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Contribution of Traditional Agroforestry to Climate Change
Adaptation in the Ecuadorian Amazon: The Chakra System
Bolier Torres
a,b
*, Oswaldo Jadán Maza
c
, Patricia Aguirre
d
, Leonith Hinojosa
e
und and Sven G€
unter
f,g
a
Universidad Estatal Amazónica, Puyo-Napo, Ecuador
b
Institute of Forest Management, Center of Life and Food Sciences Weihenstephan, Technische Universit€
at M€
unchen,
Freising, Germany
c
Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
d
The postgraduate Institute, Technical University of the North, Ibarra, Ecuador
e
Earth & Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
f
Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center, Turrialba-Cartago, Costa Rica
g
Th€
unen-Institute of International Forestry and Forest Economics, Hamburg, Germany
Abstract
This chapter presents the contribution of “chakra,”a traditional agroforestry system, to climate
change adaptation and biodiversity conservation in Ecuador’s Amazonian communities. IPCC’s
methodology was used for the estimation of carbon sequestration in soil, biomass, and cacao
plantations. Carbon levels in multiple systems of land use were measured through temporary
plots. Chakra is efficient to adapt to climate change due to higher levels of carbon sequestration
and tree diversity in comparison to other forms of land use. Chakra allows for sustainable use of
forests by combining cultivation of the Ecuadorian finest aromatic cacao, controlled timber extrac-
tion, production of staple food, and conservation of medicinal plants. Chakra enables Amazonian
communities to contribute to both food security and well-being and conservation of the region’s high
biodiversity. The chapter informs policy makers and communities about the importance of strength-
ening traditional agroforestry to achieve environmental and social sustainability. The Amazon
region is a vulnerable ecosystem, where adaptation to climate change depends on the extent to
which the options for land use are compatible with the conservation of biodiversity and the provision
of the ecosystem services that sustain local communities’livelihoods. The chapter provides solid
evidence that this might be possible through traditional agroforestry.
Keywords
Ecuadorian Amazon; Climate change; Traditional agroforestry; Sustainability; Cacao
Introduction
Traditional systems of agricultural production, particularly agroforestry, have been recognized
worldwide as an integrated approach to sustainable land use. More recently, agroforestry systems
are believed to have a high potential to contribute to climate change mitigation through carbon
sequestration. This has brought a renewed interest in research both on the biophysical conditions
under which efficient carbon sequestration can happen and the factors that can enable positive gains
*Email: btorres@uea.edu.ec
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for farmers. Yet, the evidence found in this recent literature is not conclusive and generalizations
tend to become unrealistic, often because several interrelated and site-specific factors influence the
rate and extent to which agroforestry can sequester carbon (Noponen et al. 2013; Oelbermann
et al. 2004).
Agroforestry, generally referred as the practice of growing of trees and crops in interacting
combinations, is based on the premise that complex land-use systems result in greater efficiency
of resource (nutrients, light, and water) capture and utilization and greater structural diversity that
enables tighter nutrient cycles, therefore, more system stability and resilience at site level and
connectivity between forests and other landscape features at landscape and watershed levels (Nair
et al. 2008). The advantage of agroforestry as a mechanism for climate change mitigation is that,
compared with other terrestrial options, agroforestry has other environmental benefits such as
restoring and maintaining above-ground and below-ground biodiversity, corridors between
protected forests, and reduction of pressure on natural forests and maintaining watershed hydrology.
These ecological foundations of agroforestry systems have been associated with a potential for the
provision of ecosystem services worldwide and contribution to food security and poverty alleviation
in developing countries (c.f. Lal 2001; Pandey 2002).
In large-scale studies of regions where data is available and reliable, the potential of agroforestry
to increase carbon sequestration is promising. For example, in European agriculture it has been
estimated to reach near 35 % of all CO
2
-equivalent emissions in the EU in 2007, which at prices of
2012 would have a value of 282 euro/ha (Aertsens et al. 2013). Freibauer et al. (2004) analyzed the
potential for carbon sequestration and economic viability of agricultural soils in Europe (EU-15) and
concluded that efficient carbon sequestration in agricultural soils demands a permanent management
change and implementation concepts adjusted to local soil, climate, and management features. In
tropical agroforestry systems, Albrecht and Kandji (2003) estimated the carbon sequestration
potential in a range of 1.1–2.2 pc carbon in the terrestrial ecosystems over the next 50 years.
However, there are shortcomings of these estimates associated with the uncertainties related to future
shifts in global climate, land use, and land cover and the poor performance of trees and crops on
substandard soils and dry environments, pests, and diseases. Also, research in the Appalachian
agriculture (López-Bellido et al. 2010) shows that current practices do not allow for contribution to
C sequestration; hence, improved agricultural practices are needed in order to increase soil organic
carbon sequestration.
