and such robots will, we argue, be useful for determining what sort of trust can meaningfully be applied to human-technology interactions more broadly. This novel approach to the issue of trust in technology is underexplored in human-technology interaction, and the results presented will enable designers, citizens, and politicians to make better informed decisions regarding AEI social robots’ development.
KeywordsTrustsocial robotsartificial emotional intelligence
Nothing is perfect and robots can make as many mistakes as any human, which can lead to a decrease in trust in them. However, it is possible, for robots to repair a human’s trust in them after they have made mistakes through various trust repair strategies such as apologies, denials, and promises. Presently, the efficacy of these trust repairs in the human–robot interaction literature has been mixed. One reason for this might be that humans have different perceptions of a robot’s mind. For example, some repairs may be more effective when humans believe that robots are capable of experiencing emotion. Likewise, other repairs might be more effective when humans believe robots possess intentionality. A key element that determines these beliefs is mind perception. Therefore understanding how mind perception impacts trust repair may be vital to understanding trust repair in human–robot interaction. To investigate this, we conducted a study involving 400 participants recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk to determine whether mind perception influenced the effectiveness of three distinct repair strategies. The study employed an online platform where the robot and participant worked in a warehouse to pick and load 10 boxes. The robot made three mistakes over the course of the task and employed either a promise, denial, or apology after each mistake. Participants then rated their trust in the robot before and after it made the mistake. Results of this study indicated that overall, individual differences in mind perception are vital considerations when seeking to implement effective apologies and denials between humans and robots.
Despite the large number of individuals with criminal records in the United States, research on their employment transitions and hiring challenges remains scarce. Further, given the over-representation of people of color in the US justice system, investigations incorporating the potential effects of race/ethnicity are crucial. In the present study, we examine the effects of different reparative impression management tactics for ex-offender applicants of various races/ethnicities in both a prehire and postoffer context and the mechanisms underlying those effects. Using an experimental design, we link specific reparative impression management tactics to employment outcomes through perceived remorse (Studies 1 and 2) and trustworthiness (Study 2), finding that Latino and Black candidates’ engagement in reparative impression management tactics had greater impact on perceptions of remorse, trustworthiness, and hiring evaluations than did the use of such tactics by White candidates. Disclosure timing did not have large impacts on evaluations. Our findings contribute to research on reparative impression management in hiring contexts more broadly, as well as informing ex-offender job seekers which tactics are most useful when disclosing a criminal record, how demographics may impact these impression management techniques, and potential optimal disclosure timing relevant to current legislative contexts.
While people across the world value honesty, it is undeniable that it can sometimes pay to be dishonest. This tension leads people to engage in complex behaviors that stretch the boundaries of honesty. Such behaviors include strategically avoiding information, dodging questions, omitting information, and making true but misleading statements. Though not lies per se, these are nonetheless deviations from honesty that have serious interpersonal, organizational, and societal costs. Based on a systematic review of 169 empirical research articles in the fields of management, organizational behavior, applied psychology, and business ethics, we develop a new multidimensional framework of honesty that highlights how honesty encompasses more than the absence of lies—it has relational elements (e.g., fostering an accurate understanding in others through what we disclose and how we communicate) and intellectual elements (e.g., evaluating information for accuracy, searching for accurate information, and updating our beliefs accordingly). By acknowledging that honesty is not limited to the moment when a person utters a clear lie or a full truth, and that there are multiple stages to enacting honesty, we emphasize the shared responsibility that all parties involved in communication have for seeking out and communicating truthful information.
Sales managers need to maintain the trust of their salespeople to have productive working relationships. A positive and trusting working relationship can be threatened by a transgression on the part of the sales manager. An important challenge for sales managers concerns dealing with the aftermath of an error that damages the trust of a salesperson, especially when the error results in financial harm to that salesperson (e.g., unfair bonus/incentive allocation). A common restorative approach consists of the sales manager acknowledging the error and providing a financial compensation to the salesperson. Our study finds that instead of acknowledging the error, the sales manager should promise to make things right before providing financial compensation.
