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Classical Sāṃkhya. An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning
... The YD (SK.24) differentiates between characteristics of buddhi and ahaṁkāra by saying that buddhi concerns ascertainment, whereas ahaṁkāra concerns reflexive self-awareness. 14 Larson (1998) held that the possibility of an individual is there at the level of buddhi itself; however, the possibility of a self-aware person arises only at the level of ahaṁkāra. Does it mean that ahaṁkāra may anchor svabhāva? ...
... In this sense, buddhi is the actual doer of any action. Larson (1998) rightly observed that buddhi is the source of fundamental strivings that determine people's perceptions and actions. ...
... Classical scholars such as Gauḍapāda and Vācaspati treated pratyayasarga as an extension of the bhāvasarga; however, Kenghe (1968) considered it as a misinterpretation since the SK does not attempt to link pratyayasarga with bhāvasarga. Many modern scholars have considered them as two alternative listings for the same concept (Larson, 1998;Larson & Bhattacharya, 2012). Keith considered pratyayasarga as a later interpolation case, whereas Frauwallner considered it a reminiscent of some older tradition within Sāṁkhya (cf. ...
Indian psychology scholars have primarily focused on developing triguṇa-based personality models. However, triguṇa-based personality models are not epistemologically consistent with Sāṁkhya. This article offers a bhāva-based conception of personality that is epistemologically consistent with Sāṁkhya. It proposes svabhāva as a personality-like construct that refers to individual-specific arrangements of prākṛtika and vaikṛtika bhava. This article contributes to both Indian psychology and Sāṁkhya scholarship.
... The three components that make up discriminative knowledge are perception, inference, and reliable or valid testimony and will be discussed in their relationship to the three components of EIP ( Figure 1). [8][9][10] Direct Perception Direct perception, as defined by the Samkhya Karika, is the application of the senses to the sense objects and indicates a nonbiased observation of phenomena. [8][9][10] Our sense organs, such as eyes and ears, pick up sense objects, such as shapes and sounds, for our evaluation, discernment, and action. ...
... [8][9][10] Direct Perception Direct perception, as defined by the Samkhya Karika, is the application of the senses to the sense objects and indicates a nonbiased observation of phenomena. [8][9][10] Our sense organs, such as eyes and ears, pick up sense objects, such as shapes and sounds, for our evaluation, discernment, and action. Direct perception indicates the process whereby we aim to objectively notice what is around us versus subjectively putting judgment, story, or bias on objects. ...
... 10 Reliable sources include what we have learned from teachers as well as any sources that are deemed to be reliable authorities. [8][9][10] Complementary and integrative health practices such as Chinese medicine, naturopathy, chiropractic, acupuncture, and herbalism often work to integrate traditional knowledge and perspectives into their use of EIP. [11][12][13][14][15] The addition of traditional knowledge into EIP as part of best evidence adds a layer of complexity for practices such as yoga therapy as they work to integrate alternative perspectives-and even very different explanatory models of health and disease-into their clinical decision-making processes. ...
This article discusses Samkhya Philosophy and the parallels with evidence informed practice
... The scholar who most consistently and prolifically brought Sāṃkhya into a frame with western thought, Larson, always maintained the strict dualism of the text in his interpretations (e.g. Larson (1969a), (1969b), (2012)). Similarly, conducted an effective critique of Cartesian dualism using Sāṃkhya 3 and the syntax/semantics approach of Searle, all the while arguing for a strong dualism. ...
... Going beyond this mere statement of fact to describe the nature of consciousness qualitatively is challenging. Larson describes 'pure consciousness' using phrases such as 'contentless consciousness', 'contentless non-intentional consciousness' or 'sheer contentless presence' (Larson (1969a); (2012)): 'It is transparent, translucent; it is a witness' (Larson (1969b), 46). The best descriptors we can arrive at, drawing directly on the SK verses, are that consciousness is unchanging, plural, non-objective, eternal, and free. ...
This article addresses the theme of ‘death and immortality’ from the perspective of consciousness, and takes as its starting point a root text of Hindu philosophy, the Sāṃkhyakārikā by Īśvarakṛṣṇa (c. fourth century ce ). The text posits a dualist ontology in which consciousness is separate and autonomous from a material reality that includes body and mind. The goal is to be ontologically situated in a ‘pure’ consciousness (non-objective), which signifies existential liberation. There are mundane ways to understand this claim, such as referring to cognitive states that produce affective dissociation, or more radical interpretations, such as a post-death state. This article explores the question of what Sāṃkhya's consciousness is like: it is said to be immortal, plural, individuated, and contentless. What is the motivation for and implication of engagement with a system that describes an existential freedom that may only be known in a dualist reality or after death? And how can Sāṃkhya's concepts be brought into conversation with contemporary investigations into mind–body questions? Sāṃkhya rationality counters the argument of eternal oblivion or of consciousness as an illusion confined to the brain. Yet there are resonances with Chalmers's notion of consciousness as fundamental. This article concludes that contemporary Anglo-American philosophy of religion can be enhanced by adding Sāṃkhya thought to its purview.
... The Samkhya Karika, a text representing a seminal philosophy found across the yoga tradition, as well as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali describes the gunas and their emergent physical, mental and behavioral attributes as follows (Stoler-Miller, 1998Bawra, 2012;Miller, 2012;Larson and Iśvarakrsna, 2014). ...
... The Samkhya Karika offers the metaphor of a lamp to illustrate that all three gunas work together. Just as the wick, oil and flame work together for the purpose of illumination, the three gunas work together to reveal to the individual the difference between purusha and prakriti (Bawra, 2012;Miller, 2012;Larson and Iśvarakrsna, 2014). ...