In developing countries, where reliable environmental and economic data are less available
c.f. (Claessens et al. 2012), there is increasing expectation about the economic impact of agricultural
carbon sequestration. In the Andean region, the fragile nature of agroecosystems and limited
capacity of resource-poor farmers to adopt the large-scale use of fertilizers and pesticides suggest
the need for agroecological intensification to restore soil functioning and ensure long-term sustain-
ability (Fonte et al. 2012). However, Antle et al. (2007) used a model to simulate the effects of
adopting agroforestry practices in the Peruvian Andes and showed that the economic potential is
relatively low at carbon prices below $50 per MgC. The price would need to rise significantly
(100 %) to make the adoption of agroforestry in terraces attractive; if that happens, carbon
sequestration could raise per capita incomes by up to 15 % and reduce poverty by 9 %. In Central
America, Somarriba et al. (2013) suggest that, among the agroforestry crops that have the greater
potential to mitigate climate change, the cacao tree is credited for stocking significant amounts of
carbon.
Research on sub-Saharan Africa, where climate change is predicted to have considerable negative
impacts, shows also that carbon sequestration in agricultural soil can make only modest contribu-
tions, in a range of 3–6 of fossil-fuel contributions, to mitigation of overall greenhouse gas emissions
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(Hutchinson et al. 2007). Palmer and Silber (2012) showed that, in order to make the potential of
traditional land use effective for improving the farmers’income of Mozambique, systems that
combine sequestration and cash crop production have higher net benefits, although they have less
carbon-sequestration potential. In West African Sahel as in sub-Saharan Africa, carbon sequestration
is a promising incentive for introducing agroforestry practices and contributing to sustainable land
use (Takimoto et al. 2008; Thangata and Hildebrand 2012); therefore, countries that incentive this
practice can benefit from REDD+ and other global environmental policies for climate change
mitigation. Additionally, as it has been demonstrated in traditional societies like in many parts of
rural China (Xu et al 2007), the economic impact of environmental policies that promote carbon
sequestration through agroforestry can also have social implications in terms of participation,
increased mobility, and less subsistence agriculture-based livelihoods.
This brief review suggests that research is not conclusive and more is needed, especially for the
tropics, to more accurately capture the impact of region-specific interactions between climate, soil,
and management of resources on carbon sequestration, which are lost in global-level assessments. In
the recent global context of climate uncertainty, many productive ecosystems are endangered.
Diversified farming systems are an example of complex systems which are able to adapt and resist
the effects of climate change. These systems have a high structural complexity which enables them
to act as a buffer against temperature fluctuations (Nicholls 2013) and, as Ríos et al. (2007) suggest,
there is increasing interest in understanding how local population’s traditional practices can generate
a path for sustainable use of plant diversity and adaptation to climate change. The purpose of this
chapter is to present the contribution of “chakra,”a traditional agroforestry system developed in
Ecuador’s Amazonian communities, to climate change adaptation and biodiversity conservation.
Given that the Amazon region is a vulnerable ecosystem, where adaptation to climate change
depends on the extent to which the options for land use are compatible with the conservation of
biodiversity and the provision of the ecosystem services that sustain local communities’livelihoods,
we argue that the chakra system is efficient to adapt to climate change due to higher levels of carbon
sequestration in comparison to other forms of land use. Chakra also allows for sustainable use of
forests by combining cultivation of the Ecuadorian finest aromatic cacao, controlled timber extrac-
tion, production of staple food, and conservation of medicinal plants. The local governance system
established around chakra enables Amazonian communities to improve their chances for food
security, increasing income, and conservation of the region’s high biodiversity. In the remaining
sections, we develop this argument, preceded by a description of the methodology used in the study
and a contextual description of the Ecuadorian Amazon.
Chakra in the Context of the Ecuadorian Amazon
Characteristics of the Ecuadorian Amazon
Ecuador represents only 0.2 % of the earth’s surface; it is positioned in the 6th place among the most
mega-diverse countries in the world (Mittermeier 1988), hosting around 10 % of the world’s plant
species (CAAM 1995). In this epicenter of biodiversity, the Andean-Amazonian space is considered
as a “leading hotspot”(Myers et al. 2000) with a great potential to provide the ecosystem services
needed to sustain local livelihoods and global goods such as carbon forest.