Robots like human co-workers can make mistakes violating a human’s trust in them. When mistakes happen, humans can see robots as less trustworthy which ultimately decreases their trust in them. Trust repair strategies can be employed to mitigate the negative impacts of these trust violations. Yet, it is not clear whether such strategies can fully repair trust nor how effective they are after repeated trust violations. To address these shortcomings, this study examined the impact of four distinct trust repair strategies: apologies, denials, explanations, and promises on overall trustworthiness and its sub-dimensions: ability, benevolence, and integrity after repeated trust violations. To accomplish this, a between-subjects experiment was conducted where participants worked with a robot co-worker to accomplish a task. The robot violated the participant’s trust and then provided a particular repair strategy. Results indicated that after repeated trust violations, none of the repair strategies ever fully repaired trustworthiness and two of its sub-dimensions: ability and integrity. In addition, after repeated interactions, apologies, explanations, and promises appeared to function similarly to one another, while denials were consistently the least effective at repairing trustworthiness and its sub-dimensions. In sum, this paper contributes to the literature on human–robot trust repair through both of these original findings.
This paper reviews the architecture of collaboration that exists within inter-organizational natural resource management (NRM) networks. It presents an integrative conceptual framework designed to help operationalize the multi-level interactions that occur between different dimensions of trust, risk perception, and control as key concepts in inter-organizational collaboration. The objective is to identify and justify a series of propositions considered suitable for assessing inter-organizational NRM network collaboration through empirical work. Such an integrative conceptualization goes beyond the existing trust scholarship related to collaborative NRM, and, we argue, offers a useful starting point for further exploring some of the ‘inner’ social dynamics affecting collaborative performance using complex systems thinking. To help establish the relevance of the conceptual framework to transboundary resource governance, a survey operationalizing different dimensions of trust, perceived risk, and control is piloted in the Salish Sea, an ecosystem that spans the Canada-US border between British Columbia and Washington State. Key challenges associated with operationalizing the framework and future research needs are identified.
Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is a trait that refers to a person's sensitivity to stimuli, ambiguity, and stressful environments. The present study examined the effects of SPS and leader deception on ethical decision-making. Participants completing a scenario-based ethical decision-making task were given information within the task that their hypothetical leader was honest or deceptive. Results revealed that people higher in SPS who had an honest leader made significantly better decisions than both 1) people higher in SPS with a deceptive leader and 2) people lower in SPS in general. Results suggest that for people higher in SPS, cognitive processing may be disrupted by leader deception, so ethics interventions should help them to learn techniques or use cognitive tools to overcome the disruption.
We review research on the topic of trust repair, which has proceeded over the past four decades using three different philosophical mechanisms that provide the bases through which trust is restored by multiple repair tactics. We base our definition of trust repair on the view that trust is “a psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based on the positive expectations of the intentions or behaviors of another.” We define trust repair as any increase in trust above the post-transgression level and complete repair as an increase in trust to the pre-transgression level. We provide an overview of the research designs incorporated in the trust-repair literature and make recommendations and cautions in measuring trust repair. We then summarize the emergence of the different mechanisms behind trust repair, namely, attributional, social equilibrium, and structural mechanisms, and review literature on the related verbal and behavioral repair tactics that can be employed after a transgression. We also provide a review on the process of trust repair, that is, the different stages that unfold to repair trust. We conclude by suggesting that future research should explore trust repair not only from an isolated tactics perspective but also from a broader pathway perspective. Finally, as trust repair occurs over time, future research should also explore the role of differing perceptions of time in the trust-repair process.
Close corporations, which are legal forms popular with small and medium enterprises, are crucial to every major economy's private sector. However, unlike their 'public' corporation counterparts, close corporation minority shareholders have limited exit options, and are structurally vulnerable in conflicts with majority or controlling shareholders. 'Withdrawal remedies'-legal mechanisms enabling aggrieved shareholders to exit companies with monetary claims-are potent minority shareholder protection mechanisms. This book critically examines the theory and operation of withdrawal remedies in four jurisdictions: the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Japan. Developing and applying a theoretical and comparative framework to the analysis of these jurisdictions' withdrawal remedies, this book proposes a model withdrawal remedy that is potentially applicable to any jurisdiction. With its international, functional, and comparative analysis of withdrawal remedies, it challenges preconceptions about shareholder remedies and offers a methodology for comparative corporate law in both scholarship and practice.