Yoga therapy is a newly emerging, self-regulating complementary and integrative healthcare (CIH) practice. It is growing in its professionalization, recognition and utilization with a demonstrated commitment to setting practice standards, educational and accreditation standards, and promoting research to support its efficacy for various populations and conditions. However, heterogeneity of practice, poor reporting standards, and lack of a broadly accepted understanding of the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in yoga therapy limits the structuring of testable hypotheses and clinical applications. Current proposed frameworks of yoga-based practices focus on the integration of bottom-up neurophysiological and top-down neurocognitive mechanisms. In addition, it has been proposed that phenomenology and first person ethical inquiry can provide a lens through which yoga therapy is viewed as a process that contributes towards eudaimonic well-being in the experience of pain, illness or disability. In this article we build on these frameworks, and propose a model of yoga therapy that converges with Polyvagal Theory (PVT). PVT links the evolution of the autonomic nervous system to the emergence of prosocial behaviors and posits that the neural platforms supporting social behavior are involved in maintaining health, growth and restoration. This explanatory model which connects neurophysiological patterns of autonomic regulation and expression of emotional and social behavior, is increasingly utilized as a framework for understanding human behavior, stress and illness. Specifically, we describe how PVT can be conceptualized as a neurophysiological counterpart to the yogic concept of the gunas, or qualities of nature. Similar to the neural platforms described in PVT, the gunas provide the foundation from which behavioral, emotional and physical attributes emerge. We describe how these two different yet analogous frameworks—one based in neurophysiology and the other in an ancient wisdom tradition—highlight yoga therapy’s promotion of physical, mental and social wellbeing for self-regulation and resilience. This parallel between the neural platforms of PVT and the gunas of yoga is instrumental in creating a translational framework for yoga therapy to align with its philosophical foundations. Consequently, yoga therapy can operate as a distinct practice rather than fitting into an outside model for its utilization in research and clinical contexts.
... The three Gunas, known as Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas, represent the fundamental qualities or energies that govern all creation. Sattva is associated with purity and clarity, Rajas with activity and passion, and Tamas with darkness and inertia ( Larson, 2014). ...
Indian philosophy has a unique perspective on error, known as Khyativāda, which is related to epistemology and the role of evidence in determining errors. This perspective is shaped by the mix of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Nastika or Heterodox philosophies that make up Indian philosophy. Khyativāda deals with illusory, true, and false cognition and has been developed based on different logical dimensions of various schools of thought. Anyathakhyati is a key concept in Khyativāda, which suggests that errors arise when two real entities are mistaken for each other due to subjective conditioning. The Nyāya school focuses on logically categorizing errors and correcting them by sublimating attributes, rather than rejecting the substance itself. They restrict errors to the sphere of description and emphasize the importance of judging something as it exists to avoid falsity.
... 4. Since Sāṃkhya does not consider God as the creator of the world (Larson 1969), it is seen as an "atheistic" (not religious) philosophy. Nevertheless, a few scholars suggest that Sāṃkhya is not an atheistic philosophy as it does not falsify the existence of God, but only denies the role of God as the sole creator of the world (Bronkhorst 1983). ...
The rise of China and India could be the most important political development of the twenty-first century. What will the foreign policies of China and India look like in the future? What should they look like? And what can each country learn from the other? Bridging Two Worlds gathers a coterie of experts in the field, analyzing profound political thinkers from these ancient regions whose theories of interstate relations set the terms for the debates today. This volume is the first work of its kind and is essential reading for anyone interested in the growth of China and India and what it means for the rest of the world.
... The Sankhya system propounded by Kapila delineates that the creation is made of two interdependent realities, the Prakruthi and the Purusha. Prakruthi or the material component has been created with three innate dispositions viz., Sattva (Goodness), Rajas (passion or activity) and Tamas (darkness or inertia); which have their effect on all the materials or substances including food and mind [70,71]. Foods can thus be classified into three categories viz. ...
South Indian cultures are diverse and unique amongst Indian traditions. In spite of many changes in Indian traditions over generations, South Indian states seem to have maintained a great extent of similarity with reference to vegetarian ethnic food habits and the reason behind is not convincingly known. Hindu traditional texts have extensive mention of the ethnic origins of many cultural practices prevailing in India and the present review aims to explore the different vegetarian ethnic foods of South India and also look into the influential role of food related ideologies mentioned in the traditional texts. Ethnographic study data about the prevailing vegetarian foods of the states were generated using multiple tools and presented. It is observed that there is a great extent of similarity amongst the varieties of vegetarian foods being prepared in Hindu communities of South India. Our study also highlights the strong influential role of tradition in evolution of vegetarian foods prevailing even today in South India.
... 4. Since Sāṃkhya does not consider God as the creator of the world (Larson 1969), it is seen as an "atheistic" (not religious) philosophy. Nevertheless, a few scholars suggest that Sāṃkhya is not an atheistic philosophy as it does not falsify the existence of God, but only denies the role of God as the sole creator of the world (Bronkhorst 1983). ...
As per the conventional wisdom on international relations (IR), it is presumed
that the pursuit of Political Realism or realpolitik calls for a rational political
action which is “amoral”—either “immoral” (opposed to moralpolitik) or “neither immoral nor moral” (apathetic to moralpolitik). Also, it is held that all Asian
philosophical traditions are amoral as they project a form of awareness that is
inconsistent with any notions of morality or moralpolitik. However, this chapter shows how the classical Indian text of Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra uses an amoral
framework—supported by the eclectic philosophical substructures of Sāṃkhya,
Yoga, and Lokāyata (literally meaning “numbers,” “aggregate,” and “worldly ones”
respectively)—to not only temper apparently immoral methods, but also attain
concrete moral goals in IR. In this sense, Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra deviates from both
Eurocentric and Chinese Political Realism. The chapter illustrates how Kautilya’s
Amoral Realism can be resourcefully mobilized to bridge the gulf between realpolitik and moralpolitik in contemporary global politics.
For free access to the entire book, click the following link: https://luminosoa.org/site/books/e/10.1525/luminos.135/
... In this paper, I am broadly reading SK and mostly relying on YD, and in many instances, this simplified reading can be confronted on the basis of internal categorical differences. This paper is not the place to discuss those internal minor differences, and those interested in these discussions can consult (Larson 2011;Larson and Bhattacharya 2016;Chakravarti 1975 The earliest I am able trace the concept of two types of permanency is to Patañjali (2nd C. BCE), the author of the Mahābhās . ya upon Pān . ...