However, one of the major problems facing this area is deforestation mainly due to the increase of
the agricultural frontier (Pichón 1997; Bilsborrow 2004; Pan and Carr 2010). The forest clearing
started in the early 1960s, when the emergent oil industry induced the formation of human
settlements in the rainforest, and continued at a rapid pace during the land reform, from 1964 to
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1973, when a process of agricultural colonization (Murphy et al. 1997; Sierra 2000; Mena
et al. 2006) changed significantly the pattern of land use from forests to agricultural crops and
livestock grasslands (Carr and Bilsborrow 2001; Torres et al. 2005; Pan and Carr 2010). Farmers
from coastal and highland areas of Ecuador settled in the Amazon and introduced practices of
monoculture (Pichón 1997), unsuitable for the fragile Amazonian soils. The expansion of agricul-
ture and the introduction of livestock induced significant levels of immigration and the construction
of road infrastructure, which severely impacted the Amazon ecosystems and landscape (Pichón
1997; Wunder 2000; Pan et al. 2005).
The challenges of biodiversity conservation and recovery of cultural patrimony associated with
traditional land use led to design a strategy based on spatial planning, supported by the UNESCO. As
part of this strategy, the “Man and Biosphere”program delimitated an area located in northeastern
Ecuador to be the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve (SBR), covering 931,930 ha, i.e., 8 % of the
Ecuadorian Amazon (MAE 2002). The core of this strategy is the conservation of the Sumaco
Napo-Galeras National Park in an area of 205751.11 ha (MAE 2013; see, Fig. 1).
The native Kichwa population inhabiting the Ecuadorian Amazon is concentrated in Napo
province, representing 60 % of Napo’s total population (Irvine 2000; INEC 2010). However,
since the 1980s, Napo has become one of the main attractive centers for migration (Arévalo
2009), particularly to the SBR, for its potential for economic activity. The new human settlements
have located in the SBR transition and buffer areas.
Traditional Agroforestry in the Ecuadorian Amazon: The Chakra System
Cultivation of small plots within the rainforest is a traditional practice that, over the centuries, the
Kichwa population from the Ecuadorian Amazon has developed in order to sustain their livelihoods.
Fig. 1 Sumaco Biosphere Reserve and the chakra cacao corridor in Napo, Ecuador
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Such a pattern of land use, locally known as “chakra,”integrates cultivation of staple food and
medicinal plants, including manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz), banana (Musa paradisiaca L.),
peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth), and other edible and medicinal plants that enable food and
health security (Irvine 2000; Lu et al. 2004; Whitten and Whitten 2008). Over time, other agricul-
tural species with commercial value have been integrated into this traditional agroforestry system,
which is the case of the fine-flavored cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and robusta coffee (Coffea
canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner). The size of cultivation plots of cacao within an Amazonian
chakra is in a range of 0.5–4 ha (Gizb 2011); these plots are generally located in remaining areas of
primary and secondary forests and fallow land. This forms a landscape that resembles a mosaic
economically productive and ecologically friendly to the biodiversity of the area.
The SBR contains near 12,500 ha of cacao cultivated in the chakra system, which are managed by
9,200 farmers, approximately (Gizb 2011). Most of it is located in buffer and transition areas of the
SBR and Yasuní, within the so-called cacao corridor (see, Fig. 1), and belongs to indigenous Kichwa
communities which, since the 1970s, had to adapt to the process of agricultural colonization and
relocated their settlements in areas surrounding the Sumaco and Yasuni reserves. While the state has
guaranteed the property rights of these communities through land titles and facilitated their access to
agricultural credit (Irvine 1989,2000; Perreault 2003), the intensive migration to the area observed
in the last 40 years (Bilsborrow et al. 2004) has also implied diversification of local population and
new forms of land use oriented not only to subsistence but also to the market. From an economic
perspective, the integration of subsistence and commercial agriculture specialized in the market
niche of fine cacao has implied the improvement of households’income. Ecologically, it has
produced the effect of redrawing the northern Amazon landscape, pictured now as
a multifunctional rainforest with productive plots of cacao or coffee, patches of primary and
secondary forest, and stubble and non-used areas, all of which are needed for the soils’resilience
in their multiple strata.
The cultural meaning of the chakra system for local population is directly related to the conser-
vation of the Amazon landscape. Cultural practices among the SBR and Yasuní reserve include:
selective classification of crops and identification of fertile or unfertile time periods based on the
moon’s phases, a particular local calendar, the fluorescence of some trees, the birds’incubation
period or flight style, and/or some insects’behavior (Avilés and Sarmiento 1997). As suggested by
Irvine (2000) and GIZ (2013), these practices have enabled indigenous local population to achieve
a certain harmony between food security, income generation, and the preservation of traditional
medicine and spiritual values.
Recently, new challenges that climate change presents to local population in the SBR have
motivated research both on the capacity of the chakra system to facilitate the adaptation of local
population and the rainforest ecosystems to climatic conditions and their capacity to contribute to
climate change mitigation. While the former goes beyond the scope of this chapter, the latter is
developed in detail in the following chapters.