We investigate perceptions of emotional deception and introduce a novel distinction between the Up-display of emotion (the fabricated and the exaggerated expression of emotions) and the Down-display of emotion (the suppression of felt emotions). Observers judge Down-displays of anger, sadness, and happiness as more ethical (less deceptive, less intentional, and less harmful) than commensurate Up-displays. We integrate these findings to build a unifying framework of perceptions of deception, the Deception Perception Model, to assert that perceptions of deception are influenced by Perceived Deception Intention, Deception Magnitude, Consequences of Deception, Contextual Norms of Deception, and Deception Discovery.
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between the tendency to lie for selfish motives, interpersonal relationships, and a depressive mood, as well as the relationship between the tendency to lie for prosocial motives, interpersonal relationships, and a depressive mood. A sample of 298 university students completed an online questionnaire. Mediation analyses using interpersonal relationship as a mediator revealed that prosocial lying had positive direct and negative indirect effects on one’s depressive mood, whereas selfish lying did not have direct or indirect effects. Neither type of lying had a total effect. These results suggest that prosocial lying has protective effects on mental health by maintaining interpersonal relationships, but also detrimental effects, presumably through the stress of lying or excessive concern for others.
In this review, we identify emerging trends in negotiation scholarship that embrace complexity, finding moderators of effects that were initially described as monolithic, examining the nuances of social interaction, and studying negotiation as it occurs in the real world. We also identify areas in which research is lacking and call for scholarship that offers practical advice. All told, the existing research highlights negotiation as an exciting context for examining human behavior, characterized by features such as strong emotions, an intriguing blend of cooperation and competition, the presence of fundamental issues such as power and group identity, and outcomes that deeply affect the trajectory of people's personal and professional lives.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology, Volume 74 is January 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Purpose
The importance of trust in student–university relations is relevant not only for the quality of the educational process and the satisfaction with studying achieved by students, but also for the importance of positive evaluation of HEIs to others. Therefore, the aim of this study is to identify the stages and mechanisms that build trust in student–university relations, the causes of trust violation and trust repair practices.
Design/methodology/approach
Public university students from Poland (16) and Germany (12) took part in the study based on semi-structured interviews. The research procedure followed an inductive approach. In addition, the critical events technique was used to identify trust violation and trust repair practices.
Findings
The study identifies the stages of the HEIs trust building process and the mechanisms upon which it is built. It attempts to catalogue trust violations, distinguishing three groups of “perpetrators” and categories of their differentiation in terms of their impact on trust. The study indicates ad hoc, informal methods of trust repair applied at HEIs and their conditions.
Practical implications
This study provides useful guidance for managers on how to build and maintain trust in HEIs.
Originality/value
The issue of trust building in HEIs is relatively new and therefore has not been sufficiently recognised to date. This study is the first to the author's knowledge to comprehensively address the problem of trust building, pointing out the mechanisms on which the formation of trust in HEIs is based. This study provides a novel contribution to the limited literature on trust violation and trust repair in HEIs.
Although trust repair after conflict occurrence is significant for effective work and sustainable relationships in construction subcontracting and contact is inevitable, researchers have yet to examine the relationship between contact quality and trust repair after conflict occurrence. This study investigates the effect of contact quality on Party A’s trust repair after conflict occurrence and the mediating mechanisms of that effect. The authors conducted a questionnaire survey to collect data for hypotheses testing, receiving 310 valid questionnaires from general contractors and subcontractors engaged in construction projects. The results reveal the positive effect of contact quality on Party A’s trust repair after conflict occurrence and the mediating roles of Party A’s feeling of threat and Party B’s self-disclosure in that effect. This study contributes to the trust research and intergroup contact theory. It also offers suggestions for construction subcontracting practitioners to facilitate trust repair after conflict occurrence.
Purpose
As an emerging technology, medical artificial intelligence (AI) plays an important role in the healthcare system. However, the service failure of medical AI causes severe violations to user trust. Different from other services that do not involve vital health, customers' trust toward the service of medical AI are difficult to repair after service failure. This study explores the links among different types of attributions (external and internal), service recovery strategies (firm, customer, and co-creation), and service recovery outcomes (trust).
Design/methodology/approach
Empirical analysis was carried out using data ( N = 338) collected from a 2 × 3 scenario-based experiment. The scenario-based experiment has three stages: service delivery, service failure, and service recovery. The attribution of service failure was divided into two parts (customer vs. firm), while the recovery of service failure was divided into three parts (customer vs. firm vs. co-creation), making the design full factorial.