This paper explores the ways change is addressed in Sāṅkhya, one of the major Hindu schools of philosophy, specifically in light of the classical debate between Hindu and the Buddhist philosophers regarding intrinsic nature (svabhāva) and the concept of transformation (pariṇāma). When we closely analyze Sāṅkhya categories, the issue of temporality stands out, because for Sāṅkhya philosophers time is not a distinct category and is infrequently addressed in classical Sāṅkhya. Nonetheless, we can still extract two different notions related to time, dynamism intrinsic to rajas, and temporality that is enclosed within the notion of space and spatial objects. What this implies is that the temporality implicit within the concept of change is only applicable to the last of the evolutes, according to Sāṅkhya cosmology. However, the Sāṅkhyan idea of 16 transformations (pariṇāma) applies to all categories, except puruṣa. By exploiting the parameters of these arguments, this paper makes the case for a closer analysis of the category of transformation in classical Sāṅkhya. Reading about change in the light of svabhāva, the intrinsic nature of an entity, versus the idea of its termination, allows us to have a wider conversation on what it means for something to change from within the Sāṅkhya paradigm.
... In these also the first element, which he named "Pra+kriti" or "Pra+dhan", was proved to be the origin of the remaining twenty-three. Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of Gunas [10] (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche). In the Bhagavata Purana, Kapil Muni is considered as an incarnation, then in the Gita, Krishna says-I am Kapil among the Siddhas. ...
Does Universe has a creator? There are two schools of thought, yes (Aastik), no (Nastik). This Aastik and Nastik form a view point called Darshan (philosophy). Aastik Darshan Shastra (6) are a key to creation of universe by creator. Learning about the creator and its properties-Guna lead to the development of the universe. Each Darshan had different way of looking resulting into diversity of thought as well as confusion. Yog professes only one Guna. Sankhya says 3 (Sat, Raj and Tam), Vaisheshik says 24 Guna and Nyaaya says 16 Guna, Mimansa is application of Guna (development of subjects like Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda and Arthashastra) and Vedant says everything is a Guna. Sankhya Darshan professes how many are holding the universe and its reasons of approach - Why? This gives the theory of Sat being causal body or Kaaran Sharir, Raj being Sukshma Sharir or subtle body and Tam being Sthool Sharir or gross body and each body is with 5 elements as स(ष) त म र ज. These three Guna of divine were often misunderstood or misinterpreted. One area of the application of Darshan leads to the development of Ayurveda. A logical structure is presented in the form of 3 Sharir represented by Sat, Raj and Tam professed by Sankhya Darshan and its application to Ayurveda. The study endeavours at the application of Sankhya yog on Ayurveda and opens the doors for further study in relation to Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda and Arthashastra.
... Some researchers have delved into traditional Indian thought, gathered ideas relevant to psychology and attempted to link them to their contemporary equivalents or counterparts. Likewise, attempts have been made to use modern-psychology methods, such as questionnaires, to assess traditionally proposed concepts (e.g. the three 'gunas' proposed in the Sankhya philosophy) (Larson, 2001). Although disagreement has been expressed with such exercises in some quarters, the present author is of the view that such attempts, if kept within logical limits, can be seen as indicators of one kind of integration. ...
In the recent past, there has been a call for a change in some aspects of contemporary psychology, one aspect being that of making psychology integrative. The present essay examines some major challenges posed by the idea of integrative psychology particularly with regard to teaching. These are: understanding why an integrative approach is needed at all, clarifying the meaning of “integrativeness” considering diverse views and dealing with a sense of disconnectedness in certain domains. Attention is drawn to issues regarding interdisciplinary and intradisciplinary disjuncture in psychology, disjointedness between individual (micro-level), group (meso-level) and societal (macro-level) psychological processes, between methods, contemporary and traditional thought systems, between psychological research and public policy, between the human welfare goal of psychology and the content of the discipline, and between the conceptualizations of integration and actual practice of these concepts. The need for giving greater importance to the human welfare aspect in integrative psychology is highlighted. It is further pointed out that along with an interdisciplinary approach towards integrative psychology, disciplinary identities also need to be sharpened for effective integration. A comment is made on the problems in teaching of the discipline in a fundamentally transformed way, especially in certain educational systems. Some of the hurdles include a lack of openness to integrativeness, the discipline-focused training of teachers, the need to motivate students for an integrative approach, and a job market that may not appreciate an integrative or multi-disciplinary approach. Suggestions are given for introducing an integrative element in the existing state of psychology. It is concluded that psychology can be made integrative only by developing an inclusive attitude towards other areas of inquiry, and towards different ideas, methods and theories. Ultimately, psychology should become integrative as a science of human beings, as suggested by Valsiner.KeywordsIntegrativenessInclusiveness“Tree of Knowledge”Meta-disciplinarityHuman science
... immediate post-Vedic period (Dasgupta, 1975;Larson, 2011), the Samkhya advocates for the "liberation of man's [sic] self from bondage to the body and the material world" (Chatterjee, 1996, p. 208). It talks about purusha, the male energy, and prakriti, the female energy, as the only fundamental realities; the former representing the individual consciousness and the latter, the creative force of nature bearing the basic argument of satkaryavada or the effect pre-existing in the cause. ...
The Nataraja is perhaps the most well-recognized anthropomorphic form of the Hindu god, Shiva . This paper articulates a set of principles for a recently developed conceptual lens in systems thinking called Holistic Flexibility for flexible and responsible management practice. The five most important function of the Nataraja, or the panchakritya , have been drawn on to articulate these principles; these principles are – "system as becoming", drawing from srishti or creation, "transformative flexibility", drawing from samhara or transformation, "responsible practice" drawing from tirobhava or (freedom from) ignorance, "spiral of learning" drawing from samhara or liberation, and "pragmatic artistry" drawing from sthithi or assurance. An argument is presented to establish the importance of management consciousness drawing from the Shiva philosophy. Behaviors associated with the principles are enlisted along with the challenges for managers to display these behaviors. The discussions presented argue that Holistic Flexibility and its principles can lend a new character to systems thinking as a state of mind to supersede a rational-analytical approach.