Methodology
The research project “Diversification of land use and carbon assessment for biodiversity preserva-
tion,”in its initial phase, studies changes in carbon storage, biodiversity preservation, and produc-
tivity in various land-use systems. The investigation was implemented in 2011 in the buffer and
transition zone of the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve and aims at examining the potential for carbon
storage by the chakra system, therefore assessing their potential for climate change mitigation. The
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project is located in the so-called cacao corridor in the province of Napo in the northeastern part of
the Ecuadorian Amazon region. The research was performed as results of an international collab-
oration of universities including the Amazon State University (Universidad Estatal Amazónica) in
Ecuador, the Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (Centro Agronómico
Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza) in Costa Rica, and the Technical University of Munich in
Germany.
The criteria used to select cultivation plots where traditional agroforestry practices are
implemented (i.e., classification of plots under the chakra system) were percentage of shadow
10 %, net area of chakras 0.5 ha, and the farmers’willingness to support the system. Fifteen
circular temporary plots of 1,600 m
2
under the chakra system were selected to measure the numbers
and diversity of tree species and the amount of carbon captured in each plot and to assess the
diversity of tree species and practices that produce food and medicinal plants. Similarly, 8 circular
temporary plots under the monoculture system were also selected for the purpose of comparison.
The cacao chakras included in the sample are, on average, 7 years old, have diversified shading
systems in multiple strata and growth periods, and have the potential to store carbon efficiently each
year. Table 1summarizes the cultivation plots’characteristics.
In all temporary plots of 1,600 m
2
, diameter at breast height (DBH) was measured (taken at
1.30 m) from all trees and palm with DBH 10 cm, and the total height was also measured. The
floristic diversity of species was identified in situ, by using common and scientific names at the level
of family, genus, and species. Species that were not recognized in situ were collected and identified
in a national herbarium with the help of expert botanists.
Multiple systems of land use were selected in the lower area of the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve
(Fig. 1), specifically in Tena and Archidona cantons within the Napo province. All sites are located
below 700 m above sea level. The plots selected belong to farmers from the Kallari and Wiñak
producer organizations, both members of the Cacao Dialog Table (MCFA in Spanish) in the
SBR. Plots chosen for comparison in native forests were located in the Jatun Sacha Biological
Station (EBJS).
Research on the contribution of the chakra system to climate change mitigation adopted the IPCC
methodology for assessing the capacity of traditional agroforestry for carbon sequestration. This
includes methods to estimate the amount of biomass and carbon in each one of the land-use systems.
According to the methodology used by Jadán et al. (2012), ground biomass was estimated using
algometric equations formulated for primary rainforest species. These equations were also used to
calculate low-latizal sapling biomass and necromass (Table 2). The underground biomass was
calculated using the equation recommended by the IPCC (2003). The biomass of dead wood was
calculated based on volumes obtained via the Smalian formula taken in different decomposition
categories (Table 3).
Table 1 Cultivation plots studied to assess the capacity of the chakra agroforestry system to conserve tree species
diversity and carbon sequestration
Land-use system
Forest cover
(%)
Years of agricultural use
(average)
Sample (number of
plots)
Surface
(hectares)
Traditional agroforestry system
(cacao chakra)
40.6 7 15 2.4
Cacao monoculture 4 5 8 1.3
Source: Torres et al. (2013)
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Table 3 Equations used to calculate the underground biomass of different components evaluated in the Sumaco
Biosphere Reserve, Napo Province
Component Equation Variable meaning Source
Necromass S1 ¼initial section
Volume of dead
wood
V¼(S1 + S2)/2 *L S2 ¼final section
L¼length timber log Schlegel et al.
(2001)
Biomass of dead
wood
B¼VDb B ¼biomass (Mg)
V¼volume (m
3
)
Db ¼wood basic density (Mg m
3
) in the several
decomposition categories proposed by IPCC
(2003).
Soil organic carbon SC ¼CC AD PSC¼soil carbon (Mg C ha
1
) Schlegel et al.
(2001)
CC ¼content of carbon percentage
AD ¼apparent density (Mg cm
3
).