Findings
The results show that (1) internal attribution of the service failure can easily repair both affective-based trust (AFTR) and cognitive-based trust (CGTR), (2) co-creation recovery has a greater positive effect on AFTR while firm recovery is more effective on cognitive-based trust, (3) a series of interesting conclusions are found in the interaction between customers' attribution and service recovery strategy.
Originality/value
The authors' findings are of great significance to the strategy of service recovery after service failure in the medical AI system. According to the attribution type of service failure, medical organizations can choose a strategy to more accurately improve service recovery effect.
When conversing with skeptical listeners, honest speakers face the challenge of proving the credibility of their message. What can speakers do? We argue that incurring a cost—in terms of time, effort, emotion, reputation, etc.—to send a message can be a convincing signal of honesty to the listener. We highlight three qualities of signals that can make them costly for different reasons: difficult-to-fake, verifiable, and self-sacrificing. We propose that, while each quality impacts the listener’s perceptions of veracity, assessing each quality requires a different set of evaluations by the listener. As a result, assessments of each quality are subject to distinct errors in listener perception. Moreover, perceiving a signaling cost to be deliberate (vs. accidental) further impacts perceived veracity, but does so differently depending on the type of cost. Our costly signal framework can help guide speakers in overcoming listener skepticism.
In this chapter, we review some of the work on trust and show its relevance to effective conflict management. We also extend some of this work to a broader understanding of the key role of trust in relationships, and how different types of relationships can be characterized according to the levels of trust and distrust that are present. Finally, we describe procedures for rebuilding trust that has been broken, and for managing distrust in ways that can enhance short-term conflict containment while rebuilding trust over the long run. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Business negotiations often involve cooperative arrangements. Sometimes one party will renege on a cooperative enterprise for short-term opportunistic gain. There is a common assumption that such behavior necessarily leads to a spiral of mutual antagonism. We use some of the philosophical literature to frame general research questions and identify relevant variables in dealing with defection. We then describe an experimental approach for examining the possibility of reconciliation and discuss the results of one such experiment where participants were the victims of defection. In contrast to the initial assumptions we found that many participants were willing to reconcile, and that penance conditions, when demanded, were less stringent than expected. We suggest that these findings warrant further study and have implications for business dealings.
Very little can be learnt about [retribution] from Aristotle’s Politics or his three ethics. In modern ethico-political concepts of justice (in Hobbes, Rousseau and Hegel), the problem of retribution appears in conjunction with other problems and is not of central importance.—Agnes Heller
Arguably, the most critical time frame for organizational participants to develop trust is at the beginning of their relationship. Using primarily a cognitive approach, we address factors and processes that enable two organizational parties to form relatively high trust initially. We propose a model of specific relationships among several trust-related constructs and two cognitive processes. The model helps explain the paradoxical finding of high initial trust levels in new organizational relationships.
We propose a new theoretical framework for understanding simultaneous trust and distrust within relationships. grounded in assumptions of multidimensionality and the inherent tensions of relationships. and we separate this research from prior work grounded in assumptions of unidimensionality and balance. Drawing foundational support for this new framework from recent research on simultaneous positive and negative sentiments and ambivalence. we explore the theoretical and practical sig- nificance of the framework for future work on trust and distrust relationships within organizations.