... Mind is a 3D clock assembly (Fig. 1b, c), a class of Prakriti, conscious mind exchanges clocks with the other Prakriti, or guests on the Purusha or clocks. The subconscious mind holds fundamental symmetries of Purusha-Prakriti conjecture [16]. These developments completed the pre-Vedic era, before 2000 BC and debates continued finding the maximum number of symmetries that constitute the clocks, identifying basic spatio-temporal patterns and rhythms that regulate the integration of clocks [17]. ...
Since the 1920s, drawing tests have been used to measure intelligence, maturity, and personality: in the later parts of the twentieth century, drawing tests were extended to estimate depression, schizophrenia, and the degree of Alzheimer's. However, despite extensive literature on cognitive engineering, there is no grammar as generic rules for explaining drawing tests. Most inferences are drawn based on experiences, intuitions, and medical test confirmations. Here, we propose a set of eight tests to correlate fundamental rules of subconscious minds of a human subject follows based on which it constructs logical constructs for solving a problem. Based on the studies carried out on human subjects, we have proposed invariants or conservations across human subjects to interpret the drawing results and build technologies. Thus far, cognitive technologies of subconscious minds were limited to explore criminal minds. Our test protocol reveals generic rules of subconscious minds for engineering cognitive AI machines.KeywordsCognitive technologySubconscious mindArtificial intelligenceTime crystalSociology
... La inferencia positiva se basa en la concomitancia invariable entre el signo y lo signado, como la que se da entre el humo del fuego. La inferencia negativa ocurre en virtud de la ausencia de esa concomitancia (instancia negativa), como la imposibilidad de que el todo exista sin sus partes (Larson, 1979). Finalmente, nos encontramos con la analogía, que, de las tres inferencias, es la que cobra mayor importancia para la escuela sāṁkhya, ya que gracias a ella se puede conocer la existencia de la conciencia (puruṣa) y la materia no manifiesta (avyakta prakṛti). ...
Uno de los prejuicios más fuertes al momento de acercarse o enseñar algo de la filosofía de la India ha sido aquel según el cual su pensamiento es exclusivamente religioso, místico o carente de razonamiento abstracto, formal, estructurado y lógico. Naturalmente, una vez realizado dicho acercamiento podemos darnos cuenta desde el comienzo que nada está más lejos de la realidad. Por ello, el propósito de este texto es mostrar cómo a partir de ciertos elementos teóricos de algunas escuelas filosóficas de la India-principalmente, los pramāṇa (प् रमाण) o medios de conocimiento válido-es posible establecer un diálogo a partir de un problema común: el significado y el rol que cumple el lenguaje en la relación pensamiento-realidad. Se explicará, además, de forma somera y general, cómo es posible ubicar esas posturas en dos grandes grupos: las filosofías con tendencias realistas, como la nyāya o la sāṁkhya; y las filosofías antirrealistas-no por eso necesariamente idealistas-, como el budismo madhyamaka. Finalmente, se mostrará que dichas tendencias pueden evidenciarse en, si no es que están determinadas por, el tipo de inferencias, el estilo y la forma de la argumentación allí utilizadas: afirmativa (tarka [तर् क]/vāda [वाद]), o negativa (vitaṇḍā [वितण्डा]). Se marca así la diferencia entre concepciones más cercanas a concepciones referencialistas o pragmáticas del lenguaje, respectivamente.
... For its part, the classical yoga tradition describes the primal qualitites of nature, or gunas (threads in Sánskrit). These are manifested in the states of the mind and there are three of them: sattva, the energy of light (awareness), peace and compassion; rajas, the energy of action, competitivity and movement; and tamas, the energy of immobilization, inertia, lethargy and the loss of consciousness (Larson, 1969;Sequeira, 1997). The system of yoga regards the gunas as being in continuously interaction and believes that the practitioner can halt the reactivity of their conditioning, free themselves from their ego and attain enlightenment through the development of sattva. ...
Polyvagal theory provides a neurophysiological explanation of how the body and the brain are interrelated with the social context in which both take place. Its implementation in the area of mindfulness and compassion could contribute to optimizing the effectiveness of these interventions, integrating the results shown by efficacy studies and
guiding future research.
Our purpose with this article is to offer an integrative framework, which could explain the neurophysiological bases that underlies mindfulness and compassion practice.
After presenting the polyvagal theory basics, their possible contribution to the scope of mindfulness and compassion are explored. Practical recommendations are offered for the mindfulness teacher by reviewing constructs such as attachment, embodiment, or
therapeutic presence. Finally, the importance of takinginto account the physiological state for the practice of compassion is outlined, and suggestions for future research are proposed.
This research paper explores the concept of atomism within the Vaisheshik philosophy, one of the six orthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy. Vaisheshik, propounded by sage Kanada, postulates that the universe is composed of discrete, indivisible entities known as atoms, ('anu' in Sanskrit). The discussion focuses on the conceptualization of these fundamental entities, their classifications, and their combinations resulting in the composite universe. This paper delves into the fundamental principles of Vaisheshik philosophy, examines the nature and characteristics of atoms according to this school of thought, and discusses their significance in understanding the structure of the universe. The article provides a critical analysis of atomistic theory in relation to modern scientific understandings, highlighting the Vaisheshik system’s relevance and compatibility in contemporary philosophical and scientific discourse. It examines the philosophical implications of atomism, probing how these atomic theories contribute to the broader understanding of reality, perception, and the inherent order or 'dharma' governing the universe. Moreover, the article explores the interplay between the microcosmic atomic realm and the macrocosmic universal phenomena. Through a meticulous examination of this ancient philosophy, the article underscores the enduring nature of Indian philosophical thought and its intersection with modern science. By exploring the atomistic perspective of Vaisheshik, this research aims to contribute to a broader understanding of ancient Indian philosophical systems and their approach to cosmology.