P¼soil thickness in the sample (cm)
Total carbon stored TCS ¼CTB + CN +
OCS
TCS ¼total stored carbon (Mg C ha
1
)
CTB ¼carbon stored in the biomass (above and
under the soil)
CN ¼carbon stored in the necromass
OCS ¼organic carbon in the soil
Source: From Jadán et al. (2012)
Table 2 Algometric equations used to estimate the air biomass of trees in the shade areas of cacao plantations in the
Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, Napo Province
Ecosystem or species Equation
Range
(dap, age) R
2
Source
Tropical forests Ln (Bt) ¼1.864 + 2.608 Ln (dap) +
Ln (d)
5–150 0.99 Chave et al. (2005)
Bactris gasipaes Bt ¼0.74 h
2
0.95 Szott et al. (1993)
Cacao Bt ¼1.0408 exp
0.0736
(d30)
0.97 Ordóñez et al. (2011)
Low latizales
(1–5 cm dap)
Bt ¼10
(1.27+2.2
Log (dap))
0.3–9.3 0.88 Andrade et al. (2008)
Musaceae Bt ¼(185.1209 + 881.9471
(Log(h)/h
2
))/1000
ANACAFE (2008)
Palmas in general Bt ¼7.7 h + 4.5 0.90 Frangi and Lugo
(1984)
Roots Br ¼exp (1.0587 + 0.8836 Ln Bt) 0.84 Penman et al. (2003)
Notes: R
2
ajustado; Bt total biomass area (kg arbol
1
), Br underground biomass, dap diameter of breast length (cm),
dbasic density of the wood, d
30
diameter taken from the bass at 30 cm, htotal height (m), exp strength of the base e,
Ln natural logarithm (base e)
Source: Based on Jadán et al. (2012)
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The estimated biomass was converted into units of C by multiplying by the 0.5 factor of
conversion, as indicated in IPCC (2003). The values obtained were expressed as MgCha
1
(mega
grams of C per hectare).
The organic carbon in the soil was estimated using the percentage of organic C and the apparent
density and deepness of the sample. The total amount of C that is stored was calculated, adding the
C to each of the components of the ecosystem (biomass, necromass, and soils) in each one of the
evaluated systems (Table 3).
The air biomass in tropical forests was estimated based on the wood density (d) of tree species
with a DAP (diameter of breast length) greater than 10 cm through the equation formulated by the
Global Wood Density Database (Zanne et al. 2009), i.e., Ln (Bt) ¼1.864 + 2.608 Ln (DAP)
Ln (d).
Contribution of the Chakra Agroforestry System to Climate Change
Mitigation
As reviewed in the Introduction, the benefits of agroforestry systems for carbon sequestration and
climate change mitigation are nowadays widely recognized. Adequate management of these systems
increases their potential for recovering part of the carbon released into the atmosphere due to
deforestation in the world (Montagnini and Nair 2004). Therefore, agricultural production has the
potential to be less a problem and more part of the solution to problems related to climate change and
development (Hoffmann 2011).
The initial findings of the project, reported in Table 4, show that, in comparison with primary
rainforest, traditional agroforestry systems based on cacao farming store 42 % of C (334 Mg C ha
1
)
and 56 Mg C ha
1
more than cacao monocultures (see, also, Torres et al. 2013).
The carbon content in air and root biomass shows that the cacao chakra system contains 896 %
more C than cacao monocultures (68.1 Mg C ha-1 and 7.6 Mg C ha
1
, respectively). This high
percentage of carbon storage in the chakra system corresponds to the diversity of trees used for
timber, most of which have a high commercial value, for example, chuncho [Cedrelinga
Table 4 Average standard error for C stored in the traditional chakra cacao agroforestry system and in cacao
monoculture, compared with carbon stored in primary rainforests evaluated in the cantons of Tena and Archidona,
Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, Napo Province, 2011
Storage components (Mg C ha-1) Primary rainforest Cacao chakra agroforestry system Cacao monoculture
C air biomass 206.2 52.8 5.7
29 a 8.1 b 2.5 e
C root biomass 58 15.3 1.8
7a 2b 0.8 d
C total biomass 264.2 68 7.6
36 a 10.3 b 3.2 de
C necromass 4 4.1 2.8
0.8 ab 0.4 a 0.6 abc
C organic soil 65.9 69.2 74.9
9.2 ab 4.9 a 6.8 a
Total carbon 334.2 141.4 85.2
41.7 a 11.9 b 7.9 c
Source: From Jadán et al. 2012
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cateniformis (Ducke) Ducke], cedro (Cedrela odorata L.), caoba (Swietenia macrophylla King),
aguacatillo (Persea spp.), canelos (Ocotea spp.), guayacán [Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.)
G. Nicholson], laurel [Cordia alliodora (Ruiz and Pav.) Oken], and pig€
ue [Pollalesta discolor
(Kunth) Aristeg] (see Table 6). There is also a diversity of fruit trees, bushes, and palm trees that
form part of the local population gastronomic culture.