Participants wrote accounts to victims of social predicaments. Results showed that autonomous perpetrators offered more mitigation, used more complexity in accounts, and used fewer lies, especially to acquaintances. High blame was associated with less mitigating and complex accounts and greater deception; this occurred despite perpetrators' understanding of probable relationship harm. Women were more concerned with repairing others' face damage, at least in part to preserve relationships; their self-esteem also was more harmed by lack of forgiveness, especially from friends. Perpetrators gave longer, more mitigating and complex accounts to friends and more mitigating accounts to high-status victims. Participants who used aggravating elements expected more positive relationships. Results are discussed in terms of competing demands for facework. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Comments on the article by A. Ortmann and R. Hertwig (see record
1997-04731-011) in which they vehemently argue against any deception of participants in psychological research. Their sophisticated arguments against deception in research are neither precise nor imperative, addressing only questionable negative long-term effects of deception in research. It is argued that (1) acceptability of an experimental treatment and acceptability of deception must be kept separate, (2) deception is necessary in research on certain topics, and (3) participants understand and even accept deception when they are carefully debriefed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 2 experiments, 221 kindergartners and 1st, 4th, and 7th graders judged actors who committed a transgression under conditions of low or high responsibility and low or high consequences. The actor's motives were good or bad and the act was intended or accidental. The actor then either did nothing or employed 1 of 3 increasingly elaborate apologies. As hypothesized, the actor's predicament was most severe, producing the harshest judgments when (a) the actor had high responsibility for committing an inadvertent act that produced high consequences, and (b) the act was the result of a bad rather than good motive or was intended rather than accidental. More elaborate apologies produced less blame and punishment and more forgiveness, liking, positive evaluations, and attributions of greater remorse. The judgments of the 7th graders were more affected by the actor's apology than those of the younger Ss. These age differences reflect the younger Ss' poorer ability to integrate social information and appreciate the implications of social conventions. However, the younger Ss' judgments were similar to those of older Ss. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In a social dilemma game, a period of discussion among subjects substantially increases the incidence of cooperative choices. We conducted two experiments in an effort to explain this effect. Experiment 1 tested and rejected the hypothesis that discussion of the dilemma problem promotes generalized norms in favor of cooperation. Content analysis of discussion sessions in Experiment 1 suggested that promises to cooperate are important in an explanation of discussion's effect. Experiment 2 showed that promises to cooperate substantially increased cooperation rates, but only when everyone in the discussing group promised. We discuss one model in which discussion promotes group identity (as indicated by consensual promising) and therefore cooperation, and another in which discussion provides an opportunity for promise making, which—at least when it is universal—explains discussion's effect without any involvement of group identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes results of a program of research on interpersonal trust, defined as belief in social communications. Construction of a scale for measuring individual differences, construct validity studies, and investigations of antecedents of trust, correlates of trust, and changes of college student trust are included. The evidence supports the hypothesis of (a) stable individual differences in a generalized expectancy for interpersonal trust, and (b) the feasibility of studying such trust under a variety of conditions. (29 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper investigates the use of deception in two negotiation studies. Study 1 (N=80) demonstrates that direct questions and solidarity curtail deception. Study 2 (N=74 dyads) demonstrates that direct questions are particularly effective in curtailing lies of omission, but may actually increase the incidence of lies of commission. These findings highlight the importance of misrepresentation to the negotiation process and suggest approaches for contending with deception.
This target article is concerned with the implications of the surprisingly different experimental practices in economics and in areas of psychology relevant to both economists and psychologists, such as behavioral decision making. We consider four features of experimentation in economics, namely, script enactment, repeated trials, performance-based monetary payments, and the proscription against deception, and compare them to experimental practices in psychology, primarily in the area of behavioral decision making. Whereas economists bring a precisely defined “script” to experiments for participants to enact, psychologists often do not provide such a script, leaving participants to infer what choices the situation affords. By often using repeated experimental trials, economists allow participants to learn about the task and the environment; psychologists typically do not. Economists generally pay participants on the basis of clearly defined performance criteria; psychologists usually pay a flat fee or grant a fixed amount of course credit. Economists virtually never deceive participants; psychologists, especially in some areas of inquiry, often do. We argue that experimental standards in economics are regulatory in that they allow for little variation between the experimental practices of individual researchers. The experimental standards in psychology, by contrast, are comparatively laissez-faire. We believe that the wider range of experimental practices in psychology reflects a lack of procedural regularity that may contribute to the variability of empirical findings in the research fields under consideration. We conclude with a call for more research on the consequences of methodological preferences, such as the use on monetary payments, and propose a “do-it-both-ways” rule regarding the enactment of scripts, repetition of trials, and performance-based monetary payments. We also argue, on pragmatic grounds, that the default practice should be not to deceive participants.
Numerous researchers have proposed that trust is essential for understanding interpersonal and group behavior, managerial effectiveness, economic exchange and social or political stability, yet according to a majority of these scholars, this concept has never been precisely defined. This article reviews definitions from various approaches within organizational theory, examines the consistencies and differences, and proposes that trust is based upon an underlying assumption of an implicit moral duty. This moral duty—an anomaly in much of organizational theory—has made a precise definition problematic. Trust also is examined from philosophical ethics, and a synthesis of the organizational and philosophical definitions that emphasizes an explicit sense of moral duty and is based upon accepted ethical principles of analysis is proposed. This new definition has the potential to combine research from the two fields of study in important areas of inquiry.