Sāṃkhya, in its commentary Yuktidīpikā, responds to the Buddhist claim that a means of valid cognition (pramāṇa) and a valid cognition (pramā), its result (phala), are identical. The response of Sāṃkhya was pioneering: it is one of the two earliest responses to the Buddhists in the lively polemic on the relationship between a pramāṇa and its result. (The other of these two earliest responses is in the Ślokavārttika by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa.) Sāṃkhya’s voice in this polemic is earlier than that of Nyāya, which is, as well as Mīmāṃsā, the main rival of the Buddhists in addressing this issue. This study provides a translation and detailed reconstruction of the Yuktidīpikā’s polemic with the Buddhist opponent, which has not been researched before, as well as a critical assessment of the Sāṃkhya position. The Yuktidīpikā polemicizes against Dignāga. It aptly questions the standpoint of the Buddhist opponent and presents an alternative standpoint, contrasting its own view with that of the opponent. Though the Sāṃkhya position formulated in the Yuktidīpikā evokes several critical remarks, the Yuktidīpikā’s response is an important contribution to Indian thought.
Sāṃkhya, in its commentary Yuktidīpikā, responds to the Buddhist claim that a means of valid cognition (pramāṇa) and a valid cognition (pramā), its result (phala), are identical. The response of Sāṃkhya was pioneering: it is one of the two earliest responses to the Buddhists in the lively polemic on the relationship between a pramāṇa and its result. (The other of these two earliest responses is in the Ślokavārttika by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa.) Sāṃkhya’s voice in this polemic is earlier than that of Nyāya, which is, as well as Mīmāṃsā, the main rival of the Buddhists in addressing this issue. This study provides a translation and detailed reconstruction of the Yuktidīpikā’s polemic with the Buddhist opponent, which has not been researched before, as well as a critical assessment of the Sāṃkhya position. The Yuktidīpikā polemicizes against Dignāga. It aptly questions the standpoint of the Buddhist opponent and presents an alternative standpoint, contrasting its own view with that of the opponent. Though the Sāṃkhya position formulated in the Yuktidīpikā evokes several critical remarks, the Yuktidīpikā’s response is an important contribution to Indian thought.
Indian psychology is an emerging discipline within psychology. Self and personality have been one of its essential preoccupations. Personality studies in Indian psychology have relied on the Sāṁkhya system of thought and its idea of triguṇa. This chapter presents the need of Indian psychology for personality studies and evaluates the current state of triguṇa-based personality research. It also offers future directions regarding leveraging the Sāṁkhya system of thought for personality research.
Gerhard Oberhammer is a prominent Austrian scholar of Indian philosophy and religions. This paper presents an analysis of Oberhammer’s works on spiritual practices of sāṃkhya and yoga. Based on the works that belong to the traditions of sāṃkhya, Patañjali’s yoga and the Pāśupata’s śaivism, Oberhammer reconstructed the phenomenology of each spiritual path and developed a general typology of yogic practices. Particularly, in the Yoga-sūtras, he identified four distinct practices of different origin, which implies that initially this work was a compilation. Oberhammer revealed an affinity between one of these practices and a later teaching of the theistic Mṛgendratantra. Based on the material of the Yuktidīpikā he described the phenomenology of the spiritual path of sāṃkhya, a tradition that is often believed to be of purely theoretical character. Oberhammer’s works on sāṃkhya and yoga attracted interest of scholars of Indian religions. However, with the course of time they were almost forgotten, not least because of the general positivist bias of modern indology. It seems promising to compare Oberhammer’s typology of yogic practices, as well as his philosophical teaching of transcendental hermeneutics, with the works by Mircea Eliade and Evgeniy Torchinov, which provide broad descriptions of religious practices with a general focus on the phenomenology of spiritual experience.
This article aims to bring the intellectual rigour of Cultural Studies to Balinese ideas about culture which confuse culture with ideology. Cultural Studies is not the study of culture, but its critique which deconstructs culture as misrepresenting actuality as an Imaginary convenient to regimes of power. The New Order articulated ‘kebudayaan’ to create a submissive populace happy to embrace global tourism. Culture is no longer how how people do things but marketable commodities posturing as ‘ancient tradition’. Bali as paradise is a cliché. The island now fulfils Madame Suharto’s dream of Disneyland. The capitalist fantasy of endless cost-free growth bears no resemblance to the sophisticated Balinese cosmology of Kali-Yuga, which ends in cataclysmic dissolution; or to popular ideas of the world as ceaseless transforming. Although kebudayaan dismisses ordinary people as stupid masses, they often escape the ideological straitjacket of kebudayaan by just getting on with culture as everyday life.
Smart environment in a smart city is the changes of a city and shape the pure environment with the element to achieve a human settlement. This change is achieved by extensive and persuasive infrastructure and building which give a big impact on the environment. However, the lack of a smart environment regulatory framework was increasing the level of difficulties for the implementation of smart environmental practices. The objectives of the study were to identify the smart envi- ronment concept for a smart city and examine the elements of the smart environment in Pengerang. The study was conducted by using a mixed method. The data was collected by using questionnaires, document reviews and observations. The results showed that the quality of life, facilities and automated system element recorded mean score at a high level. Besides that, the element of quality of life recorded the highest average mean score with 4.48 rather than the other four elements, facilities, awareness, safety and automated system. The implications of this study show that the implementation needs deep planning by local authorities and government to realize the changes toward a smart environment.
Smart people are very important to our future because only humans can utilize technology and improve economic and political efficiency, and play a role in social, cultural and urban progress. However, low moral intelligence, low skilled manpower and conflicts between multi-ethnic are major problems that often lead to social issues. The objectives of the study were to identify smart people concept for a smart city and examine the elements of smart people in Pengerang. The study was conducted using a mixed-method. The data were collected using question- naires, document reviews and observations. The results showed that the agreeable- ness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion and experience to openness elements recorded mean score at a high level. Besides that, the element of agree- ableness recorded as the highest average mean score with 3.78 rather than the other four elements, conscientiousness, extraversion, emotional stability and experience to openness. The implications of this study show that the local authorities and govern- ment need to draw the strategies and policies for build-up smart people in order to develop and promote a smart city in Malaysia.