These findings on stored carbon in air and root biomass in cacao chakras are similar to those
obtained by Ordoñez et al. (2011) in locations near the area of our study within the SBR. They
register (68.6 Mg C ha
1
) in chakra agroforestry systems with cacao trees that are 8 years old, on
average (Table 5).
These results show that, given the amount of carbon stored both in air biomass and in root biomass
in cacao, fruit, and timber trees, the potential of the traditional cacao chakra system to enter into the
carbon market is important. Also, participation in the carbon market could help to maintain other
components of the chakra system, which produce ecosystem services with no market value.
Contribution to the Conservation of Plant Species Diversity and the
Amazon Landscape
One of the main characteristics of the chakra system is the floral diversity and density of timber-
yielding species, which mostly regenerate naturally.
With regard to the floristic diversity at family, genus, and species levels, we found an average of
eight families, nine genus, and nine species in the chakra system. Meanwhile, in cocoa monoculture
farms, only one family, one gender, and two species were found (in average). These demonstrate the
contribution of the chakra with cocoa production system to the conservation of floristic diversity of
fruit and timber trees. In addition, having a variety of species, commonly used for food, medicine,
energy drink, craft, spiritual rituals, and multipurpose materials (Table 7), also shows its potential to
adapt to climate change.
In relation to density, the chakra system with cacao was found to have on average 170 timber and
fruit trees with a diameter greater than or equal to 10 cm at breast height (DBH). Figure 2shows the
number of trees identified in line with the DAP ranking.
A particular pattern of spatial distribution of timber tree species and fruit trees could not be
identified due to the absence of systematic practices for planting timber or fruit trees. These trees
grow in a process of natural regeneration from the dispersion of seeds caused by wind or from the
Table 5 Average C stored in cacao plantations using the traditional chakra agroforestry system with 2-, 4-, 8-, and
12-year-old trees, evaluated in the cantons of Tena and Archidona, Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, Napo Province
Storage components (Mg C ha-1)
Cacao plantations using the chakra system (age in
years)
24812
C air biomass in the cacao 2.15 5.00 14.63 27.17
C root biomass in the cacao 0.67 1.42 3.67 6.53
C total biomass in the cacao 2.83 6.43 18.30 34.71
C biomass in fruit and timber-yielding trees
a
50.34 50.34 50.34 50.34
C total biomass in the cacao plus fruit and timber-yielding trees 53.7 56.77 68.64 85.05
Source: From Ordoñez et al. (2011)
a
Constant value, calculated in 12-year-old cacao plantations
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diversity of the fauna present in the system. As a general observation, it can be mentioned that
timber-yielding trees can be found in distances between 15 and 20 m apart (Figs. 3,4, and 5).
However, it is important to highlight that, at the time when producers engage in crop management,
timber species of commercial value are generally carefully managed. The management of tree
diversity in the chakra system (Table 6) shows how the Amazonian Kichwa population maintains
crucial information about plant resources from a solid popular knowledge of plant species and their
uses. Thus, it can be said that chakras are a model of biodiversity conservation; at the same time, they
provide ecosystem services for the livelihoods of local population.
Contribution of Cacao Chakras to Food Security and Climate Change
Adaptation
The effects of climate change on production systems are particular to each region. The number of
extreme weather events, droughts, floods, and temperature rise affects agriculture, especially mono-
cultures. Genetic diversity of production systems with high diversity of plants and animals is
a means to address climate change (Kotschi and von Lossau 2012).
In the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, chakras are based on the cultivation of cacao, combined with
fruit trees and food plants, which also have the function to store carbon during their growth process.
This is the case of guabos (Inga spp.), grape tree (Pourouma cecropiifolia Mart.), hard chonta
(Bactris gasipaes Kunth), white cacao (Theobroma bicolor Bonpl.), and introduced fruit trees such
as achotillo (Nephelium lappaceum), cherimoya [Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill.], among others.
Given that, at 2010, there were about 12,500 ha of cacao-based chakra farms in the SBR, managed
Table 6 Main timber-yielding trees found in the traditional chakra system with cacao in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve,
Napo Province 2012
Species Family Local Name
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz and Pav.) Oken Boraginaceae Laurel
Cedrela odorata L. Meliaceae Cedro
Cedrelinga cateniformis (Ducke) Ducke Mimosaceae Seike, chuncho
Ceiba samauma (Mart.) K. Schum. Bombacaceae Ceibo
Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms Fabaceae Bálsamo
Cabralea canjerana (Vell.) Mart. Meliaceae Batea caspi
Capirona decorticans Spruce Rubiaceae Capirona
Minquartia guianensis Aubl. Olacaceae Guayacán
Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson Bignoniaceae Guayacán
Nectandra cissiflora Nees Lauraceae Canelo amarillo
Ocotea amazónica (Meisn.) Mez
Swietenia macrophylla King Meliaceae Caoba
Clusia ducuoides Engl. Clusiaceae Pungara
Vochysia biloba Ducke Vochysiaceae Tamburo
Gustavia macarenensis Philipson Lecythidaceae Paso
Pollalesta discolor (Kunth) Aristeguieta Asteraceae Pig€
ue
Terminalia Amazonia (J.F.Gmel) Exell Combretaceae Roble Yumbingue
Otoba parvifolia (Markgr.) A.H. Gentry Myristicaceae Sangre de Gallina
Caryodendron orinocense H. Karst. Euphorbiaceae Maní de árbol
Source: This study 2013
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by approximately 9,200 producers (Giza 2011), it can be said that the contribution of traditional
agroforestry to climate change mitigation is important (see, also, section “Methodology”).