We demonstrate that incidental emotions (e.g. anger stemming from an argument with your spouse) influence trust in unrelated settings (e.g. the likelihood of trusting a co-worker). Incidental happiness and gratitude increase trust, and incidental anger decreases trust. Other-person control appraisals mediate this relationship, and trustee familiarity moderates this relationship.
Swift trust and temporary groups January 1, 1991. The Grand Kempinski Hotel, Dallas, Texas. 9:00 a.m. “Crew Call.” About 35 people gather. Some are local. Some flew in overnight from here or there. Some drove in. The 35 encompass almost that many different technical disciplines. Many are meeting each other for the first time. Ten and one-half hours from now they will tape a two hour lecture (given by the author), which will become the centerpiece of an hour-long public television show. They'll tape it again the next day. Then they'll disperse, never again to work together in the same configuration. This is the “Dallas Organization.” As Peters and others have noted, temporary groups of this sort are becoming an increasingly common form of organization (Kanter, 1989; Peters, 1992). In many respects, such groups constitute an interesting organizational analog of a “one-night stand.” They have a finite life span, form ...
This study examined a model of the relative mitigating effects of three types of explanations on the negative reactions of subjects who had been told that they had been deceived. Explanations were found to mitigate differentially feelings of disapproval, injustice, punitiveness, and unforgiveness, depending on the type of explanation, the severity of the outcome the subjects experienced, how adequate they judged the explanation to be, and how honest they felt the explainer was. The perceived adequacy of the explanation was more important in mitigating negative reactions than the type of explanation, although punitiveness was affected, more than the other negative reactions, by the type of explanation and was moderated more by the outcomes of greater severity. The study shows that whether explanations have a mitigating effect on negative reactions depends on more than the characteristics of the explanations and the explainer, which have been the focus of previous research.
Examining the ways in which affect impacts the trust that develops between members of dissimilar groups broadens the study of trust development. People's perceptions of their own interdependence with other groups influence both their beliefs about group members' trustworthiness and their affect for group members. I propose that this affect, in turn, influences interpersonal trust development through multiple paths: cognitive, motivational, and behavioral. Using literature on social information processing, emotion, and intergroup behavior, I elucidate the social and affective context of trust development.
Although impression management in the feedback-seeking process has emerged as an important research topic, existing research has failed to capture the range and complexity of impression management behaviors. This article provides a theoretical framework for existing and future research. It examines how impression management sometimes discourages and at other times encourages feedback inquiry, and it explains the impact that impression management has on when, from whom, and how individuals ask for feedback. Organizational implications of the impression management motive in feedback seeking are discussed.
120 undergraduates were asked to imagine themselves as the central character in a scenario in which they inadvertently bumped into another person in a public place. The actor's responsibility for the incident and the amount of harm done to the "victim" were systematically manipulated. As hypothesized, apologies were used in a perfunctory manner (saying "Pardon me" and then going about one's business) when the consequences of the event were minor. As the consequences became more negative, Ss employed an increased number of apology components, such as saying they were sorry, expressing remorse, and offering to help the victim. When high responsibility and high consequences coexisted, Ss were most likely to employ self-castigation and explicitly request forgiveness. Results support the hypothesis that as the severity of a social predicament increases, so does both the use of nonperfunctory apologies and the number of components employed in apologies. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper uses two laboratory experiments to investigate the effects of contracts on interpersonal trust. We predict that the use of binding contracts to promote or mandate cooperation will lead interacting parties to attribute others' cooperation to the constraints imposed by the contract rather than to the individuals themselves, thus reducing the likelihood of trust developing. We also predict that, although non-binding contracts may not generate as much initial cooperation as binding contracts, they will generate personal rather than situational attributions for any cooperation that results and will therefore not interfere with trust development. Two experiments investigated the effects of the use and removal of binding and non-binding contracts. When binding contracts that were previously allowed were no longer allowed or no longer chosen, trust dropped significantly. In contrast, non-binding contracts led to considerable cooperation, and their removal reduced trust less than removing binding contracts. Behavioral and perceptual data suggest that non-binding contracts lead to personal attributions for cooperation and thus may provide an optimal basis for building interpersonal trust in a variety of situations.