In this paper, a drop-shaped fractal patch antenna is designed and simulated using Polyamide substrate. The designed antenna is simulated for 4.35–4.42 THz. The designed antenna resonates at 4.4 THz frequency. The maximum gain of 9.34 dBi is achieved. The designed antenna has applications in THz for communication, sensing, and 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4 THz frequency is used for quantum cascade laser. The proposed antenna is designed using CST software.KeywordsDrop shapedFractalPatchTHzQuantum cascade laser
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) creates a private communication path over the public network to ensure the security of the transmitted data. A plethora of VPN tunneling protocols has been developed for the site-to-site and remote access of the applications. A critical challenge for an organization is to select an appropriate VPN protocol considering the application requirements. In this paper, Internet Protocol Security (IPSec), Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP), and Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) protocols have been exploited to determine the application suitability of the VPN tunneling mechanism selected for remote access. End-to-end Throughput, Round Trip Time, and Jitter along heterogeneous hardware environments have been investigated to determine the performance of the VPN tunneling techniques. Experimental results depict that MPLS is suitable for real-time audio-video, web, e-mail, and file-sharing applications. IPSec and L2TP are more applicable to the web, e-mail, and file-sharing applications and not suitable for streaming applications due to high jitter and latency.KeywordsVirtual private networkMPLSL2TPIPSec
Smart economy has emerged as part of the smart city framework to encourage urban growth which the urban population currently lives in a digital society. The smart economy has emerged as part of the smart city framework to encourage urban growth. However, with technological and economic shifts brought about by globalization, cities are now facing the challenges of simultaneously sustaining productivity and sustainable urban development. The objectives of the study were to identify the smart economy concept for a smart city and examine the elements of smart economy in Pengerang. The study has conducted by using a mixed method. The data have collected by using questionnaires, document reviews and observations. The results showed that respondents fully understood the concept of smart economy that enables, encourages and stimulates economic activity in Pengerang. Besides, there will be future strategies and initiatives in order to encourage people to implement the smart economy. The implications of this study show that people need to pay attention to the issues and strategies that have been proposed by the government to implement and promote the smart economy toward a smart city.
This paper investigates Vācaspati Miśra’s remarkably complex argumentative architecture in support of non-difference by means of a microsimulation model, the classical gold-crown case. A full range of positions, including instantaneism, transformative continuum, indeterminate common basis reference, difference and non-difference coordination, etc., is put under the scrutiny of the Vācaspati Miśra’s dialectic effort. The possibility of coexistence of multiple properties with a single referent is then formally explored. The analysis is carried out in compliance with the ‘Navya-Nyāya Formal Language’ extensional set-based approach and its non-predicative, and variables free, relational syntax. Repeatable modules and structures of reasoning are identified and designed in the form of hypothesis frameworks, axioms and theorems to allow more accurate inferences, in particular regarding transformation and permanence, together with possible or impossible plexuses of properties. Identity and difference qua mutual absence are thoroughly defined with the aid of these formal tools, which conjointly might cast new light on the heuristic and expressive power of Navya-Nyāya logic, as well as on the theoretical potentialities of the non-dualistic account.
Buzan and Acharya challenge the discipline of International Relations to reimagine itself in the light of the thinking about, and practice of, international relations and world order from premodern India, China and the Islamic world. This prequel to their 2019 book, The Making of Global International Relations, takes the story back from the two-century tale of modern IR, to reveal the deep global history of the discipline. It shows the multiple origins and meanings of many concepts thought of as only modern and Western. It opens pathways for the rest of the world into this most Eurocentric of disciplines, encouraging them to bring their own histories, concepts and theories with them. The authors have written this book with the hope of inspiring others to extend these pathways by bringing in a wider array of cultures, and exploring how they thought about and acted in worlds composed of multiple, independent, collective actors.
This comparative study aims at juxtaposition of modern Western naturalistic evolutionism and the mostly similar attitude in the classic Indian philosophy in the shape of Sankhya’s cosmology in the context of their corresponding critiques by contemporary creationists and Advaita-Vedanta. The long and pointed polemics with Sankhya in the Brahmasutrabhasya by Šankaracharya (7th-8th centuries A.D.) is in the focus of this investigation along with numerous references to the Sankhya-karika by Isvarakrsna (5th century A.D.) as the basic text of the philosophical school criticized by its most powerful opponent. Comparing Western and Indian evolutionism reveals some very important differences to such a degree that the Indian species of the genus would be, in the author’s opinion, better identified as not evolutionism in the strict sense but as a “développisme” combining features of evolutionism with those of emanationism. As to Sankhya’s naturalism, it turns to be much more “sophisticated” than that, e.g., of Thomas Huxley or the so-called New Atheists because its “stuff” is more psychological than material. Nevertheless, crucial logical gaps remain the same in both cases (along with an antitheistic “faith” instead of rationalism), while their taking into account by opponents of naturalism offers a challenge for comparative philosophical theology.
One of the lively polemics between Buddhists and Naiyāyikas is devoted to the question of whether each pramāṇa—means of knowledge—has an independent scope of validity, which does not overlap the scopes of other pramāṇas, or whether more than one pramāṇa can be applied to the same object. Dignāga and continuators of his thought defend pramāṇa-vyavasthā, ‘autonomy of [the object spheres of] pramāṇas,’ while Naiyāyikas defend the opposing conception, called pramāṇa-samplava, ‘coalescence of [the object spheres of] pramāṇas.’ Scholars usually ascribe pramāṇa-vyavasthā to Sāṃkhya. This paper explores the classical and postclassical Sāṃkhya view of the scope of the pramāṇas and shows that Sāṃkhya did not follow pramāṇa-vyavasthā. In Sāṃkhya, the scopes of perception and inference for knowing perceptible objects overlap, while inference for knowing supersensible objects and reliable verbal testimony have autonomous object spheres. However, there is also a tendency toward pramāṇa-vyavasthā in Sāṃkhya, which is in conflict with the Sāṃkhya theory of pramāṇas.