Noteworthy, research supported by the German Development Cooperation (GIZ) on the contri-
bution of traditional agroforestry to local economies suggests that the chakra system substantially
supports rural livelihoods. Indeed, for producers from the Kallari Association in the SBR, it was
found that 42 % of the household monetary income comes from the sale of cacao and 37 %
Table 7 Main species of fruit trees, bushes, and palms that store carbon and are used for consumption in chakras with
cacao in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve
Scientific name Family
Common name Use
Kichwa Spanish Comestible Medicinal Spiritual Craft Drink Material
Bixa orellana L. Bixaceae Puka
manturu
Achiote x x x x
Theobroma
bicolor Humb.
and Bonpl.
Sterculiaceae Patas yura Cacao
blanco
xx
Grias neuberthii
J.F. Macbr
Lecythidaceae Pitun Pitón x x x
Ilex guayusa
Loes
Aquifoliaceae Waysa Guayusa x x x x
Sanango
racemosum
(Ruiz and Pav.)
Barringer
Grossulariaceae Chiri
waysa
Panka
grande
xx
Gustavia
macarenensis
Philipson
Lecythidaceae Pasu Paso x x x
Gustavia
longifolia
Poepp. ex
O. Berg
Pouteria caimito
Radlk.
Sapotaceae Tarpu
aviyu
Caimito x x x
Micropholis
melinoniana
Pierre
Sapotaceae Aviyu Caimitillo x x x
Micropholis
venulosa Pierre
Artocarpus
altilis
(Parkinson)
Fosberg
Moraceae Paparawa Frutipan x x x
Brugmansia
arbórea (L.)
Lagerh
Solanaceae Wantuk Floripondio x x
Persea
americana Mill.
Lauraceae Palta yura Aguacate x x x
Bactris gasipaes
Kunth
Arecaceae Chunta Chonta
duro
xx xx
(continued)
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corresponds to produce that contributes to food security, i.e., staple food produced and consumed in
chakras (GIZb 2011).
Table 7shows the main species of fruit trees, shrubs, and palms that are commonly found in
a chakra. These species contribute both to carbon sequestration and storage and the preservation of
local food culture. All species listed in the table correspond to the cacao-based chakras. Their
botanical identification and most popular use were verified through two sources: de la Torre
et al. (2008) and Ríos et al. (2007).
Edible plants found in chakras with cacao in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve like banana (Musa
spp.), cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.], corn (Zea mays
L.), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.), lemongrass [Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) stapf], chili
(Capsicum annuum L.), star peanut (Plukenetia volubilis L.), Chinese potato [Colocasia esculenta
(L.) Schott], wild coriander (Eryngium foetidum L.), naranjilla (Solanum quitoense Lam.), and
lemon (Citrus spp.) are among the 25 food species most consumed by 10 indigenous nationalities
Table 7 (continued)
Scientific name Family
Common name Use
Kichwa Spanish Comestible Medicinal Spiritual Craft Drink Material
Mauritia
flexuosa L.f.
Arecaceae Muriti Morete x x x x
Iriartea
deltoidea Ruiz
and Pav.
Arecaceae Pushiwa Pambil x x x x
Inga
edulis Mart.
Fabaceae Pakay Guaba de
bejuco
xx x
Pouroma spp. Urticaceae Pikuanka Uva del
monte
xxx
Annona
cherimola Mill.
Annonaceae Chirimoya Chirimoya x x x x
Psidium
guajava L.
Myrtaceae Guayaba Guayaba x x x x
Source: This study 2013
Fig. 2 Number of timber and fruit trees with DAP 10 cm
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and one mestizo population, according to Ríos et al. (2007). This highlights that the chakra system,
associated with a cash crop such as cacao, can be an option for carbon sequestration and climate
change mitigation; it also contributes to food security. Chakras with cacao also can be integrated into
wildlife corridors, connecting patches of primary or secondary forests while generating household
income (Torres et al. 2013). Therefore, they potentially contribute to local populations’lifestyle in
harmony with nature. However, more quantitative approaches are needed in order to develop
concrete strategies for climate change adaptation.