The authors develop a general parametric modeling framework for bidding behavior in Internet auctions. Toward this end, they incorporate four key components of the bidding process under their framework: whether people bid on an auction, (if so) who bids, when they bid, and how much they bid over the entire sequence of bids in an auction. This integrated framework is based on a single, latent, time-varying construct of consumer willingness to bid, which bidders have and update for a particular auction item over the course of the auction duration. Using a database of notebook auctions from one of the largest Internet auction sites in Korea, the authors demonstrate that this general (yet parsimonious) model captures the key behavioral aspects of bidding behavior. Furthermore, the authors provide a valuable tool for managers at auction sites to conduct their customer relationship management efforts, which require them to evaluate the "goodness" of the listed auction items (whether people bid) and the goodness of the potential bidders (who bids, when they bid, and how much they bid).
Conflicts sometimes involve issues for which both parties want the same outcome, although frequently parties fail to recognize their shared interests. These common-value issues set the stage for a nasty misrepresentation strategy: feigning opposed interest on the common-value issue to gain an advantage on other issues. In a laboratory negotiation simulation, participants used misrepresentation in 28% of their negotiations. The strategy was more likely to occur when negotiators had individualistic motives and was less likely to occur when both parties realized their common interests. Use of the strategy led to favorable outcomes, and these were best predicted by negotiator aspirations, rather than perceptual accuracy. The authors discovered two forms of the strategy: misrepresentation by commission (the user actively misrepresented his or her common-value issue preferences) and misrepresentation by omission (the user concealed his or her common-value issue interests when the other person made a favorable offer).
This study assessed the relative influence of personality traits of leaders, job characteristics, expectations of superiors and subordinates, and trust and loyalty upward upon leader behavior. Results indicated that subordinates' levels oftrust and loyalty toward their leaders were most predictive of supportive leader behavior, whereas personality traits of the leader were most predictive of demanding leader behavior. The findings are discussed in terms of new avenues to pursue in attempts to more fully understand the complicated dynamics of leader behavior.
This study examined how decision-making procedures can facilitate the positive attitudes necessary for cooperative relations in decision-making teams. We hypothesized that consideration of member input and members' influence on a decision affect their perceptions of procedural fairness and consequently, their commitment to the decision, attachment to the group, and trust in its leader. An experiment involving intact management teams supported these hypotheses and indicated that perceived fairness partially mediated the impact of procedures on commitment, attachment, and trust.
One hundred sixty-four second- and fifth-grade Japanese children were presented with two hypothetical situations in which a male harmdoer was described as either intentionally or unintentionally harming another boy and was further described as giving apologies, excuses, or no account following the act. The older children perceived the harm-doer who apologized as less intentional and more remorseful, evaluated him as morally less negative, and forgave him more than the harmdoer who made excuses or the harmdoer who gave no account. The older children accepted the harmdoer's excuses only when they believed that the harm was not intended. The younger children did not react differentially to these accounts.
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The antecedents of victim willingness to reconcile a professional relationship following an incident involving a broken promise were examined in terms of offender tactics (i.e., nature of apology, timeliness of reparative act, sincerity) and relationship characteristics (i.e., nature of past relationship, probability of future violation) using a within- and between-subjects policy-capturing design. Relatively speaking, relationship characteristics were as strongly related to willingness to reconcile as offender tactics. Furthermore, we found moderating effects of magnitude of violation on the willingness to reconcile a relationship following a trust violation. In particular, nature of past relationship was weighed more heavily, whereas probability of future violation was weighed less heavily when the magnitude of the violation was greater. Practical implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.
Numerous researchers have proposed that trust is essential for understanding interpersonal and group behavior, managerial effectiveness, economic exchange and social or political stability, yet according to a majority of these scholars, this concept has never been precisely defined. This article reviews definitions from various approaches within organizational theory, examines the consistencies and differences, and proposes that trust is based upon an underlying assumption of an implicit moral duty. This moral duty-an anomaly in much of organizational theory-has made a precise definition problematic. Trust also is examined from philosophical ethics, and a synthesis of the organizational and philosophical definitions that emphasizes an explicit sense of moral duty and is based upon accepted ethical principles of analysis is proposed. This new definition has the potential to combine research from the two fields of study in important areas of inquiry.