Classical Sāṃkhya has usually been interpreted as an intellectualist school. Its presumed method for the attainment of liberation is essentially characterized by rational inquiry into reality, which involves the intellectual understanding of the distinction between two principles: the conscious and the material. Some have argued that this liberating process is not only theoretical, but that it entails yogic practice, or that it is the natural outcome of existential forces that tend toward freedom. However, recent studies in Sāṃkhya involving detailed analysis of an anonymous commentary of the Sāṃkhyakārikā, the Yuktidīpikā, suggest a more complex picture. The external functions of the five vital winds (prāṇas) in relation to the sources of action (karmayonis) and dispositions of being (bhāvas) seem to play an important role in the liberating path. In this paper, I review the relation between bhāvas, karmayonis, and the five prāṇas by considering the social, moral, and interpersonal aspects of the five vital winds as described in the Yuktidīpikā. It will be shown how the external functions of prāṇa are related to the moral cultivation of vitality, leading to the enactment and manifestation of dispositions of being (bhāvas) that bring about the realization of oneself as a knower in the ethical engagement with others. It is this unique way of understanding prāṇa in the Yuktidīpikā that makes the Sāṃkhya path for liberation something more than a theoretical cognitive method or a spontaneous and predetermined realization of one’s self.
In this article, I discuss the relevance of the study of mysticism for Christian analytic theologians and philosophers of religion. I begin with a brief consideration of some reasons Christian academics might be reluctant to enter this field, and indicate that, somewhat surprisingly, the study of mysticism is something but seldom addressed in Christian analytic circles. With this background in place, I proceed to the primary two sections of the article. Section I deals with demarcating mysticism: for the purposes of this article alone, an experience will count as mystical if and only if it is strongly unitive, transcends everyday consciousness, and (allegedly) conveys epistemic certainty as to the veracity of the insights acquired. These three criteria are discussed in some depth. Section II turns to the challenge mysticism in this sense might present to the Christian philosopher or theologian. I argue that the phenomenon of mysticism might be seen plausibly to imply one of two conclusions, both of which appear to be unpalatable for the Christian. First, it might suggest certain metaphysical views which prima facie call key tenets of orthodox Christianity into question. Secondly, mystical experience might be understood as the ‘inner meaning’ of Christianity which renders the better part of orthodox Christian belief equally problematic (as evidenced in three Christian mystics I discuss). I then conclude with a reflection on how the discussion might proceed, suggesting once more that Christian analytic theologians and philosophers of religion have scarcely begun to ask the relevant questions, let alone answer them in any persuasive manner.
The Sāṃkhyakārikā is the earliest surviving text of the Sāṃkhya school of Hindu philosophy. Sāṃkhya Kārikā was probably composed sometime in the Gupta Empire period, between 320-540 CE. It attributes to Iśvarakṛṣṇa, 350 CE. The translation of Paramartha into Chinese along with a commentary constituted over 557-569 CE, has outlived in China, and it constitutes the oldest outliving version of Sāṃkhya Kārikā. Several manuscripts, with slightly variant verses, however, these do not challenge the basic thesis or the overall meaning of the text.
The word consciousness originates from the Latin word "conscious" meaning"Knowing," "privy to". In the Western tradition, when psychology began as a science in the later partof nineteenth century, it was defined as the science of consciousness ; even today defining consciousness is a very challenging task. An entire issue of the Journal Consciousness Studies (Vol. 16, No. 5, 2009) was devoted to the topic of defining consciousness. As Miller (1987) aptly observed, [c]onsciousness is a word worn smooth by a million tongues" (p. 34), As Block (1995b) observes, consciousness "connotes a number of different concepts and denotes a number of different phenomena" (p.227). Jonkisz (2012) proposed four fold taxonomy of consciousness, which he believes to be exhaustive and inclusive of all varieties of consciousness. Jonkisz(2012) distinguishes five forms of consciousness. He designates them as orders of consciousness. They are in his words sensorimotor consciousness, perceptual consciousness, meta-perceptual consciousness, self-consciousness, and meta-self-This paper explores consciousness from Indian Perspective. In the Indian model, the person is embodied consciousness. In this sense it is absolute, universal, and completely unqualified. Consciousness (italicized) in the second sense refers to consciousness as-such, content less but the one that illuminates all cognitive awareness. In the third sense consciousness is as generally understood in the Western tradition and most of psychological discussions which may fall under the category of transactional consciousness. Finally, we need to postulate undifferentiated awareness underlying all states of consciousness as a universal feature underlying all varieties of consciousness (Mohanty 1993).
Se presenta un análisis del vocablo prakṛti, término técnico y fundamental de la Sāṃkhya-Kārikā de Īśvarakṛṣṇa. Se realiza el examen desde una doble perspectiva: una consiste en explorar el significado del término y de las nociones asociadas a él en su respectivo contexto textual para poder articular un sentido inmanente al texto de Īśvarakṛṣṇa. Tal enfoque, no obstante, nos mantiene atados a la lengua sánscrita. La segunda perspectiva involucra una discusión de las traducciones de los términos examinados a la lengua española y retoma el análisis de la primera perspectiva. Esta estrategia permite comprender más cabalmente los términos sánscritos clave del texto y volver manifiestas las dificultades implicadas en la traducción del texto clásico de la escuela sāṃkhya.
This article explores the psychological dimension of classical Sāṃkhya philosophy, on the basis of its canonical treatise, Sāṃkhyakārikā of Īśvarakṛṣṇa (4th Century AD). The strong dualism defended by this ancient metaphysics establishes a division between what we will designate as the phenomenon of consciousness (puruṣa) and the cognitive phenomena (prakṛti). According to our approach, Sāṃkhya seems to offer a mechanical model of mind by means of an introspective self-research. In fact, we will argue that in this system of thought, mind is regarded as an artificial extension of consciousness. Considering the Sāṃkhya classical treatise as the report of a meditative experience, our main purpose is to examine some key points of this dualism. To this end, we also take account of certain Western theories of mind, as well as certain aspects included in another Indian philosophy greatly influenced by the Sāṃkhya system, namely, the classical Yoga of Patañjali.