Fig. 3 Typical chakra system with cocoa plants in SBR, Napo, Ecuador (Photo: Bolier Torres_2013)
Fig. 4 Woman harvesting cocoa beans in the chakra system in SBR, Napo, Ecuador (Photo: Thomas M€
uller_2010)
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Local Governance for Climate Change Management by Promoting Chakra
System with Cacao
The Ecuadorian Constitution of 2008 includes two specific articles for climate change management:
Article 413 (“The State shall promote energy efficiency, development and use of environmentally
clean technologies, practices and policies as well as diversified renewable energy of low impact on
and no risk for food sovereignty, ecological balance of ecosystems and the right to water”) and
Article 414 (“The State shall take appropriate and transverse measures to mitigate climate change by
limiting emissions of greenhouse gases, deforestation and air pollution”). This mandate is
implemented through the National Development Plan for Good Living (2009–2013), in which
Fig. 5 Local farmers in a training workshop for estimating carbon sequestration in chakra system with cocoa in SBR,
Napo, Ecuador (Photo: GIZ_2012)
Fig. 6 Parade members of the cacao round table –MCFA in the SBR, Napo, Ecuador (Photo: Mesa del Cacao
RBS_2010)
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objective 4 includes a policy to “promote the adaptation to and mitigation of climate variability with
focus on climate change.”
In 2008, both legal instruments set up a framework for the First Forum of Cacao, established in the
city of Tena. This started an innovative process of land management of cacao fields based on
strengthening a space of coordination (the cacao round table –MCFA) in the SBR (GIZa 2011).
Such a public space includes participatory governance principles for issues regarding mitigation of
and adaptation to climate change.
The SBR MCFA promotes the production of cacao on the basis of the chakra system. At the time
this chapter was finished (August 2013), the MCFA had 41 actors representing the social, public,
private, and cooperative sectors. Remarkably, 16 of them are representatives of local producers. The
MCFA works with a concerted strategy called “faces of cacao”; this includes (Chacón et al 2012)
(a) the agro-productive face, (b) the ecological face, (c) culture and tourism, and (d) flavors and
smells. In this strategy, the ecological face addresses issues of climate change in chakras with cacao.
The MCFA is a local governance mechanism that helps to coordinate actions to mitigate climate
change through the cultivation of cacao. It has achieved to promote participatory processes that
address and guide a local agenda, where stakeholders, from public and private sectors, put in practice
their ideas and interests in local action plans. These are implemented on the basis of a single driving
scheme where all actors have the same rights to evaluate and decide on the principle of horizontality.
This model of management allows for particular and transparent contribution from each member
of the MCFA platform to collective action. Participation draws on the principles of inclusion and
interacting planning becomes practical action on the principle of complementarity. All these
consolidate, in practice, the implementation of climate-smart, socially, and ecologically sustainable
production systems.
Revival of the Amazonian traditional chakra system, adapted to a commercial produce that adds
value such as cacao, has facilitated the political understanding of sustainability both on productive
and climate change grounds. As a land management system, the Amazonian chakra is an example
that shows how adaptation of production systems based on traditional knowledge can contribute to
mitigate and adapt to climate change; therefore, it is useful for the promotion of sustainable
production patterns in other areas where traditional systems also exist.
Conclusion
This chapter reports findings on the capacity of a traditional agroforestry system, called chakra, to
contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation. The focus was particularly on the integrative
characteristic of such a system to harmoniously pursue the achievement of multiple goals. The
findings suggest that chakras can be taken as examples of sustainable production that must be
preserved in order to tackle climate change effects in tropical zones. Chakras with cacao in the
Ecuadorian Amazon region provide diversified ecosystem services that can only be recuperated
through the recognition of local knowledge. Furthermore, it is within the chakra system where
decisions concerning harmonized landscapes, territory, and locally constructed processes of adap-
tation to climate change are made every day.
The findings can guide policy makers and other stakeholders in their decisions on land-use policy
and measures to tackle poverty and climate change. In this way, the intention is to contribute to
making future policies more effective, thus better enabling local population to strengthen their
organizational capacity for climate change adaptation. Yet, encouraging dialogue platforms to
support local governance mechanisms, based on sustainable production systems, requires
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transdisciplinary research focused on issues of sustainable climate change adaptation, that is,
combining climatic concerns with “good living”goals. Further, it requires a development strategy
that has the sustainable conservation of the rainforest as a main pillar and integrates local population
in the Amazon region territorial planning.
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