The present paper reviews the research literature on trust in bargaining and mediation. Several models of trust within the bargaining process are also described. It is concluded that trust means different things, depending upon the relationship under investigation. Trust among negotiators can refer to a personality trail (how trusting a negotiator is of others) or to a temporary state. Within the state perspective, trust often refers to one of three orientations: (1) cooperative motivational orientation (MO), (2) patterns of predictable behavior, (3) a problem-solving orientation. Trust between a negotiator and constituents usually refers to a cooperative MO (i.e., shared loyalty) between these two groups. The addition of a mediator can impact both the opposing negotiators' relationship and each negotiator-constituent relationship; the mediator also has direct and indirect relationships with the parties and their constituents. Future directions for research on trust are identified.
Research adopting prospect theory to examine negotiator performance was extended to mediation. We examined whether framing negotiator payoffs in terms of gains or losses affects a mediator's behavior towards negotiators when the mediator has no personal frame. The use of a mediator presents a critical test between an explanation of framing effects based on bargainers' underlying preferences for risk and a simpler explanation based on the psychophysical properties of perceived gains and losses. A computer-based experiment was conducted in which subjects acted as mediators between two disputants (computer programs) in an integrative bargaining task. As predicted, subjects proposed settlements of higher joint value when both disputants had loss frames than when both had gain frames, supporting the psychophysical explanation. Moreover, within mixed framed disputes, subjects' proposals favored the loss-framed bargainer over the gain-framed bargainer. However, predicted interactions between bargainer frame and concession-making activity were not supported Implications of the results for real bargainers and mediators are discussed.
Scholars in various disciplines have considered the causes, nature, and effects of trust. Prior approaches to studying trust are considered, including characteristics of the trustor, the trustee, and the role of risk. A definition of trust and a model of its antecedents and outcomes are presented, which integrate research from multiple disciplines and differentiate trust from similar constructs. Several research propositions based on the model are presented.
A considerable amount of research has examined trust since our 1995 publication. We revisit some of the critical issues that we addressed and provide clarifications and extensions of the topics of levels of analysis, time, control systems, reciprocity, and measurement. We also recognize recent research in new areas of trust, such as affect, emotion, violation and repair, distrust, international and cross-cultural issues, and context-specific models, and we identify promising avenues for future research.
Michael Porter argues that some nations manifest a competitive advantage deriving from key elements of their economic structure. Some nations are thus disposed by structure to possess what Porter calls a "competitive advantage of nations" (Porter, 1990). In this paper I examine the prospect of an ethical advantage of nations, and in particular, of a set of advantages that extend far beyond the simple dimension of trust so often discussed. I consider, further, how such a range of ethical features would be structured, and what the implications of those features would be. Three conclusions are reached: 1. Morality may create economic advantages for nations in ways that extend beyond the notion of an idealized market; 2. In order for ethics to drive economic advantage, ethical concepts must rise to the status of intrinsic value; and 3. If claims for national ethical success factors are true, then nations should attend to the issue of moral education.
Risk management has become increasingly politicized and contentious. Polarized views, controversy, and overt conflict have become pervasive. Risk-perception research has recently begun to provide a new perspective on this problem. Distrust in risk analysis and risk management plays a central role in this perspective. According to this view, the conflicts and controversies surrounding risk management are not due to public ignorance or irrationality but, instead, are seen as a side effect of our remarkable form of participatory democracy, amplified by powerful technological and social changes that systematically destroy trust. Recognizing the importance of trust and understanding the “dynamics of the system” that destroys trust has vast implications for how we approach risk management in the future.
Decentralized groups such as close knit residential neighborhoods and ethnically linked businesses often achieve high levels of cooperation while engaging in exclusionary practices that we call parochialism. We investigate the contribution of within-group cultural affinity to the ability of parochial groups to cooperate in social dilemmas. We analyze parochial networks in which the losses incurred by not trading with outsiders are offset by an enhanced ability to enforce informal contracts by fostering trust among insiders. We show that there is a range of degrees of parochialism for which parochial networks can coexist with an anonymous market offering unrestricted trading opportunities.