The word "consciousness " is used in varied contexts and has lot of implications.This paper explores the construct in detail with an emphasis on "Indian perspective " wherein it assumes a very universal presence, The Vedanta thought and the Buddhist approach has been discussed and examined in particular.
Five of the extant commentaries on the Sāṃkhyakārikā bear strong resemblances to each other. These are the Suvarṇasaptati, Sāṃkhyavṛtti, Gauḍapādabhāṣya, Sāṃkhyasaptativṛtti, and Māṭharavṛtti. Therefore, they are generally considered to share a common origin. These commentaries on the Sāṃkhyakārikā, however, also significantly diverge from each other. This article explores the peculiar connections among the Suvarṇasaptati, Sāṃkhyavṛtti, and Gauḍapādabhāṣya. By focusing on passages that feature metaphors, this article discusses how and why the authors of the Suvarṇasaptati, Sāṃkhyavṛtti, and Gauḍapādabhāṣya may have appropriated portions of their texts or to the contrary dissociated from each other.
Aśoka’s Mauryan Empire is a remarkable exemplar of Kautilyan ‘Political Realism between realpolitik and moralpolitik’. Noticeably, Aśoka’s Mauryan Empire—as a fusion of realpolitik and moralpolitik—offers a non-Western alternative to the ‘rationalist-reflectivist debate’ on legitimate exercise of power in Eurocentric IR. The rationalist-reflectivist debate on legitimate exercise of power in Eurocentric IR revolves around the diverged doctrines of realpolitik and moralpolitik: as such, ‘realpolitik’ (as in rationalist theories of Classical Realism and Neorealism) legitimizes the exercise of power in international politics even if it has antagonistic tensions with abstract moral-ethical concerns, whereas ‘moralpolitik’ (as in reflectivist theories of Critical International Theory, Feminism, Postmodernism etc.) does not legitimize the exercise of power in international politics if it has antagonistic tensions with abstract moral-ethical concerns. Counter to these diverged doctrines in Eurocentric IR, this chapter sets out to install Aśoka’s Mauryan Empire as a peculiar meeting point of the ‘commonalities’ between two ancient Indian political thoughts: (i) ‘Kautilyan’ (usually depicted as realpolitik); and (ii) ‘Buddhist’ (generally accepted as moralpolitik).
Though quite extensive in its coverage, the present bibliography does not claim to be exhaustive. Among the many works traditionally (but incorrectly) ascribed to Aśvaghoṣa, some, such as the *Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra (Taishō no. 1666, 1667) or, to a lesser degree, the Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā alias Sūtrālaṅkāra, have lived their own lives in modern scholarship and received virtually as much attention as Aśvaghoṣa himself. An attempt has been made to list all the contributions that have proved decisive in questioning and finally rejecting the poet’s authorship of them. In much the same way, most of what has been written about the Chinese and Japanese elaborations of the figure of Aśvaghoṣa (as a patriarch, as a god of sericulture, etc.) has been disregarded. Collecting in a systematic way all Indian editions and translations in modern-day Indian languages (Bengali, Hindi, etc.) has proved practically impossible. Finally, this bibliography does not include all the entries on Aśvaghoṣa in dictionaries, encyclopedias, histories of Indian literature, etc. Only the earliest and the historically or scholarly most significant ones (e.g., those of Winternitz and Keith, and, very recently, Salomon) have found their way into the list. This bibliography would have been even more limited in its coverage had Nobuyoshi Yamabe not generously agreed to include the most important Japanese titles on the subject. In carrying out this task he acknowledges his indebtedness to Kiyoshi Okano’s online bibliography (http://gdgdgd.g.dgdg.jp/asvaghosa-index.html). This bibliography is meant as a work in progress. We would like to invite all those who are writing on Aśvaghoṣa to send us their publications or at least detailed references to them so that the bibliography (an online version of which should be available soon) can be regularly updated (vincent.eltschinger@ephe.psl.eu; yamabe@waseda.jp). The sign “†” signals references that were not/could not be accessed directly.
The Sāṃkhya Kārikā’s “mahat-buddhi” appears to be riddled with obscurity. Standard realist interpreters struggle to explain its cumbersome, textually unsupported bivalence, namely, how the mahat-buddhi can represent both a cosmological entity and a psychological capacity. Idealist readings, meanwhile, neglect the historically deep ontological meaning of this tattva by reducing it to a power of the transcendental ego. This paper moves beyond the impasse of the realism-idealism framework for interpreting the Sāṃkhya Kārikā and examines the mahat-buddhi through the existential phenomenology of José Ortega y Gasset. It begins by re-framing classical Sāṃkhya metaphysics as an existential phenomenology of life, whereby life—as lived reality, not an external physical world or a field of mental experience—conveys the meaning of vyaktaprakṛti. From this, the paper then argues that the mahat-buddhi represents “the great awakening of life,” which is characterized by 5 key features: (1) purposive procreativity; (2) a power of illuminating discernment; (3) a principle of disclosure; (4) an existentially unitary, concentrated vitality; and (5) a capacity to take other-beings-as.
There is a growing recognition that reductionist and mechanistic worldview that we hold of human motivation needs to be revised and transformed. Many attempts have been made in this direction including a more humanistic approach. In the Western world, Maslow"s needs hierarchy was a first such attempt. However, not many attempts have been made to expand further the concept of self-actualization proposed by Maslow. On the other hand, there was a criticism of his approach as not being rooted in research and the real world. In this article, the authors attempt to explore the similarities between the needs hierarchy as proposed by Maslow (1943, 1954) and the model of "Pancha Kosha" or "five sheaths" theory as presented in the Taittriya Upanishad.
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